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Tai chiis an ancientChinese martial art.Initially developed for combat and self-defense, it has evolved into a sport and form ofexercise.Tai chi is a gentle, low-impact form of exercise in which practitioners perform a series of deliberate, flowing motions while focusing on deep, slow breaths. Often referred to as "meditationin motion, "tai chi aims to concentrate and balance the body'sqi(vital energy), providing benefits to mental and physical health.[1]
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Also known as | Seeetymology |
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Focus | Taoism |
Hardness | Forms:
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Country of origin | China |
Date of formation | Daoyin |
Creator | Chen WangtingorZhang Sanfeng |
Famous practitioners | |
Olympic sport | Demonstration sport |
Tai chi | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Traditional Chinese | Thái Cực quyền | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | Thái Cực quyền | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | "Taiji Bo xing" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Many forms of tai chi are practiced, both traditional and modern. While the precise origins are not known, the earliest documented practice is fromChen Village,Henan.Most modern styles trace their development to the five traditional schools:Chen,Yang,Wu (Hao),Wu,andSun.Practitioners such asYang ChengfuandSun Lutangin the early 20th century promoted the art for its health benefits.[2]Tai chi was included in theUNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityin 2020.[3]
Etymology
editThe name "tai chi", the most common English spelling, is not a standardromanizationof the Chinese name for the art (simplified Chinese:Thái Cực quyền;traditional Chinese:Thái Cực quyền;lit.'Taijibo xing '). The Chinese name was first commonly written in English using theWade–Gilessystem as "tʻai chi chʻüan".But English speakers abbreviated it to"tʻai chi"and dropped the mark of aspiration. Since the late twentieth century,pinyinhas replaced Wade–Giles as the most popular system for romanizing Chinese. In pinyin, tai chi is spelledtaijiquan(tàijíquán).[4][5]In English, tai chi is sometimes referred to as "shadowbo xing".[6]
Characters | Wade–Giles | Pinyin | Meaning |
---|---|---|---|
Thái Cực | tʻai chi | tàijí | Taiji,the cosmological relationship of Yin and Yang |
Quyền | chʻüan | quán | fist, or bo xing |
The etymology of tai chi's Chinese name is somewhat uncertain because of the lack of a record of spoken usage. Before the mid-nineteenth century, it appears that outsiders generically described the art aszhanquan(Dính quyền,"touch bo xing" ), "Long Bo xing" (Trường quyền),[note 1]mianquan( "Soft/Cotton/Neutralizing Bo xing";Mềm / miên / hóa quyền)[citation needed]orshisan shi(Mười ba thức,"the thirteen techniques" ).[7]In the mid-nineteenth century, the art began to be associated with the philosophy oftaiji(seeConceptual background).[8]This association may have originated in thewritings of the founders of Wu (Hao)-style tai chi,perhaps inspired by a tai chi classic attributed to the semi-mythicalWang Zongyuethat begins with the words "Taijiis born fromWuji;it is the mother ofYin and Yang".[note 2]However, as the Wu (Hao) founders had no financial need to promote their art, their contributions to the "tai chi classics" were not distributed widely for many years. The first public association betweentaijiand the art was a poem by Imperial Court scholarWeng Tonghedescribing a tai chi performance byYang Luchan.[10][11][12][13]It is not clear whether Weng was making a new connection or whether the new name was already in use. Written evidence for the Yang family's adoption of the nametaijifirst appeared in a later text, possibly completed in 1875 by Yang Luchan's son,Yang Banhou,or no later than the first decade of the twentieth century by one or more of Yang Banhou's disciples.[14][15][16][12]By the second decade of the twentieth century,Yang Chengfu's disciples andSun Lutangwere using the termtaijiquanin their publications, including in the titles of some of the tai chi classics. It then appeared in a book by a Chen family member, Chen Xin, published after he died in 1929.[10][17]
Philosophical background
editChinese philosophy,particularlyTaoistandConfucian thought,forms the conceptual background to tai chi.[18]Early tai chi texts include embedded quotations from early Chinese classics like theI Ching,Great Learning,Book of Documents,Records of the Grand Historian,andZhuangzi,as well as from famous Chinese thinkers likeZhu Xi,Zhou Dunyi,andMencius.[18]
Early tai chi sources are grounded inTaijicosmology.Taijicosmology appears in bothTaoistandConfucianphilosophy,where it represents the single source or mother ofyin and yang(represented by thetaijitusymbol).[19][18]Tai chi also draws on Chinese theories of the body, particularly Taoistneidan(internal alchemy) teachings onqi(vital energy) and on the threedantian.Cheng Man-ch'ingemphasizes the Taoist background of tai chi and states that it "enables us to reach the stage of undifferentiated pure yang, which is exactly the same asLaozi's 'concentrating the qi and developing softness' ".[18]
As such, tai chi considers itself an "internal" (neijia) martial art focused on developingqi.[18]In China, tai chi is categorized under theWudanggroup of Chinese martial arts[20]—that is, arts applied with internal power.[21]Although the termWudangsuggests these arts originated in theWudang Mountains,it is used only to distinguish the skills, theories, and applications ofneijiafrom those of theShaolingrouping, orwaijia(hard/external styles).[18]
Tai chi also adopts the Taoist ideals of softness overcoming hardness, ofwu wei(effortless action), and of yielding into its martial art technique while also retaining Taoist ideas of spiritual self-cultivation.[18]
Tai chi's path is one of developing naturalness by rela xing, attending inward, and slowing mind, body, and breath.[18]This allows the practitioner to become less tense, to drop conditioned habits, to let go of thoughts, to allowqito flow smoothly, and thus to flow with theTao.It is thus a kind of moving meditation that allows us to let go of the self and experience no-mind (wuxin) and spontaneity (ziran).[18]
A key aspect of tai chi philosophy is to work with the flow ofyin(softness) andyang(hardness)elements. When two forces push each other with equal force, neither side moves. Motion cannot occur until one side yields. Therefore, a key principle in tai chi is to avoid using force directly against force (hardness against hardness). Laozi provided thearchetypefor this in theTao Te Chingwhen he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."[22]Conversely, when in possession of leverage, one may want to use hardness to force the opponent to become soft. Traditionally, tai chi uses both soft and hard. Yin is said to be the mother of Yang, using soft power to create hard power.
Traditional schools also emphasize that one is expected to showwude( "martial virtue/heroism" ), to protect the defenseless, and to show mercy to one's opponents.[2]
In December 2020, the 15th regular session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage included tai chi in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[23]
Practice
editTraditionally, the foundational tai chi practice consists of learning and practicing a specific solo forms or routines (taolu).[18]This entails learning a routine sequence of movements that emphasize a straight spine,abdominal breathingand a natural range of motion. Tai chi relies on knowing the appropriatechangein response to outside forces, as well as on yielding to and redirecting an attack, rather than meeting it with opposing force.[24]Physical fitness is also seen as an important step towards effectiveself-defense.
Tai chi movements were inspired by animals, especially birds and leopards.[25]
There are also numerous other supporting solo practices such as:[18]
- Sitting meditation: The empty, focus and calm the mind and aid in opening themicrocosmic orbit.
- Standing meditation (zhan zhuang) to raise theyang qi
- Qigongto mobilize theqi
- Acupressuremassage to develop awareness ofqichannels
- Traditional Chinese medicineis taught to advanced students in some traditional schools.[26]
There is no scientific evidence for the existence of qi,[27] nor any demonstrating the effectiveness of acupressure[28][29][30] or traditional Chinese medicine[31][32] beyond that ofplacebotreatment.
Further training entails learningtuishou(push hands drills),sanshou(striking techniques), free sparring, grappling training, and weapons training.[18]
In the "tai chi classics",writings by tai chi masters, it is noted that the physiological and kinesiological aspects of the body's movements are characterized by the circular motion and rotation of the pelvis, based on the metaphors of the pelvis as the hub and the arms and feet as the spokes of a wheel. Furthermore, the respiration of breath is coordinated with the physical movements in a state of deep relaxation, rather than muscular tension, in order to guide the practitioners to a state ofhomeostasis.
Tai chi is a complete martial art system with a full range of bare-hand movement sets and weapon forms, such as tai chi sword and tai chi spear, which are based on the dynamic relationship betweenyinandyang.While tai chi is typified by its slow movements, many styles (including the three most popular:Yang,Wu,andChen) have secondary, faster-paced forms. Some traditional schools teach martial applications of the postures of different forms (taolu).
Solo practices
editTaolu(solo "forms" ) are choreographed sets of movements practiced alone or in unison as a group. Tai chi is often characterized by slow movements in Taolu practice, and one of the reasons is to develop body awareness. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout students' bodies, maintain flexibility, and familiarize students with the martial sequences implied by the forms. Usually performed standing, solo forms have also been adapted for seated practice.[33]
Weapon practice
editTai chi practices involving weapons also exist. Weapons training andfencingapplications often employ:
- theGian,a straight double-edged sword, practiced astaiji gian;
- thedao,a heavier curved saber, sometimes called a broadsword;
- thetieshan,a folding fan, also calledshanand practiced astaijishan;
- thegun,a 2 m long wooden staff and practiced astaijigun;
- theqiang,a 2 m longspearor a 4 m longlance.
More exotic weapons include:
- the largedadaoandpodaosabres;
- theji,or halberd;
- thecane;
- thesheng biao,or rope dart;
- thesanjiegun,or three sectional staff;
- thefeng huo lun,or wind-and-fire wheels;
- thelasso;
- thewhip,chain whipand steel whip.
History
editEarly development
editTai chi's formative influences came from practices undertaken inTaoistandBuddhistmonasteries, such asWudang,Shaolinand The Thousand Year Temple inHenan.[34]The early development of tai chi proper is connected with Henan's Thousand Year Temple and a nexus of nearby villages: Chen Village, Tang Village, Wangbao Village, and Zhaobao Town. These villages were closely connected, shared an interest in the martial arts and many went to study at Thousand Year Temple (which was a syncretic temple with elements from thethree teachings).[34]New[clarify]documents from these villages, mostly dating to the 17th century, are some of the earliest sources for the practice of tai chi.[34]
Some traditionalists claim that tai chi is a purely Chinese art that comes from ancientTaoismandConfucianism.[18]These schools believe that tai chi theory and practice were formulated by Taoist monkZhang Sanfengin the 12th century. These stories are often filled with legendary andhagiographicalcontent and lack historical support.[18][34]
Modern historians point out that the earliest reference indicating a connection betweenZhang Sanfengand martial arts is actually a 17th-century piece calledEpitaph for Wang Zhengnan(1669), composed byHuang Zongxi(1610–1695).[8][18]Aside from this single source, the other claims of connections between tai chi and Zhang Sanfeng appeared no earlier than the 19th century.[8][18]According to Douglas Wile, "there is no record of a Zhang Sanfeng in theSong Dynasty(960–1279), and there is no mention in theMing(1368–1644) histories or hagiographies of Zhang Sanfeng of any connection between the immortal and the martial arts. "[18]
Another common theory for the origin of tai chi is that it was created byChen Wangting(1580–1660) while living in Chen Village ( Trần gia mương ), Henan.[35]The other four contemporary traditional tai chi styles (Yang, Sun, Wu and Wu/Hao) trace their teachings back to Chen village in the early 1800s.[2][36]
Yang Luchan(1799–1872), the founder of the popularYang style,trained with the Chen family for 18 years before he started to teach inBeijing,which strongly suggests that his work was heavily influenced bythe Chen family art.Martial arts historian Xu Zhen claimed that the tai chi of Chen Village was influenced by theTaizu changquanstyle practiced at nearbyShaolin Monastery,whileTang Haothought it was derived from a treatise byMing dynastygeneralQi Jiguang,Jixiao Xinshu( "New Treatise on Military Efficiency" ), which discussed several martial arts styles includingTaizu changquan.[37][38]
Standardization
editIn 1956 the Chinese government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee (CSC), which brought together fourwushuteachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to24 postures.This was an attempt to standardize tai chi forwushutournaments as they wanted to create a routine that would be much less difficult to learn than the classical 88 to 108 posture solo hand forms.
Another 1950s form is the "97 movements combined tai chi form", which blends Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles.
In 1976, they developed a slightly longer demonstration form that would not require the traditional forms' memory, balance, and coordination. This became the "Combined 48 Forms" that were created by threewushucoaches, headed by Men Hui Feng. The combined forms simplified and combined classical forms from the original Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun styles. Other competitive forms were designed to be completed within a six-minute time limit.
In the late 1980s, CSC standardized more competition forms for the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee ofwushucoaches in China. These forms were named after their style: the "Chen-style national competition form" is the "56 Forms". The combined forms are "The 42-Form" or simply the "Competition Form".
In the 11thAsian Gamesof 1990,wushuwas included as an item for competition for the first time with the42-Formrepresenting tai chi. TheInternational Wushu Federation(IWUF) applied forwushuto be part of theOlympic games.[39]
Tai chi was added to theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Listsin 2020 for China.[40]
Styles
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(May 2021) |
Chinese origin
editThe five major styles of tai chi are named for the Chinese families who originated them:
- Chen style(Trần thị) ofChen Wangting(1580–1660)
- Yang style(Dương thị) ofYang Luchan(1799–1872)
- Wu/Hao style(Võ Hách thị) ofWu Yuxiang(1812–1880) andHao Weizhen(1842–1920)
- Wu style(Ngô thị) ofWu Quanyou(1834–1902) and his sonWu Jianquan(1870–1942)
- Sun style(Tôn thị) ofSun Lutang(1861–1932)
The most popular is Yang, followed by Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.[18]The styles share underlying theory, but their training differs.
Dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots followed, although the family schools are accepted as standard by the international community. Other important styles areZhaobao tai chi,a close cousin of Chen style, which is recognized by Western practitioners; Fu style, created byFu Zhensong,which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and incorporates movements frombaguazhang;[citation needed]andCheng Man-ch'ingstyle, which simplifies Yang style.
Around the world in the 20th and 21st centuries, some Chinese emigrants who had learned tai chi in China continued to practice it together in their new communities.[citation needed]
North America
editUnited States
editChoy Hok Pang,a disciple ofYang Chengfu,was the first known proponent of tai chi to openly teach in the United States, beginning in 1939. His son and student Choy Kam Man emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach tai chi inChinatown.Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.[41][42]
Sophia Delza,a professional dancer and student ofMa Yueliang,performed the first known public demonstration of tai chi in the United States at the New York CityMuseum of Modern Artin 1954. She wrote the first English language book on tai chi,T'ai-chi Ch'üan: Body and Mind in Harmony,in 1961. She taught regular classes atCarnegie Hall,theActors Studio,and theUnited Nations.[43][44]
Cheng Man-ch'ingopened his school Shr Jung tai chi after he moved to New York from Taiwan in 1964. Unlike the older generation of practitioners, Cheng was cultured and educated in American ways,[clarification needed]and thus was able to transcribe Yang's dictation into a written manuscript that became the de facto manual for Yang style. Cheng felt Yang's traditional 108-movement form was unnecessarily long and repetitive, which makes it difficult to learn.[citation needed]He thus created a shortened 37-movement version that he taught in his schools. Cheng's form became the dominant form in the eastern United States until other teachers immigrated in larger numbers in the 1990s. He taught until his death in 1975.[45]
Canada
editMoy Lin-shinarrived inToronto, Canada,from China in 1970, where he started teaching tai chi and related internal arts.[46]
Europe
editUnited Kingdom
editNorwegianPytt Geddeswas the first European to teach tai chi in Britain, holding classes atThe Placein London in the early 1960s. She had first encountered tai chi in Shanghai in 1948, and studied with Choy Hok Pang and his son Choy Kam Man (who both also taught in the United States) while living in Hong Kong in the late 1950s.[47]
Yin and yang
editMore traditional practitioners hold that the two aspects of health and martial arts make up the art'syinandyang.The "family" schools present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students.[48]
Health
editTai chi's health training concentrates on relieving stress on the body and mind. In the 21st century, tai chi classes that purely emphasize health are popular in hospitals, clinics, community centers and senior centers. Tai chi's low-stress training method for seniors has become better known.[49]
Clinical studies exploring tai chi's effect on specific diseases and health conditions exist, though there are insufficient studies with consistent approaches to generate a comprehensive conclusion.[50]
Tai chi has been promoted for treating various ailments, and is supported by theParkinson's FoundationandDiabetes Australia,among others. However,medical evidenceof effectiveness is lacking.[51][52]A 2017 systematic review found that it decreased falls in older people.[53]
A 2011 comprehensive overview ofsystematic reviewsof tai chi recommended tai chi to older people for its physical and psychological benefits. It found positive results forfall preventionand overallmental health.No conclusive evidence showed benefit for most of the conditions researched, includingParkinson's disease,diabetes,cancerandarthritis.[51]
A 2015 systematic review found that tai chi could be performed by those with chronic medical conditions such aschronic obstructive pulmonary disease,heart failure,andosteoarthritiswithout negative effects, and found favorable effects on functional exercise capacity.[54]
In 2015 theAustralian Government's Department of Healthpublished the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to identify any that were suitable for coverage byhealth insurance.Tai chi was one of 17 therapies evaluated. The study concluded that low-quality evidence suggests that tai chi may have some beneficial health effects when compared to control in a limited number of populations for a limited number of outcomes.[52]
A 2020 review of 13 studies found that tai chi had positive effect on the quality of life and depressive symptoms of older adults with chronic conditions who lived in community settings.[55]
In 2022, the U.S.A agency theNational Institutes of Healthpublished an analysis of various health claims, studies and findings. They concluded the evidence was of low quality, but that it appears to have a small positive effect on quality of life.[56]
Sport and self-defense
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(May 2021) |
As a martial art, tai chi emphasizes defense over attack and replies to hard with soft. The ability to use tai chi as a form ofcombatis the test of a student's understanding of the art. This is typically demonstrated via competition with others.
Practitioners test their skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles intuishou( "pushing hands" ) andsanshoucompetition.
See also
editReferences
editNotes
editCitations
edit- ^Slow and Steady: The Health Benefits of Tai Chi,Cleveland Clinic, 2023-09-05
- ^abcWile 1996.
- ^"Tai Chi now on Unesco's intangible heritage list".South China Morning Post.Retrieved2023-07-17.
- ^Bacher, Bob (2022)."Tai Chi? T'ai Chi? or Taiji?".Wang Xi'an Taiji International.Archivedfrom the original on 28 June 2023.Retrieved28 June2023.
- ^Margalit Fox (14 January 2017)."Zhou Youguang, Who Made Writing Chinese as Simple as ABC, Dies at 111".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 20 January 2017.Retrieved28 June2023.
- ^Defoort, Carine (2001)."Is There Such a Thing as Chinese Philosophy Arguments of an Implicit Debate".Philosophy East and West.51(3): 404.doi:10.1353/pew.2001.0039.S2CID54844585.
Just as Shadowbo xing (taijiquan) is having success in the West
"Wudang Martial Arts".China Daily.2010-06-17.Wudang bo xing includes bo xing varieties such as Taiji (shadowbo xing )
Bai Shuping ( bạch thục bình ) (2009).Taiji Quan (Shadow Bo xing ), Bilingual English-Chinese.Translated by Luo Bin ( la bân ). Beijing University Press.ISBN9787301053911. - ^Michael P. Garofalo (2021)."Thirteen Postures of Taijiquan".Cloud Hands blog.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-16.Retrieved2023-07-04.
- ^abcHenning, Stanley (1994)."Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan".Journal of the Chen Style Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii.2(3). Archived fromthe originalon 2010-01-01.Retrieved2009-11-23.
- ^Wang Zongyue (attributed),Taijiquan JingThái Cực quyền kinh
- ^abDavis 2004, p. 38-40
- ^Wile 1996, p. 20
- ^abLi Jianqing, p. 37-38
- ^Yang Zhenji (Dương chấn cơ) (1993).Yang Chengfu Style TaijiquanDương trừng phủ thức Thái Cực quyền.Quảng Tây dân tộc nhà xuất bản(Guangxi Minzu Publishing).Lời mở đầu(Introduction).ISBN7-5363-1984-3.
- ^Davis 2004,3840.
- ^Yang Banhou 1875
- ^Wile 1996,pp. 57–89, 135–153.
- ^Sun Lutang 1921
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrWile, Douglas (2007)."Taijiquan and Daoism: From Religion to Martial Art and Martial Art to Religion"(PDF).Journal of Asian Martial Arts.Vol. 16, no. 4. Via Media Publishing. pp. 8–45.ISSN1057-8358.
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- ^Laozi (attributed)(249) [400s BCE]. "76 chương".InWang Bi(ed.).Tao Te Ching.
Cường đại chỗ hạ nhu nhược chỗ thượng
- ^Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2020),Decision of the Intergovernmental Committee: 15.COM 8.b.21,UNESCO,archivedfrom the original on 2023-05-30,retrieved2023-07-04
- ^Wong Kiew Kit (1996).The Complete Book of Tai Chi Chuan: A Comprehensive Guide to the Principles.Element Books Ltd.ISBN978-1-85230-792-9.
- ^Clayre, Alasdair(1985).The Heart of the Dragon(First American ed.). Boston:Houghton Mifflin.p. 43.ISBN978-0-395-35336-3.
- ^Wu, Kung-tsao (2006).Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan (Ngô gia Thái Cực quyền).Chien-ch'uan T'ai-chi Ch'uan Association.ISBN0-9780499-0-X.[page needed]
- ^Dunning, Brian."Skeptoid #411: Your Body's Alleged Energy Fields".Skeptoid.Retrieved3 September2016.
- ^Dent HE, Dewhurst NG, Mills SY, Willoughby M (June 2003). "Continuous PC6 wristband acupressure for relief of nausea and vomiting associated with acute myocardial infarction: a partially randomised, placebo-controlled trial".Complementary Therapies in Medicine.11(2): 72–7.doi:10.1016/s0965-2299(03)00058-x.PMID12801491.
- ^Colquhoun D, Novella SP (June 2013)."Acupuncture is theatrical placebo".Anesthesia and Analgesia.116(6): 1360–3.doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e31828f2d5e.PMID23709076.S2CID207135491.
- ^William Chi-Sing Cho (2013).Evidence-based Non-pharmacological Therapies for Palliative Cancer Care.Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN9789400758339.
- ^Eigenschink, Michael; Dearing, Lukas; Dablander, Tom E.; Maier, Julian; Sitte, Harald H. (May 2020)."A critical examination of the main premises of Traditional Chinese Medicine".Wiener klinische Wochenschrift.132(9–10): 260–273.doi:10.1007/s00508-020-01625-w.PMC7253514.PMID32198544.
- ^"Hard to swallow".Nature.448(7150): 105–6. July 2007.Bibcode:2007Natur.448S.105..doi:10.1038/448106a.PMID17625521.
Constructive approaches to divining the potential usefulness of traditional therapies are to be welcomed. But it seems problematic to apply a brand new technique, largely untested in the clinic, to test the veracity of traditional Chinese medicine, when the field is so fraught with pseudoscience. In the meantime, claims made on behalf of an uncharted body of knowledge should be treated with the customary skepticism that is the bedrock of both science and medicine.
- ^Quarta, Cynthia W. (2001).Tai Chi in a Chair(first ed.). Fair Winds Press.ISBN1-931412-60-X.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-08-20.Retrieved2018-08-20.
- ^abcdWile, Douglas. 2016. ‘Fighting Words: Four New Document Finds Reignite Old Debates in Taijiquan Historiography’, Martial Arts Studies 4, 17–35.
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- ^Choy, Kam Man (1985).Tai Chi Chuan.San Francisco: Memorial Edition 1994.[ISBN missing]
- ^Nick Harvey, ed. (1970).Ting: The Caldron, Chinese Art and Identity in San Francisco.San Francisco: Glide Urban Center.ISBN9780912078144.
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- ^Wolfe Lowenthal (1991).There Are No Secrets: Professor Cheng Man Ch'ing and His Tai Chi Chuan.North Atlantic Books.ISBN978-1-55643-112-8.
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- ^"Pytt Geddes (obituary)".The Daily Telegraph.21 March 2006. Archived fromthe originalon 4 December 2007.Retrieved16 January2020.
- ^Woolidge, Doug (June 1997). "T'AI CHI".The International Magazine of T'ai Chi Ch'uan.21(3). Wayfarer Publications.ISSN0730-1049.
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- ^abLee, M. S.; Ernst, E. (2011). "Systematic reviews of t'ai chi: An overview".British Journal of Sports Medicine.46(10): 713–8.doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.080622.PMID21586406.S2CID206878632.
- ^abBaggoley C (2015)."Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance"(PDF).Australian Government – Department of Health. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 December 2015.Retrieved12 December2015.
- Lay summary in:Scott Gavura (November 19, 2015)."Australian review finds no benefit to 17 natural therapies".Science-Based Medicine.
- ^Lomas-Vega, R; Obrero-Gaitán, E; Molina-Ortega, FJ; Del-Pino-Casado, R (September 2017). "Tai Chi for Risk of Falls. A Meta-analysis".Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.65(9): 2037–2043.doi:10.1111/jgs.15008.PMID28736853.S2CID21131912.
- ^Chen, Yi-Wen; Hunt, Michael A.; Campbell, Kristin L.; Peill, Kortni; Reid, W. Darlene (2015-09-17)."The effect of Tai Chi on four chronic conditions – cancer, osteoarthritis, heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analyses".British Journal of Sports Medicine.50(7): bjsports-2014-094388.doi:10.1136/bjsports-2014-094388.ISSN1473-0480.PMID26383108.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-10-16.Retrieved2015-10-09.
- ^Choo, YT (2020). "Effectiveness of tai chi on quality of life, depressive symptoms and physical function among community-dwelling older adults with chronic disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis".International Journal of Nursing Studies.111.Elsevier: 103737.doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103737.PMID32891966.S2CID221523402.
- ^National Center for Complementary and Intrgrative Health (March 2022). Inna Belfer; Lanay Mudd; David Shurtleff (eds.)."Tai Chi: What You Need To Know".National Institutes of Health.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-10-12.Retrieved2022-10-12.
Further reading
editBooks
edit- Agar-Hutton, Robert (2018).The Metamorphosis of Tai Chi: Created to kill; evolved to heal; teaching peace.Ex-L-Ence Publishing.ISBN978-1-9164944-1-1.
- Bluestein, Jonathan (2014).Research of Martial Arts.CreateSpace.ISBN978-1-4991-2251-0.
- Bond, Joey(1999).See Man Jump See God Fall: Tai Chi Vs. Technology.International Promotions Promotion Pub.ISBN978-1-57901-001-0.
- Choy, Kam Man (1985).Tai Chi Chuan.San Francisco, California: Memorial Edition 1994.[ISBN missing]
- Davis, Barbara (2004).Taijiquan Classics: An Annotated Translation.North Atlantic Books.ISBN978-1-55643-431-0.
- Eberhard, Wolfram (1986).A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought.London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.ISBN0-415-00228-1.
- Frantzis, Bruce (2007).The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi and Hsing-I.Blue Snake Books.ISBN978-1-58394-190-4.
- Gaffney, David; Sim, Davidine Siaw-Voon (2014).The Essence of Taijiquan.CreateSpace.ISBN978-1-5006-0923-8.
- Lǐ, Jiànqīng (2006).Vĩnh năm Thái Cực quyền chí[Yongnian Taijiquan Gazetteer]. People's Sports Publishing House.ISBN7-5009-3044-5.
- Sūn (Tôn), Lùtáng (Lộc đường) (1921).Tàijí quán xuéThái Cực quyền học[A Study of Taiji Bo xing].
- Sūn (Tôn), Lùtáng (Lộc đường) (2018).Tàijí quán xuéThái Cực quyền học[A Study of Taiji Bo xing] (in Traditional Chinese). Dazhan Publishing House.ISBN978-986-346-201-9.
- Tôn lộc đường võ học tập chú Thái Cực quyền học[Sun Lutang Martial Theory Collection: A Study of Taiji Bo xing] (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: Beijing Science and Technology Press. 2016.ISBN9787530486252.
- Wile, Douglas (1983).Tai Chi Touchstones: Yang Family Secret Transmissions.Sweet Ch'i Press.ISBN978-0-912059-01-3.
- Wile, Douglas (1996).Lost T'a-Chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty.State University of New York Press.ISBN0-7914-2653-X.
- Yang, Banhou (Dương ban hầu,1875*),Thái Cực pháp nói(Explaining Taiji Principles), available online in Chinese and English translation atScribdand also included in Chinese and English translation in Wile, Douglas (1996) (*Scholars estimate the publication date to be between 1875 and 1910, and believe the author(s) to be Yang Banhou and/or his disciples)
- Yang, Yang; Grubisich, Scott A. (2008).Taijiquan: The Art of Nurturing, The Science of Power(2nd ed.). Zhenwu Publication.ISBN978-0-9740990-1-9.