Wikipedia

Tajiks of Xin gian g

Chinese Tajiks(Chinese:Trung Quốc Tháp Cát Khắc tộc;pinyin:Zhōngguó Tǎjíkèzú) are ethnicPamiriswho live in thePamir MountainsofTashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County,inXin gian g,China.They are one of the56 ethnic groupsofficially recognized by the Chinese government. Most Chinese Tajiks speak anEastern Iranian language;the vast majority speakSarikoliwhile a minority speakWakhi.

Chinese Tajiks
A Chinese Tajik farmer inTashkurgan
Regions with significant populations
China(Xin gian g)50,265[1]
Tajikistan(Gorno-Badakhshan)1,000–2,000[2]
Languages
Sarikoli(majority),Wakhi(minority)
Religion
Shia Islam(NizariIsmailism)
Related ethnic groups
Iranian peoples
Tajiks
Chinese name
ChineseTháp Cát Khắc tộc
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinTǎjíkèzú
Wade–GilesT'a3-chi2-k'ei4-tsu2
Sarikoli name
Sarikoliتۇجىك/Tujik

Name

edit
See also:PamirisandTajiks § Name

Despite the Chinese government's official name for the group, Chinese Tajiks are not ethnicTajiksbut ethnicPamiris,a differentIranian ethnic groupwho speak the Eastern IranianPamiri languages.

Early 20th-century CE travelers to the region referred to the Chinese Tajiks as "Mountain Tajiks",[3]or by the Turkicexonym"Ghalcha".[4]Sarikoli-andWakhi-speakingChinese Tajiks were also referred to as "Sarikolis" and "Wakhis",respectively.[5][6]

History

edit

Early history

edit

ThePamiripeoples are believed to be the descendants of theSaka-Scythianswho inhabited modern-dayXin gian g.[7][8]ThePamiri languagesare descended from variousScythian languages.[8]

The town ofTashkurganwas the capital of theSarikol Kingdom(Sắc lặc Kohl) in the Pamir Mountains.

Xin gian g and itseastern Iranian-speaking peoplesunderwent gradualTurkificationfollowing the region's conquests andsettlements by Turkic peoplessuch as theUyghursandQarakhanids.By theMongol period,most of these eastern Iranian peoples had assimilated into the Turkic community. The Chinese Tajiks claim to be descended from the remaining eastern Iranians who still resided in the Pamir Mountains of Xin gian g. This claim is supported by medieval Chinese literature, documents and modern archaeological evidence.[9]

Conversion to Nizari Ismailism

edit

According to oral tradition,Nasir Khusrawled a mission to the region with four of his disciples: Sayyid Hassan Zarrabi, Sayyid Surab Wali, Sayyid Jalal Bukhari, and Jahan Malikshah. Khusraw purportedly told some of his disciples to settle down in the area to continue to aid and preach to the local converts aboutIsmailism.Many contemporarypirs(holy men) claim descent from these early disciples.[9]

Qing dynasty

edit

The Chinese Tajiks were administered by theQingunder a system ofBegs(chiefs) like the rest of Xin gian g. The Qing claimed suzerainty over theTaghdumbash Pamirin the southwest of Xin gian g, but permitted theMir of Hunzato administer the region in return for theirtributes.TheHunzaswere tributaries and allies to Qing China, acknowledging China as suzerain from 1761 onward.[10][11]

The Chinese Tajiks practiced slavery, selling some of their own as a punishment. Submissive slaves were given wives and settled with the Tajiks. They were considered property and could be sold anytime. Their slaves came from numerous sources; for example, Sunni captives such as the Kyrgyz were enslaved in retaliation for Kyrgyz slave raids against the Chinese Tajiks. Sunni slaves were also brought fromHunza(also known as Khujund),Gilgit,andChitral.Slaves from Chitral and Hunza passed through the Pamir Mountains on their way toBukhara,present-dayUzbekistan.The Chinese Tajiks were labelled "Rafidites" by the Sunnis, who did not consider them Muslims asenslaving fellow Muslimsis contrary toSharia law.[12]

There were hundreds of slaves sold by Chinese Tajiks. Most foreign slaves in Xin gian g were Chinese Tajiks; they were referred to by Sunni Turkic Muslims as "Ghalcha".[13]Chinese Tajiks made up the majority of slave trafficked and sold in Xin gian g to the Sunni Muslim Turkic inhabitants and they were seen as foreigners and strangers. Serfs were treated in a "wretched" manner.[14]

An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials – three Cossacks and a Russian courier – invited localUyghur prostitutesto a party in January 1902 inKashgar.This caused a massive brawl between several Russians and local Uyghurs, the latter acting on the pretense of protecting Muslim women. Qing officials quickly dispersed the crowd and sought to end tensions immediately to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade Xin gian g.[15][16]

After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Tashkurghan and demanded that local postal services be placed under Russian supervision. The Russians attempted to negotiate with the Begs of Tashkurgan, but the Begs feared that the Russians would not stop at their demands of the postal services and would aim to seize the entire area from the Qing. Tashkurgan officials even went as far as to petition the Amban ofYarkandto evacuate the local population to Yarkand so they could avoid being harassed by the Russians.[17][18]

Republic of China

edit

In the mid-1940s around 9,000 Chinese Tajiks lived in Xin gian g, while others moved to other Central Asian countries and provinces of China.[19]During theIli Rebellionfrom 1944 to 1949, Uyghur forces butchered the livestock of the Chinese Tajiks as they advanced south.[20]Uyghur rebels who were backed by the Soviets destroyed Chinese Tajik crops and acted violently against Chinese Tajiks and Kyrgyz.[21]

Distribution

edit
Chinese Tajik women on theKarakoram HighwayfromTashkurgantoKhunjerab Pass

The population of Chinese Tajiks in Xin gian g numbered 41,028 in 2000 and 50,265 in 2015.[1]Sixty percent of the Chinese Tajik population reside inTashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County.As of 2016, more than 4,000 Chinese Tajiks lived in nearbyPoskam County(Zepu).[22][1]Some Chinese Tajiks live inKokyar(Kekeya) andKargilik County(Yecheng).[23]Tar TownshipinAkto County,Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture,is a Chinese Tajik township.

Language

edit

The languages of the Chinese Tajiks have no official written form.[24]The vast majority speak theSarikoli language,which has been heavily influenced byChinese,Uyghur,andWakhi.[25]A minority speak theWakhi language.[26]Sarikoli and Wakhi areIranian languages,commonly classified in thePamirorEastern Iranianareal groups.[27]

Religion

edit

The Chinese Tajiks are adherents ofNizariIsmaili sectofShia Islamand are still a little isolated from the rest of the worldwide Ismaili community, though their communication with other Pamiri (Ismaili) peoples has never stopped. The Chinese authorities allow a few Ismaili religious buildings to function in Tashkurgan, the clerics of whom are appointed by the secular Chinese authorities. Restrictions by the Chinese government bar foreign Ismaili preachers from openly working among the Chinese Tajiks. The religious leader of the Nizari Ismaili sect, theAga Khan,was once barred from conducting business with Ismailis in China.[28]

From 2 to 4 April 2012,Aga Khan IVpaid an official visit toÜrümqi,the capital of Xin gian g, at the invitation of the then governor of Xin gian g,Nur Bekri.Delegations of theAga Khan Development Network(AKDN) and the Xin gian g government met to discuss future cooperation. Bekri agreed to collaborate in several thematic areas of mutual interest, including poverty alleviation, education, investment in tourism, and financial services.[29]TheAga Khan IVhad last visited China in 1981.

Chinese Tajiks have been caught up in the China's crackdown on Muslims that has taken place since 2017, despite the fact that they have tended to be not politically active. Only a single mosque is allowed to operate in Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County, and children under 18 are not permitted to attend it.[30]

Culture

edit

Family life

edit

At least three generations of relatives live under the same household in a traditional Chinese Tajik family. Each family has a familial hierarchy determined by a family member's age and sex, with the senior male acting as the head of the family. The responsibilities of the men tend to be providing for the family and looking after the children and elderly. The women's responsibilities are to raise the children, attend to household duties, and care for the elderly. The senior male is in charge of managing the entire household and the family's wealth through consulting with the rest of the men in the house. The young men are discouraged from seeking an independent life outside the household unless they receive collective consent from the family. Failure to do so can forfeit them from inheritance.[9]

Rites of passage and life cycles

edit

Marriages are usually arranged by the parents of the prospective groom and bride from the asking of the daughter's hand up to the wedding. The families of the couple also decide on the dowry amount, plan the engagements and wedding dates, and choose who can attend. About three days before the wedding, the families come together and initiate a feast for the people in the area who have lost relatives in the last year or so. These people then approve of the celebration by tapping on a hand drum.[9]Funerals are conducted by first doing the Islamic rites of cleansing the body and praying for the deceased. This is followed by the family who burn incense and close any room or ceiling windows as this is believed to purify the path for the deceased. Every family member is expected to attend the funeral or make up for it with a visit to the family. For forty days after the burial, the closest relatives of the deceased will begin to abstain from personal comforts like by keeping their hair unkempt or uncut. On the last day, friends and family come together to bathe and clean the mourners and to convince them to return to their daily lives.[9]

Festivals and rituals

edit

The two main celebrations of the Chinese Tajiks areNowruz(the Persian New Year;ched chaderin Sarikoli, meaning "cleaning the house" ) and the Pilik festival. Right before Nowruz begins, families rigorously clean their homes and sprinkle the inner walls withputuk(wheat flour) to wish for a successful year. Each household bakes a cake for the occasion to share with guests. The guests are welcomed on the doorstep by dusting someputukon their right shoulder. Meanwhile, Pilik is dedicated to commemorating the dead. Families light candles and pray for the souls of the dead while circling the light and pulling the flame towards their face. This ritual lasts two days. On the first day, families light candles inside the house. On the second day, they visit the local cemetery and light a candle for each deceased relative and place it on their graves.[9]

Seasonal rituals such asZuwur zoht(irrigation) andTeghm zuwost(seed sowing) used to be commonplace but presently apir(a local religious master) orkhalifa(a religious functionary who is trained under a pir) blesses the agricultural implements in the fields by reciting verses from theQuran.[9]

Livelihood

edit
A Chinese TajikherderinTashkurgan

Because of the harsh and scarce environment in which the locals live in, Chinese Tajiks mostly rely on cultivating whatever arable land is available and engage in small-scale animal husbandry. Other types of subsistence also include selling traditional embroidery, clothes, hats, and other arts and crafts. However, this is only a seasonal operation. There are also a few governmental wages available but salaried jobs are few and the demand is very high.[9]

Notable people

edit

References

edit
  1. ^abc3-7 các nơi, châu, thị, huyện ( thị ) phân dân tộc dân cư số(in Simplified Chinese).شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى,Tân Cương duy ngô ngươi khu tự trị thống kê cụcStatistic Bureau of Xin gian g Uygur Autonomous Region. 15 March 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2017.Retrieved3 September2017.
  2. ^Pam Arlund (2000)."Research on Bilingual Phenomenon of Tajiks in Kashgar Prefecture".Language and Translation.61(1): 12.ISSN1001-0823.Archived fromthe originalon 18 July 2011.Retrieved27 March2009.
  3. ^Through the Unknown Pamirs; the Second Danish Pamir Expedition 1898–99 By Ole Olufsen
  4. ^Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank (1977).The Cambridge history of China, Volume 10.Cambridge University Press. p. 71.ISBN0-521-21447-5.Retrieved11 January2011.
  5. ^A Journey of Geographical and Archarological Exploration in Chinese Turkestan A Stein – 1904 – [sn]... 15,800 feet above the sea, into Chinese territory on the Taghdumbash Pamir, using the yaks of the Sarikoli herdsmen...
  6. ^The Heart of a Continent – Younghusband –... an encampment belonging to a Sarikoli, who very kindly asked me to have some refreshment... (pg 242)
  7. ^Kreutzmann, Hermann; Watanabe, Teiji (25 January 2016).Mapping Transition in the Pamirs: Changing Human-Environmental Landscapes.Springer. p. 246.ISBN978-3-319-23198-3.
  8. ^abKuzʹmina, Elena Efimovna (2007).The Origin of the Indo-Iranians.BRILL. pp. 381–382.ISBN978-90-04-16054-5.
  9. ^abcdefghSaidula, Amier (2011). "The Nizari Ismailis of China in Modern Times". In Daftary, Farhad (ed.).A Modern History of the Ismailis: Continuity and Change in a Muslim Community.London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 77–91.ISBN9781845117177.
  10. ^Oriental Institute (Woking, England), East India Association (London, England) (1892).The Imperial and asiatic quarterly review and oriental and colonial record.Oriental Institute. p. 74.Retrieved23 January2011.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^The Draft History of Qing,volume 529, Revised Edition, 1977, Zhonghua Book Company.
  12. ^Sir Thomas Douglas Forsyth(1875).Report of a mission to Yarkund in 1873, under command of Sir T. D. Forsyth: with historical and geographical information regarding the possessions of the ameer of Yarkund.Printed at the Foreign department press. p. 56.Retrieved23 January2011.
  13. ^Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007).Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia.Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 20.ISBN978-0-7546-7041-4.Retrieved30 July2010.
  14. ^Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia.Routledge. 2016. p. 20.ISBN978-1351899895.
  15. ^Pamela Nightingale; C.P. Skrine (5 November 2013).Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918.Taylor & Francis. pp. 124–.ISBN978-1-136-57616-4.
  16. ^Sir Clarmont Percival Skrine; Pamela Nightingale (1973).Macartney at Kashgar: new light on British, Chinese and Russian activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918.Methuen. p. 124.ISBN9780416653908.
  17. ^Pamela Nightingale; C.P. Skrine (5 November 2013).Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918.Routledge. pp. 125–.ISBN978-1-136-57609-6.
  18. ^Sir Clarmont Percival Skrine; Pamela Nightingale (1973).Macartney at Kashgar: new light on British, Chinese and Russian activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918.Methuen. p. 125.ISBN9780416653908.
  19. ^Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986).Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949.Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 6.ISBN0-521-25514-7.Retrieved28 June2010.
  20. ^Eric Shipton, Jim Perrin (1997).Eric Shipton: The Six Mountain-Travel Books.The Mountaineers Books. p. 488.ISBN0-89886-539-5.Retrieved31 October2010.
  21. ^Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986).Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949.Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 204.ISBN0-521-25514-7.Retrieved28 June2010.
  22. ^Trạch phổ tình hình chung.Trạch phổ chính phủ võng(in Simplified Chinese). 17 July 2017. Archived fromthe originalon 26 January 2020.Retrieved10 April2020– viaInternet Archive.2016 năm mạt, toàn huyện tổng hộ số ( hàm tháp Tây Nam thăm dò khai phá công ty ) 65684 hộ, trong đó huyện thuộc hộ số 59804 hộ; tổng dân cư 208950 người ( hàm tháp Tây Nam thăm dò khai phá công ty ), trong đó, dân tộc Duy Ngô Nhĩ 175686 người, chiếm 84.1％, dân tộc Hán 27131 người, chiếm 13％, Tháp Cát Khắc tộc 4463 người, chiếm 2.1％, mặt khác dân tộc 1670 người, chiếm 0.8％.
  23. ^Kha khắc á hương tóm tắt.Diệp thành huyện chính phủ nhân dân võng(in Simplified Chinese). 17 August 2015.Retrieved16 April2020.Có dân tộc Duy Ngô Nhĩ cùng Tháp Cát Khắc tộc chờ 2 cái dân tộc.
  24. ^BARRY RUBIN (2000).Guide to Islamist Movements.M.E. Sharpe. p. 71.ISBN0-7656-1747-1.Retrieved11 January2011.
  25. ^Arlund, Pamela S. (2006).An Acoustic, Historical, And Developmental Analysis Of Sarikol Tajik Diphthongs. Ph.D Dissertation.The University of Texas at Arlington. p. 191. Archived fromthe originalon 10 December 2013.Retrieved13 April2010.
  26. ^Felmy, Sabine (1996).The voice of the nightingale: a personal account of the Wakhi culture in Hunza.Karachi:Oxford University Press.p. 4.ISBN0-19-577599-6.
  27. ^James Stuart Olson (1998).An ethnohistorical dictionary of China.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 319.ISBN0-313-28853-4.Retrieved11 January2011.
  28. ^UNHCR Refworld,CHINA: Xin gian g's Ismailis cut off from international Ismaili community[accessed 13 May 2009]
  29. ^"The Aga Khan visits Western China | Aga Khan Development Network".
  30. ^Foltz, Richard(2019).A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East.New York:I.B. Tauris.p. 185.ISBN978-1-83860-446-2.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tajiks_of_Xin gian g&oldid=1260012645"