Tamil literature

Tamil literatureincludes a collection of literary works that have come from a tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly fromTamil peoplefrom south India, including the land now comprisingTamil Nadu,Kerala,Eelam TamilsfromSri Lanka,as well as theTamil diaspora.

SageAgastya,Chairman of the firstTamilSangam,Madurai,PandiyaKingdom. Statue inTamil Thaitemple,Karaikudi,Tamil Nadu.

The history of Tamil literature follows thehistory of Tamil Nadu,closely following the social, economical, political and cultural trends of various periods. The earlySangam literature,dated before 300 BCE, contain anthologies of various poets dealing with many aspects of life, including love, war, social values and religion.This was followed by the early epics and moral literature, authored byVaishnavite,Shaivite,Ājīvika,JainandBuddhistauthors and poets lasting up to the 5th century CE. From the 6th to 12th century CE, the Tamil devotional poems written byAlvars(sages ofVaishnavism) andNayanmars(sages ofShaivism) and, heralded the greatBhakti movementwhich later engulfed the entire Indian subcontinent. During the medieval era some of the grandest of Tamil literary classics likeKambaramayanamandPeriya Puranamwere authored and many poets were patronized by the imperialCholaandPandyaempires. The later medieval period saw many assorted minor literary works and also contributions by a fewMuslimand European authors.

A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. The modern Tamil literary movement started withSubramania Bharathi,the multifaceted Indian Nationalist poet and author, and was quickly followed up by many who began to utilize the power of literature in influencing the masses. With growth of literacy, Tamil prose began to blossom and mature. Short stories and novels began to appear. Modern Tamil literary criticism also evolved. The popularity ofTamil cinemahas also interacted with Tamil literature in some mutually enriching ways.

Sangam age

Main article:Sangam literature

See also:Sangam period,Tolkaappiyam,Kumari Kandam,Sangam landscape,andVaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam

Ilango Adigal(c. 100 CE) wroteSilappathikaaram,one of theFive great epics.

ThiruvalluvarwroteThirukkural(c. 300s BCE), taught in schools today.

Sangam literature comprises some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals with love, traditions, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Unfortunately much of the Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam period has been lost.The literature currently available from this period is perhaps just a fraction of the wealth of material produced during this golden age of Tamil civilization. The available literature from this period has been broadly divided in antiquity into three categories based roughly on chronology. These are: theEighteen Greater Text Series(Pathinenmaelkanakku) comprising theEight Anthologies(Ettuthokai) and theTen Idylls(Pattupattu) and theFive Great Epics.Tolkaappiyam,a commentary ongrammar,phonetics,rhetoricandpoeticsis dated from this period.

குறிஞ்சி – தலைவன் கூற்று
யாயும் ஞாயும் யாரா கியரோ
எந்தையும் நுந்தையும் எம்முறைக் கேளிர்
யானும் நீயும் எவ்வழி யறிதும்
செம்புலப் பெயனீர் போல
அன்புடை நெஞ்சம் தாங்கலந் தனவே.
-செம்புலப் பெயனீரார்.

Red earth and pouring rain
What could my mother be to yours?
What kin is my father to yours anyway?
And how
Did you and I meet ever?
But in love our hearts have mingled
like red earth and pouring rain.

—(Kuruntokai– 40),a poem from theEight Anthologies —Translated byA. K. Ramanujan

Tamil legends hold that these were composed in three successive poetic assemblies (Sangam) that were held in ancient times on a now vanishedcontinentfar to the south ofIndia.A significant amount of literature could have precededTolkappiyamas grammar books are usually written after the existence of literature over long periods. Tamil tradition holds the earliestSangampoetry to be over twelve millennia old. Modernlinguisticscholarship places the poems between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE.

Sangam age is considered by theTamil peopleas the golden era ofTamil language.This was the period when the Tamil country was ruled by the three 'crowned kings' theCheras,Pandyasand theCholas.The land was at peace with no major external threats.Asoka's conquests had no impact on the Tamil land and the people were able to indulge in literary pursuits. The poets had a much more casual relationship with their rulers than can be imagined in later times. They could chide them when they are perceived to wander from the straight and narrow. The greatness of the Sangam age poetry may be ascribed not so much to its antiquity, but due to the fact that their ancestors were indulging in literary pursuits and logical classification of the habitats and society in a systematic manner with little to draw from precedents domestically or elsewhere. The fact that these classifications were documented at a very early date in the grammatical treatiseTolkappiyam,demonstrates the organized manner in which the Tamil language has evolved.Tolkappiyamis not merely a textbook on Tamilgrammargiving the inflection and syntax of words and sentences but also includes classification of habitats, animals, plants and human beings. The discussion on human emotions and interactions is particularly significant. Tolkappiyam is divided into three chapters:orthography,etymologyand subject matter (Porul). While the first two chapters of Tolkappiyam help codify the language, the last part,Porulrefers to the people and their behavior. The grammar helps to convey the literary message on human behavior and conduct, and uniquely merges the language with its people.

The literature was classified into the broad categories of 'subjective' (akam) and 'objective' (puram) topics to enable the poetic minds to discuss any topic under the sun, from grammar to love, within the framework of well prescribed, socially accepted conventions. Subjective topics refer to the personal or human aspect of emotions that cannot be verbalized adequately or explained fully. It can only be experienced by the individuals and includes love andsexual relationship.

Recognizing that human activities cannot take place in vacuum and are constantly influenced by environmental factors, human experiences, in general, and subjective topics in particular, are assigned tospecific habitats.Accordingly, land was classified into five genres (thinai):mullai(forests),kurinji(mountainous regions),marutham(agricultural lands),neithal(seashore),paalai(wasteland). The images associated with these landscapes – birds, beasts, flowers, gods, music, people, weather, seasons – were used to subtly convey a mood, associated with an aspect of life.Kuruntokai,a collection of poems belonging to theEttuthokaianthology demonstrates an early treatment of theSangam landscape.Such treatments are found to be much refined in the later works ofAkananuruandParipaatal.Paripaataltakes its name from the musicalParipaatalmeterutilised in these poems. This is the first instance of a work set to music.Akavalandkalippawere the other popular meters used by poets during theSangamage.

Religion in the Sangam age

Main article:Religion in ancient Tamilakam

Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil literature. Ancient Tamils primarily followed theVaishnavismtradition (which considered Vishnu as the supreme deity) andKaumaram(who worshiped Murugan as the supreme god). According toKamil Zvelebil,Vishnuwas considered ageless (the god who stays forever) and was regarded as the supreme god of Tamils, whereasSkandawas considered to be young and was regarded as a personal god of Tamils.

Mayonis indicated to be the deity associated with themullai tiṇai(pastoral landscape) in theTolkāppiyam.TolkappiyarmentionsMayonfirst when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.TheParipādal(Tamil:பரிபாடல்,meaningthe paripadal-metre anthology) is a classicalTamilpoetic work and traditionally the fifth of theEight Anthologies(Ettuthokai) in theSangam literature.According to Tolkāppiyam,Paripadalis a kind of verse dealing only with love (akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses.Sangam literature(200 BCE to 500 CE) mentionsMayonor the "dark one", as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains ofTamilakam.The earliest verses ofParipadaldescribe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many poems of theParipadalconsiderPerumalas the supreme god of Tamils.He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status ofParamporul(achieving oneness withParamatma) during theSangam age.He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl inSangam literatureand considered as the most mentioned god in theSangam literature.

Cēyōṉ"the red one", who is identified withMurugan,whose name is literallyMurukaṉ( "the youth" ) in theTolkāppiyam;extant works ofSangam literature,dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE, glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favoured god of the Tamils".There are no mentions ofShivainTolkappiyam.ShivaandBrahmaare said to be forms ofMaha Vishnuand considers Vishnu as the supreme god inParipāṭal.

There are two poems depicted as example ofBhaktiin ancientTamil Nadu,one in the praise ofMaha Vishnuand other ofMurugan.

To Tirumal (Maha Vishnu):

தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ;
பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ;
கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ;
சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ;
அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ;
மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ;
வேதத்து மறை நீ;
பூதத்து முதலும் நீ;
வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ;
திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ;
அனைத்தும் நீ;
அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ;

In fire, you are the heat;
in blossoms, the fragrance;
among the stones, you are the diamond;
in speech, truth;
among virtues, you are love;
in valour—strength;
in the Veda, you are the secret;
among elements, the primordial;
in the burning sun, the light;
in moonshine, its sweetness;
you are all,
and you are the substance and meaning of all.

—Paripadal, iii: 63-68 —F Gros, K Zvelebil

To Seyyon (Skandha):

We pray you not for wealth,
not for gold, not for pleasure;
But for your grace, for love, for virtue,
these three,
O god with the rich garland ofkaṭampuflowers
with rolling clusters!

–Pari. v.: 78–81

The other gods also referred to in theTolkappiyamareVēntaṉ"the sovereign" (identified withIndra) andKorravai"the victorious" (identified withDurga) andVarunan"the sea god".

Post-Sangam period

Didactic age

The three centuries after the Sangam age marks thedidacticage. The invadersreplaced number of words and concepts relating toethics,philosophyandreligionofTamil.Around 300 CE, the Tamil land was under the influence of a group of people known as theKalabhras.The Kalabhras were Buddhistand a number of Buddhist authors flourished during this period.JainismandBuddhismsaw rapid growth. These authors, perhaps reflecting the austere nature of their faiths, created works mainly on morality and ethics. A number ofJainand Buddhist poets contributed to the creation of these didactic works as well as grammar and lexicography. The collection theEighteen Lesser Text series(Pathinenkilkanakku) was of this period.

எப்பொருள் யார்யார்வாய்க் கேட்பினும் அப்பொருள் மெய்ப்பொருள் காண்ப தறிவு. "The mark of wisdom is to discern the truth From whatever source it is heard. " –(Tirukkural– 423)

The best known of these works on ethics is theTirukkuralby Thiruvalluvar. The book is a comprehensive manual of ethics, polity and love, containing 1,330distichsorkuraldivided into chapters of ten distichs each: the first thirty-eight on ethics, the next seventy on polity and the remainder on love.

Other famous works of this period areKaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu,Nalatiyar,Inna NarpathuandIniyavai Narpathu.TheJaintextsNalatiyarandPazhamozhi Nanurueach consist of four hundred poems, each of which cites aproverband then illustrates it with a story.

Devotional period

See also:Naalayira Divya PrabandhamandTirumurai

The fall of the Kalabhras around 500 CE saw a reaction from the thus far suppressed Hindus. The Kalabhras were replaced by thePandyasin the south and by the Pallavas in the north. Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, theJainand Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the 7th century. There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body ofVaishnavaandSaivaliterature was created. Many VaishnavaAlvarsprovided a great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. VaishnavaAlvarswere producing devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into the Four Thousand Sacred Hymns (Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham) byNathamunigal.It is considered as the Tamil Vedam equal to the Sanskrit vedas. The three earliest Alvars werePoigai Alvar,Bhoothath AlvarandPey Alvar.Each of these wrote one hundredVenpason the glory ofMaha VishnuinTirukoilur.Tirumalisai Alwarwho was a contemporary of thePallavaMahendravarman Iwrote such works asNaanmugantiruvadiandadi.Tirumangai Alvarwho lived in the 8th century CE was a more prolific writer and his works constitute about a third of the Diyaprabhandam.Periyalvarand his adopted daughterAndalcontributed nearly 650 hymns to the Vaishnava canon. Andal symbolised purity and love for the God and wrote her hymns addressingVishnuas a lover. The hymn of Andal which starts withVaaranam Aayiram(One Thousand Elephants) tells of her dream wedding to Vishnu and is sung even today at Tamil Vaishnava weddings. Nammalvar, who lived in the 9th century, wroteTiruvaimoli.It comprises 1,101 stanzas and is held in great esteem for its elucidation of theUpanishads.This corpus was collected byNathamuni,around 950 CE and formed the classical and vernacular basis forSri Vaishnavism.These HymnsNaalayira Divya Prabhandhamis respected at par with Vedas by Sri Vaishnavites in sanctity and holiness and hence referred to asDravida VedamorTamil Vedam.

Along with the Vaishnava Alvars, ManySaivaNayanmars were also producing devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into Periya Puranam.Karaikal Ammaiyarwho lived in the 6th century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva hymnists Sundaramoorthy, Thirugnana Sambanthar andThirunavukkarasar(also known as Appar) were of this period. Of Appar's verses 3066 have survived.Sambandarsang 4,169 verses. Together these form the first six books of the Saiva canon, collected by Nambi Andar Nambi in the 10th century.Sundararwrote Tiruttondartokai which gives the list of sixty-two Nayanmars. This was later elaborated bySekkilarin hisPeriyapuranam(4,272 verses).Manikkavasagar,who lived around the 8th century CE was a minister in the Pandya court. HisTiruvasakamconsisting of over 600 verses is noted for its passionate devotion. These Saivite Hymns collectively called Thirumurai.

Narrative epics

Cilappatikaramis one of the outstanding works of general literature of this period. The authorship and exact date of the classicCilappatikaramare not definitely known. Ilango Adigal, who is credited with this work was reputed to be the brother of the Sangam ageCheraking Senguttuvan. However we have no information of such a brother in the numerous poems sung on the Chera king. TheCilappatikaramis unique in its vivid portrayal of the ancient Tamil land. This is unknown in other works of this period.Cilappatikaramand its companion epicManimekalaiare Jain and Buddhist philosophy.Manimekalaiwas written by Sattanar who was a contemporary of Ilango Adigal. Manimekalai contains a long exposition of fallacies of logic. Kongu Velir, aJainauthor wrotePerunkathai.ValayapathiandKundalakesiare the names of two other narrative poems of this period written by aJainand a Buddhist author respectively. These works have been lost and only a few poems ofValayapathihave been found so far.

Medieval literature

See also:Chola literature

Kambar(c.1100 CE) wrote the Tamil 'Raamaayanam'.

The medieval period was the period of the ImperialCholaswhen the entire south India was under a single administration. The period between the 11th and the 13th centuries, during which the Chola power was at its peak, there were relatively few foreign incursions and the life for the Tamil people was one of peace and prosperity. It also provided the opportunity for the people to interact with cultures beyond their own, as the Cholas ruled over most of the South India, Sri Lanka and traded with the kingdoms in southeast Asia. The Cholas built numerous temples, mainly for their favourite godShiva,and these were celebrated in numerous hymns. ThePrabhandabecame the dominant form of poetry. The religious canons ofShaivaandVaishnavasects were beginning to be systematically collected and categorised. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary ofRajaraja Chola I,collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books calledTirumurais.The hagiology ofSaivismwas standardised inPeriyapuranam(also known asTiruttondar Puranam) by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign ofKulothunga Chola II(1133–1150 CE). Religious books on theVaishnavasect were mostly composed inSanskritduring this period. The great Vaishnava leaderRamanujalived during the reigns ofAthirajendra CholaandKulothunga Chola I,and had to face religious persecution from the Cholas who belonged to the Saiva sect. One of the best known Tamil works of this period is theRamavatharambyKambanwho flourished during the reign of Kulottunga III.Ramavatharamis the greatest epic in Tamil Literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki, his work is not a mere translation or even an adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poetAuvaiyarwho found great happiness in writing for young children. Her works,AthichoodiandKonraiventhanare even now generally read and taught in schools in Tamil Nadu. Her two other works,MooturaiandNalvaliwere written for slightly older children. All the four works are didactic in character. They explain the basic wisdom that should govern mundane life.

Of the books on theBuddhistand theJainfaiths, the most noteworthy is theJivaka-chintamaniby theJainascetic Thirutakkadevar composed in the 10th century.Viruttamstyle of poetry was used for the first time for the verses in this book. The five Tamil epicsSeevaka-chintamani,Silappatikaram,Manimekalai,KundalakesiandValayapathiare collectively known asThe Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature.There were a number of books written on Tamil grammar.YapperungalamandYapperungalakkarigaiwere two works onprosodyby theJainascetic Amirtasagara. Buddamitra wroteVirasoliyam,another work on Tamil grammar, during the reign ofVirarajendra Chola.Virasoliyamattempts to find synthesis between Sanskrit and Tamil grammar. Other grammatical works of this period areNannulby Pavanandi,Vaccanandi Malaiby Neminatha, and the annotations on the puram theme,Purapporul Venpamalaiby Aiyanaridanar.

There were biographical and political works such as Jayamkondar'sKalingattuparani,a semi-historical account on the two invasions ofKalingabyKulothunga Chola I.Jayamkondar was a poet-laureate in the Chola court and his work is a fine example of the balance between fact and fiction the poets had to tread. Ottakuttan, a close contemporary ofKambar,wrote threeUlasonVikrama Chola,Kulothunga Chola IIandRajaraja Chola II.

Vijayanagar and Nayak period

The period from 1300 CE to 1650 was a period of constant change in the political situation of Tamil Nadu. The Tamil country was invaded by the armies of theDelhi Sultanateand raided thePandyakingdom. This overstretched the Delhi Sultanate to such an extent it collapsed soon after which triggered the rise of theBahmaniSultans in theDeccan.Vijayanagar empirerose from the ashes of the kingdoms ofHoysalasandChalukyasand eventually conquered the entire south India. The Vijayanagar kings appointed regional governors to rule various territories of their kingdom and Tamil Nadu was ruled by theMadurai Nayaks,Thanjavur NayaksandGingee Nayaks.This period saw a large output of philosophical works, commentaries, epics and devotional poems. A number of monasteries (Mathas) were established by the various Hindu sects and these began to play a prominent role in educating the people. Numerous authors were of either the Saiva or the Vaishnava sects. The Vijayanagar kings and their Nayak governors were ardent Hindus and they patronised thesemathas.Although the kings and the governors of the Vijayanagar empire spoke Kannada andTeluguthey encouraged the growth of Tamil literature as we find no slowing down in the literary output during this period.

There was a large output of works of philosophical and religious in nature, such as theSivananabodamby Meykandar. At the end of the 14th century Svarupananda Desikar wrote two anthologies on the philosophy ofAdvaita,theSivaprakasapperundirattu.Arunagirinatharwho lived inTiruvannamalaiin the 14th century wroteTiruppugal.Around 1360 verses of unique lilt and set to unique metres these poems are on the godMuruga.Madai Tiruvengadunathar, an official in the court of the Madurai Nayak, wroteMeynanavilakkamon theAdvaita Vedanta.Siva prakasar,in the early 17th century wrote a number of works on the Saiva philosophy. Notable among these is theNanneriwhich deals with moral instructions. A considerable par to the religious and philosophical literature of the age took the form ofPuranasor narrative epics. A number of these were written on the various deities of the temples in Tamil Nadu and are known as Sthala Puranas, based on legend and folklore. One of the most important of the epics was theMahabharatamby Villiputturar. He translatedVyasa's epic into Tamil and named itVillibharatam.Kanthapuranamon the godMuruganwas written by Kacchiappa Sivachariyar who lived in the 15th century. This work was based broadly on the SanskritSkandapurana.Varatungarama Pandya, aPandyaking of the period was a littérateur of merit and wrotePaditrruppattanthathi.He also translated into Tamil the erotic book known asKokkohafrom Sanskrit.

This period also an age of manycommentaries of ancient Tamil works.Adiyarkunallar wrote an annotation onCilappatikaram.Senavaraiyar wrote a commentary on theTolkappiyam.Then came the famous Parimelalagar whose commentary on theTirukkuralis still considered one of the best available. Other famous annotators such as Perasiriyar and Naccinarikiniyar wrote commentaries on the various work of Sangam literature. The first Tamil dictionary was attempted by Mandalapurusha who compiled the lexiconNigandu Cudamani.Thayumanavar,who lived in the early 18th century, is famous for a number of short poems of philosophical nature.

The 17th-century altruist Syed Khader, known colloquially asSeethakaathi,was a great patron of all Tamil poets. He commissionedUmaruppulavarto pen the first biography ofNabi.The collection of poems was calledSeerapuranam.The 17th century also saw for the first time literary works by Christian authors. Costanzo Giuseppe Beschi (1680–1746), better known asVeeramamunivar,compiled the first dictionary in Tamil. HisChathurakarathiwas the first to list the Tamil words in Alpha betical order.

Modern era

See also:Tamil Renaissance

Subramanya Bharathi(1882–1921) Tamil writer, poet, Indian freedom fighter.

Thani Tamil Iyakkam'sBharathidasan,freedom fighter, Tamil writer, poet.

During the 18th and the 19th century Tamil Nadu witnessed some of the most profound changes in the political scene. The traditional Tamil ruling clans were superseded by European colonists and their sympathisers. The Tamil society underwent a deep cultural shock with the imposition of western cultural influences. The Hindu religious establishments attempted to stem the tide of change and to safeguard the Tamil cultural values. Notable among these were the Saiva monasteries at Tiruvavaduthurai, Dharmapuram, Thiruppananthal and Kundrakudi.Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai(1815–1876) was a Tamil scholar who taught Tamil at one of these monasteries. He wrote more than eighty books consisting of over 200,000 poems.He is more famous however for encouragingU.V.Swaminatha Iyerto go search for Tamil books that have been lost for centuries.Gopalakrishna Bharathilived during the early 19th century. He wrote numerous poems and lyrics set to tune inCarnatic music.His most famous work is theNandan Charitamon the life of Nandanar who having been born in a sociologically lower caste, faces and overcomes the social obstacles in achieving his dream of visiting theChidambaramtemple. This work is a revolutionary social commentary considering the period in which it was written, although Gopalakrishna Bharati expanded on the story inPeriyapuranam.Ramalinga Adigal(Vallalar) (1823–1874) wrote the devotional poemTiruvarutpais considered to be a work of great beauty and simplicity.Maraimalai Adigal(1876–1950) advocated for the purity of Tamil and wanted to clean it of words with Sanskrit influences. One of the great Tamil poets of this period wasSubramanya Bharathi.His works are stimulating in their progressive themes like freedom and feminism. Bharathy introduced a new poetic style into the somewhat rigid style of Tamil poetry writing, which had followed the rules set down in theTolkaappiyam.Hisputhukkavithai(Lit.:new poetry) broke the rules and gave poets the freedom to express themselves. He also wrote Tamil prose in the form of commentaries, editorials, short stories and novels. Some of these were published in the Tamil dailySwadesamitranand in his Tamil weeklyIndia.Inspired by Bharathi, many poets resorted to poetry as a means of reform.Bharathidasanwas one such poet.U.V.Swaminatha Iyer,was instrumental in the revival of interest in the Sangam age literature in Tamil Nadu. He travelled all over the Tamil country, collecting, deciphering and publishing ancient books such asCilappatikaram,Kuruntokai,etc. He published over 90 books and wroteEn caritham,an autobiography.

Tamil novel

The novel as a genre of literature arrived in Tamil in the third quarter of the 19th century, more than a century after it became popular withEnglishwriters. Its emergence was perhaps facilitated by the growing population of Tamils with a western education and exposure to popular English fiction.Mayavaram Vedanayagam Pillaiwrote the first Tamil novelPrathapa Mudaliar Charithramin 1879. This was a romance with an assortment of fables, folk tales and even Greek and Roman stories, written with the entertainment of the reader as the principal motive. It was followed byKamalambal Charitramby B. R. Rajam Iyer in 1893 andPadmavathi Charitramby A. Madhaviah in 1898. These two portray the life ofBrahminsin 19th-century rural Tamil Nadu, capturing their customs and habits, beliefs and rituals. Although it was primarily a powerful narration of the common man's life in a realistic style spiced with natural humour, Rajam Iyer's novel has a spiritual and philosophical undertone. Madhaviah tells the story in a more realistic way with a searching criticism of the upper caste society, particularly the sexual exploitation of girls by older men.D. Jayakanthanhas enriched the high traditions of literary traditions of Tamil language and contributed towards the shaping of Indian literature. His literature presents a deep and sensitive understanding of complex human nature and is an authentic and vivid index of Indian reality. One famous novel of his isSila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal.Since the 1990s the post-modernist writers emerged as a major figures, includingJeyamohan,S.Ramakrishnan,Charu Nivedita,andKonangi,who mixes classical Tamil inflections with experimental sound poets.

There are other less appreciated works involving those translated from other languages, which are often unrecognized by Tamil pundits. The works include "Urumaatram" (translation ofFranz Kafka'sThe Metamorphosis),Siluvayil Thongum Saathaan(translation of "Devil on the Cross"byNgũgĩ wa Thiong'o),Thoongum azhagigalin Illam(translation of "The House of the Sleeping Beauties"byYasunari Kawabata). Writers like Amarantha, Latha Ramakrishnan are responsible for these works.

Popular fiction

Crimeanddetective fictionhas enjoyed wide popularity in Tamil Nadu since the 1930s. Popular authors in the years before independence included Kurumbur Kuppusami andVaduvur Duraisami Iyengar.In the 1950s and 1960s,Tamilvanan's detective hero Shankarlal carried readers to a variety of foreign locales, while using a pure Tamil with very few Hindi or English loan words. These writers are often extremely prolific, with hundreds or even thousands of short novels to their credit, and one or more short novel published in a monthly periodical.Indra Soundar Rajan,another popular modern author, writes supernatural crime thrillers usually based around Hindu mythology.

Tamil Novel Writers

In the 1940s and 1950sKalki Krishnamurthywas notable for his historical and social fiction.

In the 1950s and 60s,Chandilyanwrote a number of very popular historical romance novels set in medieval India or on medieval trade routes with Malaysia, Indonesia and Europe.

From the 1950s, spanning six decades,Jayakanthanauthored around 40 novels, 200 short stories, apart from two autobiographies. Outside literature, he made two films. In addition, four of his other novels were adapted into films by others. His works revolve around the lives of underclass people like rickshaw-pullers, prostitutes and rag-pickers.

Arunaa Nandhiniis one of recent Tamil novelists who has entered the hearts of many Tamil readers, and her story covers family subject, romance, reality, with some humor added for the readers to enjoy their leisure.

Modern romance novels are represented by the current bestselling author in the Tamil language,Ramanichandran.

Though sales of Tamil pulp fiction have declined since the hey-day of the mid-1990s, and many writers have turned to the more lucrative television serial market, there remains a thriving scene.

Periodicals

The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work.Rajavritti BodhiniandDina Varthamaniin 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, SalemDesabhiminiin 1878 andCoimbatore Kalanidhiin 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals. In 1882, G. Subramaniya Iyer started the newspaperSwadesamitran.It became the first Tamil daily in 1889. This was the start of many journals to follow and many novelists began to serialise their stories in these journal. The humour magazineAnanda Vikatanstarted by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists.Kalki Krishnamurthy(1899–1954) serialised his short stories and novels inAnanda Vikatanand eventually started his own weeklyKalkifor which he wrote the enduringly popular novelsParthiban Kanavu,Sivagamiyin SabadhamandPonniyin Selvan.Pudhumaipithan(1906–1948) was a great writer of short stories and provided the inspiration for a number of authors who followed him. The 'new poetry orpudukkavithaipioneered by Bharathi in his prose-poetry was further developed by the literary periodicalsmanikkodiandezhuttu(edited by Si Su Chellappa). Poets such asMu. Methacontributed to these periodicals.Tamil Muslimpoets likeKavikko Abdul Rahman,Pavalar Inqulab,ManushyaputhiranandRajathi Salmatoo have made significant contributions to social reforms. The pioneering fortnightly journalSamarasamwas established in 1981 to highlight and cater to the ethnic Tamil Muslim community's issues. Another remarkable work was done in Tamil novel field by Mu.Varatharasanar.[Agal vilakku] [Karithundu]. And last but not leastAkilanthe unique Tamil novelist, short story writer and a social activist is famous for his works like 'Chithirapavai' 'Vengayinmaindan' 'Pavaivilaku'.

Tamil journalism

The first Tamil periodical was published by the Christian Religious Tract Society in 1831 –The Tamil Magazine.

The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. Rajavritti Bodhini and Dina Varthamani in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem Desabhimini in 1878 and Coimbatore Kalanidhi in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals.

The first regular newspaper in Tamil was Swadesamitran in 1882, started by G.Subramaniya Iyer, editor and sponsor of The Hindu and founding member of the Indian National Congress. He created a whole new Tamil political vocabulary. He was conscious that those with a knowledge of English are fewer in number and those with a knowledge of Indian languages make the vast majority. He felt that unless the people were told about the objectives of British rule and its merits and defects in the Indian languages, their political knowledge would never develop. When Subramania Aiyer quit The Hindu 1898, he made the Swadesamitran his full-time business. In 1899, the first Tamil daily. It was to enjoy this status for 17 years.

Subramania Aiyer's "pugnacious style, never qualifying words to soften the sharp tenor of a sentence," his use of words "dipped in a paste of extra pungent green chillies," made the Swadesamitran sought by Tamils wherever they lived in the world. And the daily became even more popular when Subramania Bharati joined it in 1904. The next year, when Lala Lajpat Rai was arrested and agitation followed in the Punjab, Subramania Aiyer's attitude to the British changed and he became a trenchant political critic of the Raj. His whole political mantra can be summed up in these words: `Peaceful but tireless and unceasing effort.' Let us sweat ourselves into Swaraj, he would seem to say. "Swadesamitran is credited for coining new Tamil words to deal with science, politics and administration. It had the most comprehensive budget of news among all the regional language papers of that time.

In 1917,Desabhaktan,another Tamil daily began with T.V. Kalyansundara Menon as editor. He was succeeded by V.V.S. Iyer, a colleague of the Savarkar brothers. These two editors were scholars with a natural, highly readable but polished style of writing.

The freedom movement and the advent of Gandhi also impacted Tamil journalism. Navasakthi, a Tamil periodical edited by Tamil scholar and freedom fighter V. Kalyanasundaram.C.Rajagopalacharibegan Vimochanam, a Tamil journal devoted to propagating prohibition at the Gandhi Ashram in Tiruchengode in Salem district.

In 1926,P. Varadarajulu Naidu,who was conducting a Tamil news-cum-views weekly 'Tamil Nadu' started a daily with the same name. Its forceful and colloquial style gained it a wide readership but after the paper failed to take sides with the 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement, the Congress Party decided to bring out a new Tamil daily – India, edited by renowned poet Subramania Bharati. India showed great promise but could not establish itself financially, and folded up soon after Bharati was exiled to Pondicherry. All these papers were published from Madras.

In 1933, the first Tamil tabloid – the 8 page Jayabharati began at a price of1⁄4anna. It closed in 1940 as the price could not sustain even its postage.

In September 1934,S. Sadanand(who was runningThe Free Press Journal) started the Tamil daily Dinamani with T.S. Chockalingam as editor. It was priced at 6 pies, contained bright features and was fearlessly critical. It was highly successful and its circulation eclipsed the total circulation of all other Tamil dailies. Soon 'India' was incorporated into Dinamani. Dinamani made a studied and conscious effort to make the contents of a newspaper intelligible even to the newly literate. In 1935,Viduthalaiwas begun, but it was more of a views-paper than a newspaper. The Non-Brahman Movement also gave an impetus to Tamil journalism. Newspapers like theBharat Deviwere strong supporters of this movement.

Many magazines began in Tamil Nadu during the 1920s and '30s. The humour magazine Ananda Vikatan started by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists. It is still running successfully after 80 years and the Vikatan group today also publishes Chutti Vikatan, Junior Vikatan, Motor Vikatan and other special interest magazines. R. Krishnamurthy serialised his short stories and novels in Ananda Vikatan and eventually started his own weekly Kalki. The name Kalki denotes the impending tenth Avatar of Lord Vishnu in the Hindu religion, who it is said, will bring to an end the Kali Yuga and reinstate Dharma or righteousness among the worldly beings. He used the name because he wanted to bring about liberation of India.

In 1942,Dina Thanthi(Daily Telegraph) was started in Madurai with simultaneous editions in Madras, Salem and Tiruchirappalli. It was founded by S.P. Adithanar, a lawyer trained in Britain. He modeled Thanthi on the style of an English tabloid- The Daily Mirror. He aimed to bring out a newspaper that ordinary people would read, and which would encourage a reading habit even among the newly literate. In the past, the daily newspaper which was printed in Madras reached the southern Tamil region after at least one day. Thanthi used the public bus system to distribute the paper throughout the south Tamil region and capitalized on the hunger for war news that arose after Singapore fell to the Japanese. Due to financial constraints, its Salem and Tiruchirappalli editions had to be closed down for a while. Thanthi emphasized local news, especially crime and the courts. It used photographs extensively and brought banner headlines to Tamil journalism. It could fit one story on an entire broadsheet page, mainly filled with large easy-to-read headlines. One of its biggest scoops was the murder of the editor of a scandalous film magazine by two actors. Thanthi covered the trial in Madras in detail, and its reporters phoned the daily account to the printing centre in Madurai. Thanthi was the first Tamil paper to understand the people’s fascination with crime and film stars. The paper was popular and it was said that Tamils learned to read in order to read the newspaper.

Dina Thanthi became one of the largest Tamil language dailies by circulation within a few years; it has been a leading Tamil daily since the 1960s. It has today 14 editions. It is the highest circulated Tamil daily in Bangalore and Pondicherry. It issues a book called 10th, +2 Vina Vidai Book, on every Wednesday during the second part of the year. The model question papers of all the subjects of Standard 10 and 12 are provided with answers along with the question papers of board exams that are conducted previous year.

Tamil Novels Writers Name

The rise of theInternethas triggered a dramatic growth in the number of Tamilblogsand specialist portals catering to political and social issues.Tamil literature is even available in the form of e-books. Tamil literature boasts a rich tradition of novel writing, with many talented authors contributing to the literary landscape. Here are ten prominent Tamil novel writers:

1. **Kalki Krishnamurthy(1899–1954):** Renowned for historical novels like "Ponniyin Selvan," Kalki is considered a pioneer in Tamil literature.

2. **S.Ramakrishnan(1937–):** Known for his realistic portrayal of social issues, Ramakrishnan has penned impactful novels such as "Oru Manithanin Kathai."

3. **Jayakanthan(1934–2015):** A prolific writer and Sahitya Akademi Award winner, Jayakanthan explored various themes in his novels, including social and existential issues.

4. **Akilan(1922–1988):** Famous for historical novels like "Chitralekha" and "Vengayin Maindhan," Akilan made significant contributions to Tamil literature.

5. **R. K. Narayan(1906–2001):** Though born in Madras (now Chennai), R. K. Narayan wrote in English. His works, such as "Malgudi Days," have left an indelible mark on Indian literature.

6. **Vaikom Muhammad Basheer(1908–1994):** Another author who wrote in Malayalam but had a significant impact on Tamil literature, Basheer's works often explored social issues and human relationships.

7. **C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972):** A multifaceted personality, Rajagopalachari, also known as Rajaji, was a statesman, politician, and writer. His novel "Chandralekha" gained popularity.

8. **Pudhumaipithan (1906–1948):** An influential short story writer, Pudhumaipithan also made notable contributions toTamil novels,exploring social and psychological themes.

9. **Sivasankari (1942–):** With a focus on women's issues, Sivasankari has authored numerous novels like "Paalangal" and "Piriyatha Varam Vendum."

10. **R. Chudamani (1941–):** Known for her novels exploring the lives of women in rural Tamil Nadu, Chudamani has made a significant impact on contemporary Tamil literature.

These writers have played a crucial role in shaping Tamil literature through their diverse themes and narrative styles.

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See also

• Project Madurai:open access Tamil literature repository
• List of Tamil poets
• Sri Lankan Tamil Literature
• Tamil Heritage Foundation,digitalization of ancient Tamil literature
• Tamil historical novels
• Tamil mythology
• Legal status of Tamil
• § Dalit literature in Tamil

Further reading

• Neild, S. (1968).A Select Bibliography of Books and Articles on Tamil Literature in English.Mahfil,4(3/4), pp. 107–112

References

• Hart, George L. (1975).The poems of ancient Tamil: their milieu and their Sanskrit counterparts.Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN0-520-02672-1.
• Majumdar, R. C. (1987).Ancient India.India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications.ISBN81-208-0436-8.
• Muthiah, S. (23 July 2003)."The beginning of Tamil journalism".The Hindu.Archived from the original on 19 August 2003.Retrieved23 May2006.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
• Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (2000).A History of South India.New Delhi: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-560686-8.
• Nilakanta Sastri, K. A.; Srinivasachari, G. (2000).Advanced History of India.New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd.
• Viswanathan, S. (13–26 August 2005)."Portrait of a novelist as a social reformer".Frontline.22(17). Archived from the original on 30 November 2006.Retrieved23 May2006.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
• Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1973).The smile of Murugan: on Tamil literature of South India.Leiden: Brill.ISBN90-04-03591-5.
• Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1974). Jan Gonda (ed.).Tamil Literature.A History of Indian Literature. Vol. X. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.ISBN3447015829.

External links

• தமிழ் இலக்கியம் – A repository of Tamil Literature
• Largest Collections of Tamil Literature Articles
• Tamil Literature Collection – தமிழ் மொழி ஆர்வலர்களுக்காகArchived22 October 2016 at theWayback Machine
• Tamil Language & Literature
• KALANJIYAM - Tamil Journal