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Sword

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This is thelatest accepted revision,reviewedon30 November 2024.
For other uses, seeSword (disambiguation).

Aswordis anedged, bladed weaponintended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than aknifeordagger,is attached to ahiltand can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed tip. A slashing sword is more likely to be curved and to have a sharpened cutting edge on one or both sides of the blade. Many swords are designed for both thrusting and slashing. The precise definition of a sword varies by historical epoch and geographic region.

Swisslongsword,15th or 16th century

Historically, the sword developed in theBronze Age,evolving from the dagger; theearliest specimensdate to about 1600 BC. The laterIron Age swordremained fairly short and without a crossguard. Thespatha,as it developed in theLate Roman army,became the predecessor of the European sword of the Middle Ages, at first adopted as theMigration Period sword,and only in theHigh Middle Ages,developed into the classicalarming swordwith crossguard. The wordswordcontinues theOld English,sweord.[1]

The use of a sword is known asswordsmanshipor, in a modern context, asfencing.In theearly modern period,western sword design diverged into two forms, the thrusting swords and the sabres.

Thrusting swords such as therapierand eventually thesmallswordwere designed to impale their targets quickly and inflict deep stab wounds. Their long and straight yet light and well balanced design made them highly maneuverable and deadly in a duel but fairly ineffective when used in a slashing or chopping motion. A well aimed lunge and thrust could end a fight in seconds with just the sword's point, leading to the development of a fighting style which closely resembles modern fencing.

Slashing swords such as thesabreand similar blades such as thecutlasswere built more heavily and were more typically used in warfare. Built for slashing and chopping at multiple enemies, often from horseback, the sabre's long curved blade and slightly forward weight balance gave it a deadly character all its own on the battlefield. Most sabres also had sharp points and double-edged blades, making them capable of piercing soldier after soldier in a cavalry charge. Sabres continued to see battlefield use until the early 20th century. The US Navy M1917 Cutlass used inWorld War Iwas kept in their armory well intoWorld War IIand many Marines were issued a variant called the M1941 Cutlass as a makeshift junglemacheteduring thePacific War.[2][3]

Non-European weapons classified as swords include single-edged weapons such as the Middle Easternscimitar,the Chinesedaoand the related Japanesekatana.The ChinesejiànKiếmis an example of a non-Europeandouble-edged sword,like the European models derived from the double-edgedIron Age sword.

History

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Western Haniron sword
See also:Chronology of bladed weapons

Prehistory and antiquity

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Bronze Age

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Main article:Bronze Age sword
Apa-type swords, 17th-century BC
The swords found together with theNebra sky disk,c. 1600 BC

The first weapons that can be described as "swords" date to around 3300 BC. They have been found inArslantepe,Turkey, are made fromarsenical bronze,and are about 60 cm (24 in) long.[4][5]Some of them are inlaid withsilver.[5]

The sword developed from the knife or dagger. The sword became differentiated from the dagger during the Bronze Age (c.3000 BC), when copper and bronze weapons were produced with long leaf-shaped blades and with hilts consisting of an extension of the blade in handle form. A knife is unlike adaggerin that a knife has only one cutting surface, while a dagger has two cutting surfaces.[6]Construction of longer blades became possible during the 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East, first inarsenic copper,then in tin-bronze.[7]

Blades longer than 60 cm (24 in) were rare and not practical until the late Bronze Age because theYoung's modulus(stiffness) ofbronzeis relatively low, and consequently longer blades would bend easily.[8]The development of the sword out of the dagger was gradual; the first weapons that can be classified as swords without any ambiguity are those found inMinoan Crete,dated to about 1700 BC, reaching a total length of more than 100 cm (39 in). These are the "type A" swords of theAegean Bronze Age.[9][10]

One of the most important, and longest-lasting, types of swords of theEuropean Bronze Agewas theNaue IItype (named forJulius Nauewho first described them), also known asGriffzungenschwert(lit. "grip-tongue sword" ). This type first appears in c. the 13th century BC inNorthern Italy(or a generalUrnfieldbackground), and survives well into the Iron Age, with a life-span of about seven centuries. During its lifetime, metallurgy changed from bronzeto iron,but not its basic design.[11]

Naue II swords were exported from Europe to the Aegean, and as far afield asUgarit,beginning about 1200 BC, i.e. just a few decades before the final collapse of the palace cultures in theBronze Age collapse.[12]Naue II swords could be as long as 85 cm, but most specimens fall into the 60 to 70 cm range.Robert Drewslinked the Naue Type II Swords, which spread from Southern Europe into the Mediterranean, with theBronze Age collapse.[13]Naue II swords, along with Nordic full-hilted swords, were made with functionality and aesthetics in mind.[14]The hilts of these swords were beautifully crafted and often contained false rivets in order to make the sword more visually appealing. Swords coming from northern Denmark and northern Germany usually contained three or more fake rivets in the hilt.[15]

Sword production in Chinais attested from the Bronze AgeShang dynasty.[16]The technology for bronze swords reached its high point during the Warring States period and Qin dynasty. Amongst the Warring States period swords, some unique technologies were used, such as casting high tin edges over softer, lower tin cores, or the application of diamond shaped patterns on the blade (seesword of Gou gian). Also unique for Chinese bronzes is the consistent use of high tin bronze (17–21% tin) which is very hard and breaks if stressed too far, whereas other cultures preferred lower tin bronze (usually 10%), which bends if stressed too far. Although iron swords were made alongside bronze, it was not until the earlyHan periodthat iron completely replaced bronze.[17]

In theIndian subcontinent,earliest availableBronze age swordsof copper were discovered in theIndus Valley civilizationsites in the northwestern regions ofSouth Asia.Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout theGanges-JamunaDoabregion of Indian subcontinent, consisting ofbronzebut more commonlycopper.[18]Diverse specimens have been discovered inFatehgarh,where there are several varieties of hilt.[18]These swords have been variously dated to times between 1700 and 1400 BC. Other swords from this period in India have been discovered fromKallur, Raichur.[18]

Iron Age

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Main article:Iron Age sword
Hallstattswords

Ironbecame increasingly common from the 13th century BC. Before that the use of swords was less frequent. The iron was notquench-hardenedalthough often containing sufficient carbon, but work-hardened like bronze by hammering. This made them comparable or only slightly better in terms of strength and hardness to bronze swords. They could still bend during use rather than spring back into shape. But the easier production, and the better availability of the raw material for the first time permitted the equipping of entire armies with metal weapons, though Bronze Age Egyptian armies were sometimes fully equipped with bronze weapons.[19]

Ancient swords are often found at burial sites. The sword was often placed on the right side of the corpse. Many times the sword was kept over the corpse. In many lateIron Agegraves, the sword and thescabbardwere bent at 180 degrees. It was known as killing the sword. Thus they might have considered swords as the most potent and powerful object.[20]

Indian antiquity

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High-carbon steel for swords, which would later appear asDamascus steel,was likely introduced in India around the mid-1st millennium BC.[21]ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Seamentions swords of Indian iron and steel being exported fromancient Indiatoancient Greece.[22]Blades from theIndian subcontinentmade of Damascus steel also found their way intoPersia.[22]

Greco-Roman antiquity

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Further information:Migration Period sword

By the time ofClassical Antiquityand theParthianandSassanid Empiresin Iran, iron swords were common. The Greekxiphosand the Romangladiusare typical examples of the type, measuring some 60 to 70 cm (24 to 28 in).[23][24]The lateRoman Empireintroduced the longerspatha[25](the term for its wielder,spatharius,became a court rank inConstantinople), and from this time, the termlongswordis applied to swords comparatively long for their respective periods.[26]

Swords from the Parthian and Sassanian Empires were quite long, the blades on some late Sassanian swords being just under a metre long.[27]

Swords were also used to administer variousphysical punishments,such as non-surgicalamputationorcapital punishmentbydecapitation.The use of a sword, an honourable weapon, was regarded in Europe sinceRoman timesas a privilege reserved for thenobilityand the upper classes.[28]

Persian antiquity

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Darius Iof Persia holding an acinaces in his lap

In the first millennium BC, thePersian armiesused a sword that was originally of Scythian design called theakinaka(acinaces).[29]However, the great conquests of the Persians made the sword more famous as a Persian weapon, to the extent that the true nature of the weapon has been lost somewhat as the nameakinakahas been used to refer to whichever form of sword the Persian army favoured at the time.[30]

It is widely believed that the originalakinakawas a 35 to 45 cm (14 to 18 inch) double-edged sword. The design was not uniform and in fact identification is made more on the nature of thescabbardthan the weapon itself; the scabbard usually has a large, decorative mount allowing it to be suspended from a belt on the wearer's right side. Because of this, it is assumed that the sword was intended to be drawn with the blade pointing downwards ready for surprise stabbing attacks.

In the 12th century, theSeljuq dynastyhad introduced the curvedshamshirto Persia, and this was in extensive use by the early 16th century.

Chinese antiquity

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Chinese iron swords made their first appearance in the later part of theWestern Zhou dynasty,but iron and steel swords were not widely used until the 3rd century BCHan dynasty.[17]The Chinesedao( đaopinyindāo) is single-edged, sometimes translated assabreorbroadsword,and theGian( kiếm or kiếmpinyinjiàn) is double-edged. Thezhanmadao(literally "horse chopping sword" ) is an extremely long, anti-cavalry sword from theSong dynastyera.

Middle Ages

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Europe

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Early and High Middle Ages
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Further information:Knightly sword,Longsword,andViking sword
Battle scene from theMorgan Bible of Louis IXshowing 13th-century swords

During theMiddle Ages,sword technology improved, and the sword became a very advanced weapon. Thespathatype remained popular throughout theMigration periodand well into the Middle Ages.Vendel Agespathas were decorated with Germanic artwork (not unlike the Germanicbracteatesfashioned after Roman coins). TheViking Agesaw again a more standardized production, but the basic design remained indebted to the spatha.[31]

Around the 10th century, the use of properly quenchedhardenedandtempered steelstarted to become much more common than in previous periods. TheFrankish'Ulfberht' blades(the name of the maker inlaid in the blade) were of particularly consistent high quality.[32]Charles the Baldtried to prohibit the export of these swords, as they were used byVikingsin raids against theFranks.

Wootz steel(which is also known asDamascus steel) was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to the special smelting and reworking of the steel creating networks of iron carbides described as a globularcementitein a matrix ofpearlite.The use of Damascus steel in swords became extremely popular in the 16th and 17th centuries.[nb 1][33]

It was only from the 11th century thatNormanswords began to develop thecrossguard(quillons). During theCrusadesof the 12th to 13th century, thiscruciformtype ofarming swordremained essentially stable, with variations mainly concerning the shape of thepommel.These swords were designed as cutting weapons, although effective points were becoming common to counter improvements in armour, especially the 14th-century change frommailtoplate armour.[34]

It was during the 14th century, with the growing use of more advanced armour, that the hand and a half sword, also known as a "bastard sword",came into being. It had an extended grip that meant it could be used with either one or two hands. Though these swords did not provide a full two-hand grip they allowed their wielders to hold ashieldor parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword for a more powerful blow.[35]

In the Middle Ages, the sword was often used as a symbol of theword of God.The names given to many swords inmythology,literature,andhistoryreflected the high prestige of the weapon and the wealth of the owner.[36]

Late Middle Ages
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Further information:LongswordandZweihänder

From around 1300 to 1500, in concert with improvedarmour,innovative sword designs evolved more and more rapidly. The main transition was the lengthening of the grip, allowingtwo-handeduse, and a longer blade. By 1400, this type of sword, at the time calledlanges Schwert(longsword) orspadone,was common, and a number of 15th- and 16th-centuryFechtbücheroffering instructions on their use survive. Another variant was the specialized armour-piercing swords of theestoctype. Thelongswordbecame popular due to its extreme reach and its cutting and thrusting abilities.[37]

1548 depiction of azweihänderused against pikes in theBattle of Kappel
Ceremonial sword of the Rector of theRepublic of Dubrovnik(15th century)

The estoc became popular because of its ability to thrust into the gaps between plates of armour.[38]The grip was sometimes wrapped in wire or coarseanimal hideto provide a better grip and to make it harder to knock a sword out of the user's hand.[39]

A number ofmanuscriptscovering longsword combat and techniques dating from the 13th–16th centuries exist in German,[40]Italian, and English,[41]providing extensive information on longsword combatives as used throughout this period. Many of these are now readily available online.[40][41]

In the 16th century, the largezweihänderwas used by the elite German and Swiss mercenaries known asdoppelsöldners.[42]Zweihänder,literally translated, means two-hander. Thezweihänderpossesses a long blade, as well as a huge guard for protection. It is estimated that somezweihänderswords were over 6 feet (1.8 m) long, with the one ascribed toFrisianwarriorPier Gerlofs Doniabeing 7 feet (2.13 m) long.[43]The gigantic blade length was perfectly designed for manipulating and pushing away enemypolearms,which were major weapons around this time, in both Germany and Eastern Europe.Doppelsöldnersalso usedkatzbalgers,which means 'cat-gutter'. Thekatzbalger'sS-shaped guard and 2-foot-long (0.61 m) blade made it perfect for bringing in when the fighting became too close to use azweihänder.[44]

Civilian use of swords became increasingly common during the late Renaissance, withduelsbeing a preferred way to honourably settle disputes.

Theside-swordwas a type of war sword used by infantry during theRenaissanceofEurope.This sword was a direct descendant of theknightly sword.Quite popular between the 16th and 17th centuries, they were ideal for handling the mix of armoured and unarmoured opponents of that time. A new technique of placing one's finger on thericassoto improve the grip (a practice that would continue in therapier) led to the production of hilts with a guard for the finger. This sword design eventually led to the development of the civilian rapier, but it was not replaced by it, and the side-sword continued to be used during the rapier's lifetime. As it could be used for both cutting and thrusting, the term "cut and thrust sword" is sometimes used interchangeably with side-sword.[45]As rapiers became more popular, attempts were made to hybridize the blade, sacrificing the effectiveness found in each unique weapon design. These are still considered side-swords and are sometimes labeledsword rapierorcutting rapierby modern collectors.

Side-swords used in conjunction withbucklersbecame so popular that it caused the termswashbucklerto be coined. This word stems from the new fighting style of the side-sword and buckler which was filled with much "swashing and making a noise on the buckler".[46]

Within theOttoman Empire,the use of a curved sabre called theyataganstarted in the mid-16th century. It would become the weapon of choice for many inTurkeyand theBalkans.[47]

The sword in this time period was the most personal weapon, the most prestigious, and the most versatile for close combat, but it came to decline in military use as technology, such as thecrossbowandfirearmschanged warfare. However, it maintained a key role in civilianself-defence.[48]

Middle East

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The earliest evidence of curved swords, orscimitars(and other regional variants as theArabiansaif,thePersianshamshirand theTurkickilij) is from the 9th century, when it was used among soldiers in theKhurasanregion ofPersia.[49]

Africa

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20th-centuryakrafena

Thetakobais a type of broadsword originating in the westernSahel,descended from variousByzantineandIslamicswords. It has a straight double-edged blade measuring about one meter in length, usually imported from Europe.[50][51]

Abyssinianswords related to the Persianshamshirare known asshotel.[52]TheAsante peopleadopted swords under the name ofakrafena.They are still used today in ceremonies, such as theOdwira festival.[53][54]

East Asia

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Chinesedaoand scabbard of the 17th–18th century

As steel technology improved, single-edged weapons became popular throughout Asia. Derived from theChineseGianordao,theKoreanhwandudaedoare known from the early medievalThree Kingdoms.Production of theJapanesetachi,a precursor to thekatana,is recorded from c. AD 900 (seeJapanese sword).[55]

Japanese swords:tachi(right),wakizashi(top left), andtsuba(bottom left)

Japan was famous for the swords it forged in the early 13th century for the class of warrior-nobility known as theSamurai.Western historians have said that Japanesekatanawere among the finest cutting weapons in world military history.[56][57][58]The types of swords used by the Samurai included theōdachi(extra long field sword),tachi(long cavalry sword),katana(long sword), andwakizashi(shorter companion sword forkatana). Japanese swords that pre-date the rise of the samurai caste include thetsurugi(straight double-edged blade) andchokutō(straight one-edged blade).[59]Japanese swordmaking reached the height of its development in the 15th and 16th centuries, when samurai increasingly found a need for a sword to use in closer quarters, leading to the creation of the modernkatana.[60]High quality Japanese swords have been exported to neighboring Asian countries since before the 11th century. From the 15th century to the 16th century, more than 200,000 swords were exported, reaching a quantitative peak, but these were simple swords made exclusively for mass production, specialized for export and lending to conscripted farmers (ashigaru).[61][62][63]

South Asia

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Thekhandais a double-edge straight sword. It is often featured in religious iconography, theatre and art depicting the ancienthistory of India.Some communities venerate the weapon as a symbol ofShiva.It is a common weapon in the martial arts in theIndian subcontinent.[64]Thekhandaoften appears inHindu,BuddhistandSikhscriptures and art.[65]InSri Lanka,a unique wind furnace was used to produce the high-quality steel. This gave the blade a very hard cutting edge and beautiful patterns. For these reasons it became a very popular trading material.[66]

Akhandasword from India

Thefirangi(/fəˈrɪŋɡiː/,derived from the Arabic term for a Western European, a "Frank") was a sword type which used blades manufactured in Western Europe and imported by thePortuguese,or made locally in imitation of European blades. Because of its length thefirangiis usually regarded as primarily acavalryweapon. The sword has been especially associated with theMarathas,who were famed for their cavalry. However, thefirangiwas also widely used bySikhsandRajputs.[67]

Thetalwar(Hindi:तलवार) is a type of curved sword from India and other countries of theIndian subcontinent,it was adopted by communities such as Rajputs, Sikhs and Marathas, who favored the sword as their main weapon. It became more widespread in the medieval era.[68][69]

Theurumi(Tamil:சுருள் பட்டாக்கத்திsurul pattai,lit. curling blade;Sinhala:එතුණු කඩුවethunu kaduwa;Hindi:aara) is a "sword" with a flexible whip-like blade.[70]

Southeast Asia

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Vietnamesegươmof the 17th century

InIndonesia,the images of Indian style swords can be found in Hindu gods statues from ancient Java circa 8th to 10th century. However the native types of blade known askris,parang,klewangandgolokwere more popular as weapons. These daggers are shorter than a sword but longer than a common dagger.

Kampilanfrom thePhilippines.The traditional design of the hilt is a notable depiction fromPhilippine mythology.

In thePhilippines,traditional large swords known askampilansandpanabaswere used in combat by the natives. A notable wielder of thekampilanwasLapu-Lapu,the king ofMactanand his warriors who defeated the Spaniards and killed Portuguese explorerFerdinand Magellanat theBattle of Mactanon 27 April 1521.[71]Traditional swords in the Philippines were immediately banned, but the training inswordsmanshipwas later hidden from the occupyingSpaniardsby practices indances.But because of the banning, Filipinos were forced to use swords that were disguised as farm tools.Bolosandbaliswordswere used during therevolutionsagainst the colonialists not only because ammunition for guns was scarce, but also for concealability while walking in crowded streets and homes.Boloswere also used by young boys who joined their parents in the revolution and by young girls and their mothers in defending the town while the men were on the battlefields. During thePhilippine–American Warin events such as theBattle of Balangiga,most of an American company was hacked to death or seriously injured bybolo-wielding guerillas inBalangiga, Samar.[72]When theJapanesetook control of the country, several American special operations groups stationed in the Philippines were introduced toFilipino martial artsand swordsmanship, leading to this style reaching America despite the fact that natives were reluctant to allow outsiders in on their fighting secrets.[73]

Pre-Columbian Americas

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Amacuahuitlbroadsword fromMesoamerica

Themacuahuitlis a wooden broadsword and club that was utilized by variousMesoamericancivilizations, such as those of theAztecs,Maya,Olmecs,Toltecs,andMixtecs.

Pacific Islands

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In theGilbert Islands,the nativeKiribati peoplehave developed a type of broadsword made from shark teeth, which serves a similar function to theleiomanoused by theNative Hawaiians.

Early modern history

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Military sword

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Further information:Basket-hilted sword,Backsword,andSabre

A single-edged type ofsidearmused by theHussiteswas popularized in 16th-century Germany under its Czech namedusack,also known asSäbel auf Teutsch gefasst( "sabre fitted in the German manner" ).[74]A closely related weapon is theschnepforSwiss sabreused inEarly Modern Switzerland.[75]

Thecut-and-thrustmortuary swordwas used after 1625 bycavalryduring theEnglish Civil War.This (usually) two-edged sword sported a half-basket hilt with a straight blade some 90–105 cm long. Later in the 17th century, the swords used by cavalry became predominantlysingle-edged.The so-calledwalloon sword(épée wallone)[76]was common in theThirty Years' WarandBaroqueera.[77]Its hilt was ambidextrous with shell-guards andknuckle-bowthat inspired 18th-century continentalhunting hangers.[78]Following their campaign in the Netherlands in 1672, the French began producing this weapon as their first regulation sword.[79]Weapons of this design were also issued to theSwedish armyfrom the time ofGustavus Adolphusuntil as late as the 1850s.[80]

Duelling sword

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Further information:RapierandSmall sword

Therapieris believed to have evolved either from the Spanishespada roperaor from the swords of theItalian nobilitysomewhere in the later part of the 16th century.[81][82]The rapier differed from most earlier swords in that it was not a military weapon but a primarily civilian sword. Both the rapier and the Italianschiavonadeveloped the crossguard into abasket-shaped guardfor hand protection.[83]

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the shortersmall swordbecame an essential fashion accessory in European countries and the New World, though in some places such as theScottish Highlandslarge swords as the basket-hilted broadsword were preferred, and most wealthy men and military officers carried one slung from a belt. Both the small sword and the rapier remained populardueling swordswell into the 18th century.[84]

As the wearing of swords fell out of fashion,canestook their place in a gentleman's wardrobe. This developed to the gentlemen in the Victorian era to use theumbrella.Some examples of canes—those known as sword canes orswordsticks—incorporate a concealed blade. The Frenchmartial artla cannedeveloped to fight with canes and swordsticks and has now evolved into a sport. The English martial artsinglestickis very similar. With the rise of thepistol duel,the duelling sword fell out of fashion long before the practice of duelling itself. By about 1770, English duelists enthusiastically adopted the pistol, and sword duels dwindled.[85]However, the custom of duelling withepéespersisted well into the 20th century in France. Such modern duels were not fought to the death; the duellists' aim was instead merely to draw blood from the opponent's sword arm.[86]

Late modern history

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Military sidearm

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Towards the end of its useful life, the sword served more as a weapon ofself-defencethan for use on the battlefield, and the military importance of swords steadily decreased during theModern Age.Even as a personal sidearm, the sword began to lose its preeminence in the early 19th century, reflecting the development of reliablehandguns.[48]

However, swords were still normally carried incombatby cavalrymen and by officers of other branches throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, both in colonial and European warfare. For example, during theAceh WartheAcehneseklewangs,a sword similar to themachete,proved very effective in close quarters combat with Dutch troops, leading theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Armyto adopt a heavycutlass,also calledklewang(very similar in appearance to the US Navy Model 1917 Cutlass) to counter it. Mobile troops armed withcarbinesand klewangs succeeded in suppressing Aceh resistance where traditional infantry withrifleandbayonethad failed. From that time on until the 1950s theRoyal Dutch East Indies Army,Royal Dutch Army, Royal Dutch Navy and Dutch police used these cutlasses called Klewang.[87][88]

British MajorJack Churchill(far right) leads commandos during a training exercise, sword in hand, inWorld War II.

Swords continued in general peacetime use by cavalry of most armies during the years prior to World War I. The British Army formally adopted a completely new design ofcavalry swordin 1908, almost the last change in British Army weapons before the outbreak of the war.[89]At the outbreak of World War I infantry officers in all combatant armies then involved (French, German, British, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Belgian and Serbian) still carried swords as part of their field equipment. On mobilization in August 1914 all serving British Army officers were required to have their swords sharpened as the only peacetime use of the weapon had been for saluting on parade.[90]The high visibility and limited practical use of the sword however led to it being abandoned within weeks, although most cavalry continued to carry sabres throughout the war. While retained as a symbol of rank and status by at least senior officers of infantry, artillery and other branches, the sword was usually left with non-essential baggage when units reached the front line.[91]It was not until the late 1920s and early 1930s that this historic weapon was finally discarded for all but ceremonial purposes by most remaining horse mounted regiments of Europe and the Americas.

In China troops used the long anti-cavalrymiao daowell into theSecond Sino-Japanese War.The last units of British heavy cavalry switched to usingarmoured vehiclesas late as 1938. Swords and other dedicated melee weapons were used occasionally by many countries duringWorld War II,but typically as a secondary weapon as they were outclassed by coexistingfirearms.[92][93][94]A notable exception was the Imperial Japanese Army where, for cultural reasons, all officers and warrant officers carried theshin-gunto( "new military sword" ) into battle from 1934 until 1945.[95]

Ceremonial use

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Further information:Sword of state

Swords are commonly worn as aceremonial itemby officers in many military and naval services throughout the world. Occasions to wear swords include any event in dress uniforms where the rank-and-file carry arms:parades,reviews,courts-martial,tattoos,and changes of command. They are also commonly worn for officers' weddings, and when wearing dress uniforms to church—although they are rarely actually worn in the church itself.

In the British forces they are also worn for any appearance atCourt.In theUnited States,every Naval officer at or above the rank ofLieutenant Commanderis required to own a sword, which can be prescribed for any formal outdoor ceremonial occasion; they are normally worn for changes of command and parades. For some Navy parades,cutlassesare issued topetty officersandchief petty officers.

In theU.S. Marine Corpsevery officer must own a sword, which is prescribed for formal parades and other ceremonies where dress uniforms are worn and the rank-and-file are under arms. On these occasions depending on their billet, Marine Non-Commissioned Officers (E-4 and above) may also be required to carry swords, which have hilts of a pattern similar to U.S. Naval officers' swords but are actuallysabres.The USMCModel 1859 NCO Swordis the longest continuously issued edged weapon in the U.S. inventory

The Marine officer swords are of theMamelukepattern which was adopted in 1825 in recognition of the Marines' key role in the capture of theTripolitancity ofDernaduring theFirst Barbary War.[96]Taken out of issue for approximately 20 years from 1855 until 1875, it was restored to service in the year of the Corps' centennial and has remained in issue since.

Religious
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In theoccultpractices ofWicca,a sword or knife often referred to as anathameis used as amagical tool.[97]

Sword replicas

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The production of replicas of historical swords originates with 19th-centuryhistoricism.[98]Contemporary replicas can range from cheap factory produced look-alikes to exact recreations of individual artifacts, including an approximation of the historical production methods.

Some kinds of swords are still commonly used today as weapons, often as a side arm for military infantry. The Japanesekatana,wakizashiandtantōare carried by some infantry and officers in Japan and other parts of Asia and thekukriis the official melee weapon forNepal.Other swords in use today are thesabre,thescimitar,theshortswordand themachete.[99]

  • In the case of a rat-tailtang,the maker welds a thin rod to the end of the blade at the crossguard; this rod goes through the grip.[100]
  • In traditional construction, Swordsmithspeenedsuch tangs over the end of the pommel, or occasionally welded the hilt furniture to the tang and threaded the end for screwing on a pommel. This style is often referred to as a "narrow" or "hidden" tang. Modern, less traditional, replicas often feature a threaded pommel or a pommel nut which holds the hilt together and allows dismantling.[citation needed]
  • In a "full" tang (most commonly used in knives andmachetes), the tang has about the same width as the blade, and is generally the same shape as the grip.[101]In European or Asian swords sold today, many advertised "full" tangs may actually involve a forged rat-tail tang.

Morphology

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Further information:Classification of swords

The sword consists of thebladeand thehilt.The termscabbardapplies to the cover for the sword blade when not in use.

Blade

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Main articles:Sword bladeandOakeshott typology
Parts of a sword

There is considerable variation in the detailed design of sword blades. The diagram opposite shows a typical Medieval European sword.

Early iron blades have rounded points due to the limited metallurgy of the time. These were still effective for thrusting against lightly armoured opponents. As armour advanced, blades were made narrower, stiffer and sharply pointed to defeat the armour by thrusting.

Dedicated cutting blades are wide and thin, and often have grooves known asfullerswhich lighten the blade at the cost of some of the blade's stiffness. The edges of a cutting sword are almost parallel. Blades oriented for the thrust have thicker blades, sometimes with a distinct midrib for increased stiffness, with a strong taper and an acute point. The geometry of a cutting sword blade allows for acute edge angles. An edge with an acuter angle is more inclined to degrade quickly in combat situations than an edge with a more obtuse angle. Also, an acute edge angle is not the primary factor of a blade's sharpness.[102]

The part of the blade between thecenter of percussion(CoP) and the point is called thefoible(weak) of the blade, and that between thecenter of balance(CoB) and the hilt is theforte(strong). The section in between the CoP and the CoB is themiddle.

Thericassoorshoulderidentifies a short section of blade immediately below the guard that is left completely unsharpened. Many swords have no ricasso. On some large weapons, such as theGermanZweihänder,a metal cover surrounded the ricasso, and a swordsman might grip it in one hand to wield the weapon more easily in close-quarter combat.[44] The ricasso normally bears themaker's mark.

Thetangis the extension of the blade to which the hilt is fitted.

On Japanese blades, the maker's mark appears on the tang under the grip.[103]

Hilt

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Main article:Hilt
The hilt of arapier—in this case, with a swept hilt

Thehiltis the collective term for the parts allowing for the handling and control of the blade; these consist of thegrip,thepommel,and a simple or elaborateguard,which in post-Viking Ageswords could consist of only acrossguard(called acruciformhilt orquillons). The pommel was originally designed as a stop to prevent the sword slipping from the hand. From around the 11th century onward it became a counterbalance to the blade, allowing a more fluid style of fighting.[dubious–discuss][104] It can also be used as a blunt instrument at close range, and its weight affects the centre of percussion. In later times asword knotortasselwas sometimes added. By the 17th century, with the growing use of firearms and the accompanying decline in the use ofarmour,manyrapiersanddueling swordshad developed elaborate basket hilts, which protect the palm of the wielder and rendered thegauntletobsolete.[105]By contrast, Japanese swords of the early modern period customarily used a small disc guard, ortsuba.

In late medieval and Renaissance era European swords, a flap of leather called thechappeorrain guardwas attached to a sword'scrossguardat the base of the hilt to protect the mouth of the scabbard and prevent water from entering.[106]

Sword scabbards and suspension

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Main article:Scabbard

Common accessories to the sword include thescabbardandbaldric,known as a 'sword belt'.

  • The scabbard, also known as the sheath, is a protective cover often provided for the sword blade. Scabbards have been made of many materials, including leather, wood, and metals such as brass or steel. The metal fitting where the blade enters the leather or metal scabbard is called the throat, which is often part of a larger scabbard mount, or locket, that bears a carrying ring or stud to facilitate wearing the sword. The blade's point in leather scabbards is usually protected by a metal tip, orchape,which on both leather and metal scabbards is often given further protection from wear by an extension called a drag, or shoe.[107]
  • A sword belt is abeltwith an attachment for the sword's scabbard, used to carry it when not in use. It is usually fixed to the scabbard of the sword, providing a fast means of drawing the sword in battle. Examples of sword belts include theBalteusused by theRoman legionary.[108]Swords and sword belts continue in use for ceremonial occasions by military forces.[109][110]

Typology

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Main articles:Types of swordsandClassification of swords

Sword typology is based on morphological criteria on the one hand (blade shape (cross-section, taper, and length), shape and size of the hilt and pommel), and age and place of origin on the other (Bronze Age,Iron Age,European (medieval, early modern, modern), Asian).

The relatively comprehensiveOakeshott typologywas created by historian and illustratorEwart Oakeshottas a way to define and catalogue European swords of the medieval period based on physical form, including blade shape and hilt configuration. The typology also focuses on the smaller, and in some cases contemporary, single-handed swords such as thearming sword.[83]

Single vs. double-edged

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As noted above, the termslongsword,broad sword,great sword,andGaelic claymoreare used relative to the era under consideration, and each term designates a particular type of sword.

Jian

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In most Asian countries, a sword (GianKiếm,geom(검),ken/tsurugi( kiếm ) is a double-edged straight-bladed weapon, while a knife or sabre (dāoĐao,do(도),to/katana( đao ) refers to a single-edged object.

Kirpan

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Among theSikhs,the sword is held in very high esteem. A single-edged sword is called akirpan,and its double-edged counterpart akhandaortegha.[111]

Churika

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TheSouth Indianchurikais a handheld double-edged sword traditionally used in theMalabar regionofKerala.It is also worshipped as the weapon ofVettakkorumakan,the hunter god in Hinduism.

Backsword and falchion

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European terminology does give generic names for single-edged and double-edged blades but refers to specific types with the term 'sword' covering them all. For example, thebackswordmay be so called because it is single-edged but thefalchionwhich is also single-edged is given its own specific name.[112]

Single vs. two-handed use

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Two-handed sword, Italy, circa 1623

Two-handed

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See also:Two-handed sword

A two-handed sword is any sword that usually requires two hands to wield, or more specifically the very large swords of the 16th century.[104]

Throughout history two-handed swords have generally been less common than their one-handed counterparts, one exception being their common use in Japan. Two-handed grips have two advantages: obviously they allow the strength of two hands to be used, not just one, but by spacing the hands apart they also allow atorqueto be applied, rotating the sword in a slashing manner.

A two-handed grip may be needed for one of two reasons: either to wield a particularly large sword or else with the single-sided Japanesetachifor a slashing cut. Slashing swords may have distinctively long hilt grips to facilitate this.

Hand and a half sword

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A Hand and a half sword, colloquially known as a "bastard sword",was a sword with an extended grip and sometimes pommel so that it could be used with either one or two hands. Although these swords may not provide a full two-hand grip, they allowed its wielders to hold ashieldor parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword for a more powerful blow.[39]These should not be confused with alongsword,two-handed sword,orZweihänder,which were always intended to be used with two hands.

Laws on carrying a sword

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Two arms holding swords in the coat of arms ofNorth Karelia

TheVisigothicCode of Ervig (680-687) made ownership of a sword mandatory for men joining the Visigothic army, regardless of whether the men were Goth or Roman.[113]A number ofCharlemagnecapitulariesmade ownership of a sword mandatory, for example, those who owned a warhorse needed to also own a sword.[113]

In fiction

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Main article:List of fictional swords

Infantasy,magic swordsoften appear, based on their use in myth and legend. Thescience fictioncounterpart to these is known as an energy sword (sometimes also referred to as a "beam sword" or "laser sword" ), a sword whose blade consists of, or is augmented by, concentrated energy. A well known example of this type of sword is thelightsaber,shown in theStar Warsfranchise.[114]

See also

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References

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Footnotes
  1. ^"Pattern-Welding and Damascening of Sword-Blades: Part 1 Pattern-Welding" (Maryon1960)[33]
    A brief review article by the originator of the term "pattern-welding" accurately details all the salient points of the construction of pattern-welded blades and of how all the patterns observed result as a function of the depth of grinding into a twisted rod structure. The article also includes a brief description of pattern-welding as encountered in the Malay keris. Damascus steel is also known as watered steel.
Citations
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  2. ^Clements, J., & Hertz, B. (n.d.). The Myth of Thrusting versus Cutting Swords.https:// thearma.org/essays/thrusting_vs_cutting.html
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