Wikipedia

New York Herald Tribune

(Redirected fromThe New York Herald-Tribune)
This article is about the New York City newspaper (1924–1966). For the international newspaper (1967–2013) that was originally known as the Paris Herald Tribune, seeInternational Herald Tribune.
Not to be confused withNew York HeraldorNew York Tribune.

TheNew York Herald Tribunewas a newspaper published between 1924 and 1966. It was created in 1924 whenOgden Mills Reidof theNew York Tribuneacquired theNew York Herald.It was regarded as a "writer's newspaper"[2]and competed withThe New York Timesin the daily morning market.[3]The paper won twelvePulitzer Prizesduring its lifetime.[a]

New York Herald Tribune
New York Herald Tribunecover on May 7, 1937, covering theHindenburgdisaster
Owner(s)
Founder(s)
Publisher
FoundedMarch 19, 1924 (asNew York Herald New York Tribune)(March 19, 1924 (asNew York Herald New York Tribune))
Political alignmentRockefeller Republican
LanguageEnglish
Ceased publication
  • April 24, 1966 (final edition)
  • August 15, 1966 (paper discontinued during strike)
HeadquartersNew York City,New York,U.S.
CountryUnited States
Circulation412,000 Daily (1962)[1]
Sister newspapersInternational Herald Tribune
ISSN1941-0646
OCLCnumber9405828

A "Republican paper, a Protestant paper and a paper more representative of the suburbs than the ethnic mix of the city", according to one later reporter,[2]theTribunegenerally did not match the comprehensiveness ofThe New York Times'coverage. Its national, international and business coverage, however, was generally viewed as among the best in the industry, as was its overall style.[5]At one time or another, the paper's writers includedDorothy Thompson,Red Smith,Roger Kahn,Richard Watts Jr.,Homer Bigart,Walter Kerr,Walter Lippmann,St. Clair McKelway,Judith Crist,Dick Schaap,Tom Wolfe,John Steinbeck,andJimmy Breslin.Editorially, the newspaper was the voice for eastern Republicans, later referred to asRockefeller Republicans,and espoused a pro-business, internationalist viewpoint.

The paper, first owned by the Reid family, struggled financially for most of its life and rarely generated enough profit for growth or capital improvements; the Reids subsidized theHerald Tribunethrough the paper's early years. However, it enjoyed prosperity duringWorld War IIand by the end of the conflict had pulled close to theTimesin ad revenue. A series of disastrous business decisions, combined with aggressive competition from theTimesand poor leadership from the Reid family, left theHerald Tribunefar behind its rival.

In 1958, the Reids sold theHerald TribunetoJohn Hay Whitney,a multimillionaire Wall Street investor who was serving as ambassador to the United Kingdom at the time. Under his leadership, theTribuneexperimented with new layouts and new approaches to reporting the news and made important contributions to the body ofNew Journalismthat developed in the 1960s. The paper steadily revived under Whitney, but a114-day newspaper strikestopped theHerald Tribune's gains and ushered in four years of strife with labor unions, particularly the local chapter of theInternational Typographical Union.Faced with mounting losses, Whitney attempted to merge theHerald Tribunewith theNew York World-Telegramand theNew York Journal-Americanin the spring of 1966; the proposed merger led to another lengthy strike, and on August 15, 1966, Whitney announced the closure of theHerald Tribune.Combined with investments in theWorld Journal Tribune,Whitney spent $39.5 million (equivalent to $370,710,006 in 2023 dollars[6]) in his attempts to keep the newspaper alive.[7]

After theNew York Herald Tribuneclosed, theTimesandThe Washington Post,joined by Whitney, entered an agreement to operate theInternational Herald Tribune,the paper's former Paris publication. By 1967, the paper was owned jointly by Whitney Communications,The Washington PostandThe New York Times.TheInternational Herald Tribune,also known as the "IHT", ceased publication in 2013.[8]

Origins: 1835–1924

edit

New York Herald

edit
Main article:New York Herald
James Gordon Bennett Sr., founder of theNew York Herald.

TheNew York Heraldwas founded on May 6, 1835, byJames Gordon Bennett,a Scottish immigrant who came to the United States aged 24.[9]Bennett, a firmDemocrat,had established a name in the newspaper business in the 1820s with dispatches sent from Washington, D.C., to the New YorkEnquirer,most sharply critical of PresidentJohn Quincy Adamsand Secretary of StateHenry Clay;one historian called Bennett "the first real Washington reporter".[10]Bennett was also a pioneer in crime reporting; while writing about a murder trial in 1830, the attorney general of Massachusetts attempted to restrict the coverage of the newspapers: Bennett criticized the move as an "old, worm-eaten, Gothic dogma of the Court...to consider the publicity given to every event by the Press, as destructive to the interests of law and justice".[11]The fight over access eventually overshadowed the trial itself.[11]

Bennett founded theNew York Globein 1832 to promote the re-election ofAndrew Jacksonto theWhite House,but the paper quickly folded after the election. After a few years of journalistic piecework, he founded theHeraldin 1835 as apenny newspaper,similar in some respects toBenjamin Day'sSunbut with a strong emphasis on crime and financial coverage; theHerald"carried the most authentic and thorough list of market prices published anywhere; for these alone it commanded attention in financial circles".[12]Bennett, who wrote much of the newspaper himself, "perfected the fresh, pointed prose practiced in the French press at its best".[12]The publisher's coverage of the 1836 murder ofHelen Jewett—which, for the first time in the American press, included excerpts from the murder victim's correspondence—made Bennett "the best known, if most notorious…journalist in the country".[13]

Bennett put his profits back into his newspaper, establishing a Washington bureau and recruiting correspondents in Europe to provide the "first systematic foreign coverage" in an American newspaper.[14]By 1839, theHerald's circulation exceeded that ofThe London Times.[15]When theMexican–American Warbroke out in 1846, theHeraldassigned a reporter to the conflict—the only newspaper in New York to do so—and used thetelegraph,then a new technology, to not only beat competitors with news but provide Washington policymakers with the first reports from the conflict.[16]During theAmerican Civil War,Bennett kept at least 24 correspondents in the field, opened a Southern desk and had reporters comb the hospitals to develop lists of casualties and deliver messages from the wounded to their families.[17]

New-York Tribune

edit
Main article:New-York Tribune
Horace Greeley, editor and publisher of theNew-York Tribune

TheNew-York Tribunewas founded byHorace Greeleyin 1841. Greeley, a native ofNew Hampshire,had begun publishing a weekly paper calledThe New-Yorker(unrelated to themagazine of the same name) in 1834, which won attention for its political reporting and editorials.[18]Joining theWhig Party,Greeley publishedThe Jeffersonian,which helped electWilliam H. SewardGovernor ofNew York Statein 1838, and then theLog Cabin,which advocated for the election ofWilliam Henry Harrisonin the1840 presidential election,attained a circulation of 80,000 and turned a small profit.[19]

With Whigs in power, Greeley saw the opportunity to launch a daily penny newspaper for their constituency. TheNew-York Tribunelaunched on April 10, 1841. Unlike theHeraldor theSun,it generally shied about from graphic crime coverage;[20]Greeley saw his newspaper as having a moral mission to uplift society, and frequently focused his energies on the newspaper's editorials— "weapons…in a ceaseless war to improve society"[21]—and political coverage. While a lifelong opponent of slavery and, for time, a proponent ofsocialism,[22]Greeley's attitudes were never exactly fixed: "The result was a potpourri of philosophical inconsistencies and contradictions that undermined Greeley's effectiveness as both logician and polemicist."[23]However, his moralism appealed to rural America; with six months of beginning theTribune,Greeley combinedThe New-YorkerandThe Log Cabininto a new publication, theWeekly Tribune.The weekly version circulated nationwide, serving as a digest of news melded with agriculture tips. Offering prizes like strawberry plants and gold pens to salesmen, theWeekly Tribunereached a circulation of 50,000 within 10 years, outpacing theHerald's weekly edition.[24]

The Tribune's ranks includedHenry Raymond,who later foundedThe New York Times,andCharles Dana,who would later edit and partly ownThe Sunfor nearly three decades. Dana served as second-in-command to Greeley, but Greeley abruptly fired him in 1862, after years of personality conflicts between the two men.[25]Raymond, who felt he was "overused and underpaid" as a reporter on the Tribune staff, later served in the New York State Assembly and, with the backing of bankers in Albany, founded theTimesin 1851, which quickly became a rival for the Whig readership that Greeley cultivated.[26]

After theCivil War,Bennett turned over daily operations of theHeraldto his sonJames Gordon Bennett Jr.,and lived in seclusion until his death in 1872.[27]That year, Greeley, who had been an early supporter of theRepublican Party,had called for reconciliation of North and South following the war and criticizedRadical Reconstruction.Gradually becoming disenchanted withUlysses S. Grant,Greeley became the surprise nominee of theLiberal Republicanfaction of the party (and the Democrats) in the1872 presidential election.The editor had left daily operations of theTribuneto his protege,Whitelaw Reid;he attempted to resume his job after the election, but was badly hurt by a piece (intended humorously) that said Greeley's defeat would chase political office seekers from theTribuneand allow the staff to "manage our own newspaper without being called aside every hour to help lazy people whom we don't know and…benefit people who don't deserve assistance".[28]The piece was widely (and incorrectly) attributed to Greeley as a sign of bitterness at the outcome; Reid refused to print Greeley's furious disclaimer of the story, and by the end of the month, Greeley had died.[29]

Decline under second generation

edit
James Gordon Bennett Jr., publisher of theNew York Heraldfrom 1866 to 1918.

Both newspapers went into gradual decline under their new proprietors. James Gordon Bennett Jr.— "a swaggering, precociously dissolute lout who rarely stifled an impulse"[30]—had a mercurial reign. He launched theNew York Telegram,an evening paper, in the late 1860s[27]and kept theHeraldthe most comprehensive source of news among the city's newspapers. Bennett also bankrolledHenry Morton Stanley's trek through Africa to findDavid Livingstone,[31]and scooped the competition on theBattle of Little Big Horn.[31]However, Bennett ruled his paper with a heavy hand, telling his executives at one point that he was the "only reader of this paper": "I am the only one to be pleased. If I want it turned upside down, it must be turned upside down. I want one feature article a day. If I say the feature is black beetles, black beetles it's going to be."[32]In 1874, theHeraldran the infamousNew York Zoo hoax,where the front page of the newspaper was devoted entirely to a fabricated story of animals getting loose at theCentral Park Zoo.[33]

Whitelaw Reid, owner of theNew-York Tribunefrom 1873 to 1912.

Whitelaw Reid, who won control of theTribunein part due to the likely assistance of financierJay Gould,[34]turned the newspaper into an orthodox Republican organ, wearing "its stubborn editorial and typographical conservatism…as a badge of honor".[35]Reid's hostility to labor led him to bankrollOttmar Mergenthaler's development of thelinotype machinein 1886, which quickly spread throughout the industry.[36]However, his day-to-day involvement in the operations of theTribunedeclined after 1888, when he was appointed Minister to France and largely focused on his political career; Reid even missed a large-scale 50th anniversary party for theTribunein 1891.[37]Despite this, the paper remained profitable due to an educated and wealthy readership that attracted advertisers.[38]

TheHeraldwas the largest circulation newspaper in New York City until 1884.Joseph Pulitzer,who came from St. Louis and purchased theNew York Worldin 1882, aggressively marketed a mix of crime stories and social reform editorials to a predominantly immigrant audience, and saw his circulation quickly surpass those of more established publishers.[39]Bennett, who had moved permanently to Paris in 1877 after publicly urinating in the fireplace or piano of his fiancée's parents (the exact location differed in witnesses' memories)[33]spent theHerald's still sizable profits on his own lifestyle, and the Herald's circulation stagnated.[40]Bennett respected Pulitzer, and even ran an editorial praising the publisher ofThe Worldafter health problems forced him to relinquish the editorship of the paper in 1890.[41]However, he despisedWilliam Randolph Hearst,who purchased theNew York Journalin 1895 and attempted to ape Pulitzer's methods in a more sensationalistic manner. The challenge ofThe Worldand theJournalspurred Bennett to revitalize the paper; theHeraldcompeted keenly with both papers during coverage of theSpanish–American War,providing "the soundest, fairest coverage…(of) any American newspaper", sending circulation over 500,000.[42]

TheTribunelargely relied on wire copy for its coverage of the conflict.[42]Reid, who helped negotiate the treaty that ended the war[43]had by 1901 become completely disengaged from theTribune's daily operations. The paper was no longer profitable, and the Reids largely viewed the paper as a "private charity case".[43]By 1908, theTribunewas losing $2,000 a week. In an article about New York City's daily newspapers that year,The Atlantic Monthlyfound the newspaper's "financial pages… execrable, its news columns readable but utterly commonplace, and its rubber-stamping of Republican policies (making) it the last sheet in town operated as a servant of party machinery".[44]

TheHeraldalso saw its reputation for comprehensiveness challenged by theTimes,purchased byChattanooga TimespublisherAdolph Ochsin 1896, a few weeks before the paper would have likely closed its doors.[45]Ochs, turning the once-RepublicanTimes[46]into an independent Democratic newspaper,[47]refocused the newspaper's coverage on commerce, quickly developing a reputation as the "businessman's bible".[48]When theTimesbegan turning a profit in 1899, Ochs began reinvesting the profits make into the newspaper toward news coverage, quickly giving theTimesthe reputation as the most complete newspaper in the city.[49]Bennett, who viewed theHeraldas a means of supporting his lifestyle, did not make serious moves to expand the newspaper's newsgathering operations, and allowed the paper's circulation to fall well below 100,000 by 1912.[50]

Revival of theTribune,fall of theHerald

edit
Helen Rogers ReidandOgden Mills Reid,c. 1920

TheHeraldsuffered a fatal blow in 1907. Bennett, his hatred for theJournalowner unabated, attacked Hearst's campaigns for Congress in 1902, and his run for governor of New York in 1906. TheHerald's coverage of Hearst's gubernatorial campaign was particularly vicious, as Bennett ordered his reporters to publish every negative item about Hearst's past that they could.[51]Hearst, seeking revenge, sent a reporter to investigate theHerald's personal columns, which ran in the front of the paper and, in veiled language, advertised the service of prostitutes; reporters referred to it as "The Whores' Daily Guide and Handy Compendium."[52][53]The resulting investigation, published in theJournal,led to Bennett's conviction on charges of sending obscene matter through the mails. The publisher was ordered to pay a $25,000 fine—Bennett paid it in $1,000 bills[54]—and theHerald"suffered a blow in prestige and circulation from which it never really recovered".[55]

Whitelaw Reid died in 1912 and was succeeded as publisher by his son,Ogden Mills Reid.The younger Reid, an "affable but lackluster person,"[56]began working at theTribunein 1908 as a reporter and won the loyalty of the staff with his good nature and eagerness to learn.[57]Quickly moved through the ranks—he became managing editor in 1912—Reid oversaw theTribune's thorough coverage of the sinking of theTitanic,[58]ushering a revival of the newspaper's fortunes. While the paper continued to lose money, and was saved from bankruptcy only by the generosity of Elisabeth Mills Reid, Ogden's mother.,[59]the younger Reid encouraged light touches at the previously somberTribune,creating an environment where "the windows were opened and the suffocating solemnity of the place was aired out".[59]Under Reid's tenure theTribunelobbied for legal protection for journalists culminating in theU.S. Supreme CourtcaseBurdick v. United States.[60]In 1917, theTribuneredesigned its layout and became the first American newspaper to use theBodonifont for headlines. The font gave a "decided elegance" to theTribuneand was soon adopted by magazines and other newspapers, includingThe Washington Post,The Boston Globeand theMiami Herald.TheTribunedeveloped a reputation for typographical excellence it would maintain for more than four decades.[61]Reid, who inherited a newspaper whose circulation may have fallen to 25,000 daily—no higher than the circulation in 1872[59]—saw theTribune'sreadership jump to about 130,000 by 1924.[62]

Reid's wife,Helen Rogers Reid,took charge of the newspaper's advertising department in 1919. Helen Reid, "who believed in the newspaper the way a religious person believes in God",[63]reorganized the faltering department, aggressively pursuing advertisers and selling them on the "wealth, position and power" of theTribune's readership.[64]In her first two years on the job, theTribune's annual advertising revenues jumped from $1.7 million to $4.3 million, "with circulation responsible for no more than 10 percent of the increase".[65]Reid's efforts helped cut the newspaper's dependence on subsidies from the family fortune and pushed it toward a paying track. Reid also encouraged the development of women's features at the newspaper, the hiring of female writers,[66]and helped establish a "home institute" that tested recipes and household products.[67]

TheHerald's decline continued in the new decade. With the outbreak of World War I, Bennett devoted most of his attention to theParis Herald,doing his first newspaper reporting at the age of 73 and keeping the publication alive despite wartime censorship.[68]The New York paper, however, was in freefall, and posted a loss in 1917. The next year, Bennett died, having taken some $30 million out of the lifetime profits of theHerald.[69]Two years later, theHeraldnewspapers were sold toFrank Munseyfor $3 million.[69]

Munsey had won the enmity of many journalists with his buying, selling and consolidation of newspapers, and theHeraldbecame part of Munsey's moves. The publisher merged the morningSun(which he had purchased in 1916) into theHeraldand attempted to revive the newspaper through his financial resources, hoping to establish theHeraldas the pre-eminent Republican newspaper within the city.[62]To achieve that end, he approached Elisabeth Mills Reid in early 1924 with a proposal to purchase theTribune—the only other Republican newspaper in New York—and merge it with theHerald.[70]The elder Reid refused to sell, saying only that she would buy theHerald.The two sides negotiated through the winter and spring. Munsey approached Ogden Reid with a proposal to swap the profitable eveningSunwith theTribune,which Reid refused.[71]The Reids countered with an offer of $5 million for theHeraldand theParis Herald,which Munsey agreed to on March 17, 1924.[72]

The move surprised the journalism community, which had expected Munsey to purchase theTribune.TheHeraldmanagement informed its staff of the sale in a brief note posted on a bulletin board; reading it, one reporter remarked "Jonah just swallowed the whale".[72]

The merged paper, which published its first edition on March 19, was named theNew York Herald New York Tribuneuntil May 31, 1926, when the more familiarNew York Herald Tribunewas substituted.[73]Apart from theHerald's radio magazine, weather listings and other features, "the merged paper was, with very few changes, theTribuneintact ".[74]Only 25Heraldreporters were hired after the merger; 600 people lost their jobs.[72]Within a year, the new paper's circulation reached 275,000.[74]

New York Herald Tribune:1924–1946

edit

1924–1940: Social journalism and mainstream Republicanism

edit
Stanley Walker,city editor of theNew York Herald Tribune,1928 to 1935.

The newly merged paper was not immediately profitable, but Helen Reid's reorganization of the business side of the paper, combined with an increasing reputation as a "newspaperman's newspaper", led theHerald Tribuneto post a profit of nearly $1.5 million in 1929, as circulation climbed over the 300,000 mark.[75]The onset of theGreat Depression,however, wiped out the profits. In 1931, theHerald Tribunelost $650,000 (equivalent to approximately $14,515,610 in 2023 dollars[6]), and the Reid family was once again forced to subsidize the newspaper. By 1933, theHerald Tribuneturned a profit of $300,000, and would stay in the black for the next 20 years, without ever making enough money for significant growth or reinvestment.[76]

Through the 1930s Ogden Reid often stayed late at Bleeck's, a popular hangout forHerald Tribunereporters.;[77]by 1945,Tribunehistorian Richard Kluger wrote, Reid was struggling withalcoholism.[78]The staff considered theHerald Tribune's owner "kindly and likable, if deficient in intelligence and enterprise".[79]Helen Reid increasingly took on the major leadership responsibilities at the newspaper—a factTimenoted in a 1934 cover story. Reid, angered, called her husband "the most independent-minded man I have ever met", to whichTimereplied that "it is Mrs. Reid who often helps that independent mind make itself up".[80]

Editorially, the newspaper thrived, winning its first Pulitzer Prize for reporting in 1930 forLeland Stowe's coverage of the Second Reparations Conference onGerman reparations for World War I,where theYoung Planwas developed.[81]Stanley Walker,who became the newspaper's city editor in 1928, pushed his staff (which briefly includedJoseph Mitchell)to write in a clear, lively style, and pushed theHerald Tribune's local coverage "to a new kind of social journalism that aimed at capturing the temper and feel of the city, its moods and fancies, changes or premonitions of change in its manners, customs, taste, and thought—daily helpings of what amounted to urban anthropology".[82]TheHerald Tribune's editorials remained conservative— "a spokesman for and guardian of mainstream Republicanism"[83]—but the newspaper also hired columnistWalter Lippmann,seen at the time as a liberal, afterThe Worldclosed its doors in 1931.[84]Unlike other pro-Republican papers, such as Hearst'sNew York Journal-Americanor theChicago Tribune-ownedNew York Daily News,which held an isolationist and pro-German stance, theHerald Tribunewas more supportive of the British and the French as the specter ofWorld War IIdeveloped, a similar stance was approached by theSunand theWorld-Telegram,the latter of them also having an ardently liberal past as a Pulitzer newspaper.

Financially, the paper continued to stay out of the red, but long-term trouble was on the horizon. After Elisabeth Mills Reid died in 1931—after having given the paper $15 million over her lifetime—it was discovered that the elder Reid had treated the subsidies as loans, not capital investments. The notes on the paper were willed to Ogden Reid and his sister, Lady Jean Templeton Reid Ward. The notes amounted to amortgageon theHerald Tribune,which prevented the newspaper from acquiring bank loans or securing public financing. Financial advisors at the newspaper advised the Reids to convert the notes intoequity,which the family resisted. This decision would play a major role in the Reids' sale of theHerald Tribunein 1958.[85]

Seeking to cut costs during theRecession of 1937,the newspaper's management decided to consolidate its foreign coverage under Laurence Hills, who had been appointed editor of theParis Heraldby Frank Munsey in 1920 and kept the paper profitable.[86]But Hills hadfascistsympathies—theParis Heraldwas alone among American newspapers in having "ad columns sprout(ing) with swastikas andfasces[87]—and was more interested in cutting costs than producing journalism. "It is no longer the desire even to attempt to run parallel withThe New York Timesin special dispatches from Europe, "Hills wrote in a memo to theHerald Tribune's foreign bureaus in late 1937. "Crisp cables of human interest or humorous type cables are greatly appreciated. Big beats in Europe these days are not very likely."[88]The policy effectively led theHerald Tribuneto surrender the edge in foreign reporting to its rival.[89]

TheHerald Tribunestrongly supportedWendell Willkiefor the Republican nomination in the1940 presidential election;Willkie's managers made sure the newspaper's endorsement was placed in each delegate's seat at the1940 Republican National Convention.[90]TheHerald Tribunecontinued to provide a strong voice for Willkie (who was having an affair with literary editorIrita Van Doren)[91]through the election.Dorothy Thompson,then a columnist at the paper, openly supportedFranklin Roosevelt's re-election and was eventually forced to resign.[92]

World War II

edit
The front page of theNew York Herald Tribuneon June 7, 1944, showing theD-Daylandings on June 6.

Historians ofThe New York Times—includingGay Talese,Susan Tifft and Alex S. Jones—have argued that theTimes,faced with newsprint rationing during World War II, decided to increase its news coverage at the expense of its advertising, while theHerald Tribunechose to run more ads, trading short-term profit for long-term difficulties. InThe Kingdom and the Power,Talese's 1969 book about theTimes,Talese wrote "the additional space thatThe Timeswas able to devote to war coverage instead of advertising was, in the long run, a very profitable decision:The Timeslured many readers away from theTribune,and these readers stayed withThe Timesafter the war into the Nineteen-fifties and Sixties ".[93]AlthoughThe New York Timeshad the most comprehensive coverage of any American newspaper—the newspaper put 55 correspondents in the field, including drama criticBrooks Atkinson[94]—its news budget fell from $3.8 million in 1940 to $3.7 million in 1944; the paper did not significantly expand its number of newsroom employees between 1937 and 1945[95][96]and its ad space, far from declining, actually increased during the conflict and was consistently ahead of theHerald Tribune's. Between 1941 and 1945, advertising space in theTimesincreased from 42.58 percent of the paper to 49.68 percent, while theTribunesaw its ad space increase from 37.58 percent to 49.32 percent. In 1943 and 1944, more than half theTimes'went to advertising, a percentage theHerald Tribunedid not meet until after the war.[97]However, because theTribunewas generally a smaller paper than theTimesand saw its ad space jump more, "theproportionateincrease in theTribuneseemed greater than it was in absolute terms. The evidence that this disproportionate increase in theTribune's advertising content left its readers feeling deprived of war news coverage and sent them in droves to theTimesis, at best, highly ambiguous. "[98]

TheHerald Tribunealways had at least a dozen correspondents in the field,[99]the most famous of whom wasHomer Bigart.Allowing wire services to write "big picture" stories, Bigart—who covered theAnzio Campaign,theBattle of Iwo Jimaand theBattle of Okinawa—focused instead on writing abouttacticaloperations conducted by small units and individual soldiers, in order to "bring a dimension of reality and understanding to readers back home".[100]Frequently risking his life to get the stories, Bigart was highly valued by his peers and the military, and won the 1945 Pulitzer Prize.[101]

By the end of the conflict, theHerald Tribunehad enjoyed some of its best financial years in its history. While the newspaper had just 63 percent of its rival's daily circulation (and 70 percent of the Sunday circulation ofThe Times), its high-income readership gave the paper nearly 85 percent ofThe New York Times'overall ad revenue, and had made $2 million a year between 1942 and 1945.[102]In 1946, theHerald Tribune's Sunday circulation hit an all-time peak of 708,754.[98]

Decline: 1947–1958

edit

Pressure from theTimes

edit
Ogden "Brown" Reid (seen here after his election to Congress) was the last member of his family to lead theNew York Herald Tribune.

TheHerald Tribunebegan a decline shortly after World War II that had several causes. The Reid family was long accustomed to resolve shortfalls at the newspaper with subsidies from their fortune, rather than improved business practices, seeing the paper "as a hereditary possession to be sustained as a public duty rather than developed as a profit-making opportunity".[103]With its generally marginal profitability, theHerald Tribunehad few opportunities to reinvest in its operations as theTimesdid, and the Reids' mortgage on the newspaper made it difficult to raise outside cash for needed capital improvements.

After another profitable year in 1946, Bill Robinson, theHerald Tribune's business manager, decided to reinvest the profits to make needed upgrades to the newspaper's pressroom. The investment squeezed the paper's resources, and Robinson decided to make up the difference at the end of the year by raising theTribune's price from three cents to anickel,expecting theTimes,which also needed to upgrade its facilities, to do the same.[104]However, theTimes,concerned by theTribune's performance during the war, refused to go along. "We didn't want to give them any quarter,"Timescirculation manager Nathan Goldstein said. "Our numbers were on the rise, and we didn't want to do anything to jeopardize them. 'No free rides for the competition' was the way we looked at it."[104]The move proved disastrous: In 1947, theTribune's daily circulation fell nine percent, from 348,626 to 319,867.[98]Its Sunday circulation fell four percent, from 708,754 to 680,691. Although the overall percentage of advertising for the paper was higher than it was in 1947, theTimeswas still higher: 58 percent of the average space inThe New York Timesin 1947 was devoted to advertising, versus a little over 50 percent of theTribune.[98]TheTimeswould not raise its price until 1950.[105]

Ogden Reid died early in 1947, making Helen Reid leader of theTribunein name as well as in fact.[106]Reid chose her son,Whitelaw Reid,known as "Whitie", as editor.[107]The younger Reid had written for the newspaper and done creditable work covering theLondon Blitz,[108]but had not been trained for the duties of his position and was unable to provide forceful leadership for the newspaper.[109]TheTribunealso failed to keep pace with theTimesin its facilities: While both papers had about the same level of profits between 1947 and 1950, theTimeswas heavily reinvesting money in its plant and hiring new employees.[110]TheTribune,meanwhile, with Helen Reid's approval, cut $1 million from its budgets and fired 25 employees on the news side, reducing its foreign and crime coverage.[111]Robinson was dismissive of the circulation lead of theTimes,saying in a 1948 memo that 75,000 of its rival's readers were "transients" who only read the wanted ads.[110]

TheTimesalso began to push theTribunehard in suburbs, where theTribunehad previously enjoyed a commanding lead. At the urging of Goldstein,Timeseditors added features to appeal to commuters, expanded (and in some cases subsidized) home delivery, and paid retail display allowances— "kickbacks, in common parlance" —to theAmerican News Company,the controller of many commuter newsstands, to achieve prominent display.[112]Tribuneexecutives were not blind to the challenge, but the economy drive at the paper undercut efforts to adequately compete. The newspaper fell into the red in 1951. TheHerald Tribune's losses reached $700,000 in 1953, and Robinson resigned late that year.[113][114]

Leadership changes

edit

The paper distinguished itself in its coverage of theKorean War;Bigart andMarguerite Higgins,who engaged in a fierce rivalry, shared a Pulitzer Prize withChicago Daily Newscorrespondent Keyes Beech and three other reporters in 1951.[115]TheTribune's cultural criticism was also prominent:John Crosby'sradio and television column was syndicated in 29 newspapers by 1949,[116]andWalter Kerrbegan a successful three-decade career as aBroadwayreviewer at theTribunein 1951.[117]However, the paper's losses were continuing to mount. Whitelaw Reid was gradually replaced by his brother,Ogden R. Reid,nicknamed "Brown", to take charge of the paper. As president and publisher of the paper, Brown Reid tried to interject an energy his brother lacked and reach out to new audiences. In that spirit, theTribuneran a promotion called "Tangle Towns", where readers were invited to unscramble the names of jumbled up town and city names in exchange for prizes.[118]Reid also gave more prominent play to crime and entertainment stories. Much of the staff, including Whitelaw Reid, felt there was too much focus on circulation at the expense of the paper's editorial standards, but the promotions initially worked, boosting its weekday circulation to over 400,000.[119]

Reid's ideas, however, "were prosaic in the extreme".[120]His promotions included printing the sports section on green newsprint[121]and a pocket-sized magazine for television listings that initially stopped the Sunday paper's circulation skid, but proved an empty product.[122]TheTribuneturned a profit in 1956, but theTimeswas rapidly outpacing it in news content, circulation, and ad revenue.[123]The promotions largely failed to hold on to theTribune's new audiences; the Sunday edition began to slide again and the paper fell into the red in 1957.[124]Through the decade, theTribunewas the only newspaper in the city to see its share of ad lineage drop,[125]and longtime veterans of the paper, including Bigart, began departing. The Reids, who had by now turned their mortgage into stock, began seeking buyers to infuse theTribunewith cash, turning toJohn Hay "Jock" Whitney,whose family had a long association with the Reids.[126]Whitney, recently named ambassador to Great Britain, had chairedDwight Eisenhower's fundraising campaigns in 1952 and 1956 and was looking for something else to engage him beyond his largely ceremonial role in Great Britain.[127]Whitney, who "did not want theTribuneto die ",[128]gave the newspaper $1.2 million over the objections of his investment advisors, who had doubts about the newspaper's viability.[129]The loan came with the option to takecontrolling interestof the newspaper if he made a second loan of $1.3 million.[129]Brown Reid expected the $1.2 million to cover a deficit that would last through the end of 1958, but by that year the newspaper's loss was projected at $3 million,[130]and Whitney and his advisors decided to exercise their option. The Reids, claiming to have put $20 million into the newspaper since the 1924 merger[131]initially attempted to keep editorial control of the paper, but Whitney made it clear he would not invest additional money in theTribuneif the Reids remained at the helm.[132]The family yielded, and Helen, Whitie and Brown Reid announced Whitney's takeover of the newspaper on August 28, 1958.[133]The Reids retained a substantial stake in theTribuneuntil its demise, but Whitney and his advisors controlled the paper.

The Whitney Era: 1958–1966

edit

"Who says a good newspaper has to be dull?"

edit

Whitney initially left management of the newspaper to Walter Thayer, a longtime advisor. Thayer did not believe theTribunewas a financial investment— "it was a matter of 'let's set it up so that (Whitney) can do it if this is what he wants"[127]—but moved to build a "hen house" of media properties to protect Whitney's investment and provide money for theTribune.Over the next two years, Whitney's firm acquiredParade,five television stations and four radio stations.[134]The properties, merged into a new company called Whitney Communications Corporation, proved profitable, but executives chafed at subsidizing theTribune.[135]

Thayer also looked for new leadership for the newspaper. In 1961—the same year Whitney returned to New York—theTribunehired John Denson, aNewsweekeditor and native of Louisiana who was "a critical mass of intensity and irascibility relieved by interludes of amiability."[136]Denson had helped raiseNewsweek'scirculation by 50 percent during his tenure, in part through innovative layouts and graphics,[137]and he brought the same approach to theTribune.Denson "swept away the old front-page architecture, essentially vertical in structure"[138]and laid out stories horizontally, with unorthodox and sometimes cryptic headlines; large photos and information boxes.[139]The "Densonized" front page sparked a mixed reaction from media professionals and within the newspaper—Tribunecopy editor John Price called it "silly but expert silliness" andTimecalled the new front page "all overblown pictures (and) klaxon headlines"[140]—but the newspaper's circulation jumped in 1961[141]and those within theTribunesaid "the alternative seemed to be the death of the newspaper."[142]TheTribunealso launched an ad campaign targeting theTimeswith the slogan "Who says a good newspaper has to be dull?"[143]

TheTribune's revival came as theTimeswas bringing on new leadership and facing financial trouble of its own. While theTimespicked up 220,000 readers during the 1950s,[144]its profits declined to $348,000 by 1960[145]due to the costs of an international edition and investments into the newspaper.[145]A western edition of the newspaper, launched in 1961 by new publisherOrvil Dryfoosin an attempt to build the paper's national audience, also proved to be a drain and theTimesprofits fell to $59,802 by the end of 1961.[146]While theTimesoutdistanced its rival in circulation and ad lineage, theTribunecontinued to draw a sizeable amount of advertising, due to its wealthy readership.[147]TheTimesmanagement watched theTribune's changes with "uneasy contempt for their debasement of classicTribunecraftmanship but also with grudging admiration for their catchiness and shrewdness. "Timesmanaging editorTurner Catledgebegan visiting the city room of his newspaper to read the early edition of theTribuneand sometimes responded with changes, though he ultimately decided Denson's approach would be unsuccessful.[148]But the financial challenges both papers faced led Dryfoos, Thayer, and previousTimespublisherArthur Hays Sulzbergerto discuss a possible merger of theTimesand theTribune,a project codenamed "Canada" at theTimes.[149][150]

Denson's approaches to the front page often required expensive work stoppages to redo the front page, which increased expenses and drew concern from Whitney and Thayer. Denson also had a heavy-handed approach to the newsroom that led some to question his stability, and led him to clash with Thayer.[151]Denson left theTribunein October 1962 after Thayer attempted to move the nightly lockup of the newspaper to managing editorJames Bellows.[152]But Denson's approach would continue at the paper. Daily circulation at theTribunereached an all-time high of 412,000 in November, 1962.[1]

Labor unrest, New Journalism

edit

The New York newspaper industry came to an abrupt halt on December 8, 1962, when the local of theInternational Typographical Union,led by Bert Powers, walked off the job, leading to the 114-day1962–63 New York City newspaper strike.The ITU, known as "Big Six", represented 3,800 printers, as well as workers at 600 printshops and 28 publications in the city[1]but, like other newspaper unions, had taken a backseat to theNewspaper Guild(which had the largest membership among the unions) in contract negotiations. This arrangement began to fray in the 1950s, as the craft unions felt the Guild was too inclined to accept publishers' offers without concern for those who did the manual work of printing.[153]Powers wanted to call a strike to challenge the Guild's leadership and thrust ITU to the fore.

New technology was also a concern for management and labor.Teletypesetting(TTS), introduced in the 1950s, was used byThe Wall Street Journaland promised to be far more efficient than thelinotype machinesstill used by theTribuneand most other New York newspapers.[154]TTS required less skill than the complex linotype machines, and publishers wanted to automate to save money. ITU was not necessarily opposed to TTS—it trained its members on the new equipment[154]—but wanted to control the rate at which automation occurred; assurances that TTS operators would be paid at the same rates as linotype workers; that at least a portion of the savings from publishers would go toward union pension plans (to allow funding to continue as the workforce and union membership declined) and guarantees that no printer would lose their job as a result of the new technology.[154]Publishers were willing to protect jobs and reduce the workforce through attrition, but balked at what they viewed as "tribute payments" to the unions. After nearly a five-month strike, the unions and the publishers reached an agreement in March, 1963—in which the unions won a weekly worker wage and benefit increase of $12.63 and largely forestalled automation—and the city's newspapers resumed publication on April 1, 1963.[155]

The strike added new costs to all newspapers, and increased theTribune's losses to $4.2 million while slashing its circulation to 282,000.[156]Dryfoos died of a heart ailment shortly after the strike and was replaced asTimespublisher byArthur Ochs Sulzberger,who ended merger talks with theTribunebecause "it just didn't make any long-term sense to me."[157]The paper also lost long-established talent, including Marguerite Higgins, Earl Mazo and Washington bureau chief Robert Donovan. Whitney, however, remained committed to theTribune,and promoted James Bellows to editor of the newspaper. Bellows kept Denson's format but "eliminated features that lacked substance or sparkle"[158]while promoting new talent, including movie criticJudith Cristand Washington columnistsRobert NovakandRowland Evans.

From 1963 until its demise, theTribunepublished a weekly magazine supplement titledBook Week;Susan Sontagpublished two early essays there.[159]TheTribunealso began experimenting with an approach to news that later was referred to as theNew Journalism.National editorDick Waldwrote in one memo "there is no mold for a newspaper story," and Bellows encouraged his reporters to work "in whatever style made them comfortable."[160]Tom Wolfe,who joined the paper after working atThe Washington Post,wrote lengthy features about city life; asking an editor how long his pieces should be, he received the reply "until it gets boring."[161]Bellows soon moved Wolfe to theTribune's new Sunday magazine,New York,edited byClay Felker.Bellows also prominently featuredJimmy Breslinin the columns of theTribune,as well as writerGail Sheehy.

Editorially, the newspaper remained in the liberal Republican camp, both strongly anti-communist, pro-business, and supportive of civil rights. In April 1963, theTribunepublished the "Letter from Birmingham Jail",written byMartin Luther King Jr..[162]TheTribunebecame a target ofBarry Goldwaterpartisans in the1964 presidential campaign.The leadership of theTribune,while agreeing with Goldwater's approach to national defense, believed he pushed it to an extreme, and strongly opposed Goldwater's voting record on civil rights.[163]After some internal debate, theTribuneendorsed DemocratLyndon Johnsonfor the presidency that fall.[163]The newspaper's editorial support also played a role in the election of New York City MayorJohn Lindsay,a liberal Republican, in 1965.[164]

Attempted JOA and the death of theTribune

edit

Whitney supported the changes at theTribunebut they did not help the newspaper's bottom line. A survey of readers of the newspaper in late 1963 found that readers "appreciated theTribune's innovations, (but) theTimesstill plainly ranked as the prestige paper in the New York field, based mostly on its completeness. "[165]Whitney himself was popular with the staff—Breslin called him "the only millionaire I ever rooted for"[166]—and once burst out of his office wondering why theTribunefailed to sell more copies when "there's compelling reading on every page."[167]But a second strike in 1965—which led theTribuneto leave the publishers' association in a desperate attempt to survive—pushed the Tribune's losses to $5 million and led Thayer to conclude the newspaper could no longer survive on its own.[168]

In 1966, Whitney and Thayer attempted to organize what would have been New York's firstjoint operating agreement(JOA) with theHearst-ownedNew York Journal Americanand theScripps-ownedNew York World-Telegram and Sun.Under the proposed agreement, theHerald Tribunewould have continued publication as the morning partner and theJournal-AmericanandWorld-Telegramwould merge as theWorld Journal,an afternoon paper. All three would publish a Sunday edition called theWorld Journal Tribune.[169]The newspapers would have maintained their own editorial voices (all three of which tended to be conservative). On paper, the JOA, which would have taken effect April 25, 1966, would have led to profits of $4 million to $5 million annually, but would have also led to the loss of 1,764 out of 4,598 employees at the papers.[170]TheNewspaper Guild,concerned about the possible job losses, said the new newspaper would have to negotiate a new contract with the union; the publishers refused.[171]The day the JOA was supposed to go into effect, the Guild struck the newly merged newspaper (theTimescontinued to publish).

The strike, which dragged into August, sealed theTribune's fate. Half the editorial staff left the newspaper for new jobs during the strike. That summer, Bellows wrote to Matt Meyer, the head of the new company, that it would be "almost impossible—with the present staff—to publish aHerald TribuneI would be proud to be the editor of, or be able to compete with successfully in the morning field. "On August 13, with the strike still going on, the management decided to end publication of theTribune,which Whitney announced in the ninth-floor auditorium of theTribunebuilding on August 15. "I know we gave something good to our city while we published and I know it will be a loss to journalism in this country as we cease publication," Whitney said. "I am glad that we never tried to cheapen it in any way, that we have served as a conscience and a valuable opposition. I am sorry that it had to end."[172]

The death of The New York Herald Tribune stills a voice that for a century and a quarter exerted a powerful influence in the affairs of nation, state and city. It was a competitor of ours, but a competitor that sought survival on the basis of quality, originality and integrity, rather than sensationalism or doctrinaire partisanship.
"Thirty for the Tribune,"The New York Times,August 16, 1966.[173]

TheTribune's demise hastened a settlement of the strike. Discontinued as a morning paper, theTribunename was added to the afternoon publication and on September 12, 1966, the newWorld Journal Tribunepublished its first issue. "It was not a bad paper, but it was a misbegotten thing" according toTribunehistorian Richard Kluger, and featured manyTribunewriters, including Wolfe, Breslin, Kerr and columnistDick Schaap,and incorporatedNew Yorkas its Sunday magazine. The first weeks' editions were dominated by the input of the Hearst and Scripps papers, but after a time, the "Widget" (as the merged publication was nicknamed) took on the appearance and style of the late-eraTribune.TheWorld Journal Tribunereached a circulation near 700,000—fourth-largest for American evening newspapers at the time—but had high overhead costs and relatively little advertising.[7]Whitney eventually withdrew support for the newspaper, but Scripps and Hearst continued to back it until the paper folded on May 5, 1967.[174]

Following the collapse of theWorld Journal Tribune,The New York TimesandThe Washington Postbecame joint owners with Whitney of theHerald Tribune's European edition, theInternational Herald Tribune,which is still published under full ownership by theTimes,which bought out thePostholdings in 2003 and changed the paper's name to theInternational New York Timesin 2013. In 1968,New YorkeditorClay Felkerorganized a group of investors who bought the name and rights toNew York,and successfully revived the weekly as an independent magazine.

Book and Author Luncheon

edit

From 1938 to 1966, theHerald Tribuneparticipated in theAmerican Booksellers Association's popularBook and Author Luncheons.The luncheons were held eight times per year at theWaldorf Astoriaand were hosted by theHerald Tribune's literary editor,Irita Bradford Van Doren.Van Doren also selected its guests, typically three per event, who includedJane Jacobs,Vladimir Nabokov,Robert Moses,Rachel Carson,andJohn Kenneth Galbraith,among others. Radio broadcasts of the luncheon aired onWNYCfrom 1948 to 1968 (two years after theHerald Tribune's demise).[175]

New York Herald Tribune Syndicate

edit
Main article:New York Herald Tribune Syndicate

The New York Herald TribuneSyndicatedistributedcomic stripsand newspaper columns. The syndicate dates back to at least 1914, when it was part of theNew York Tribune.[176]The Syndicate's most notable strips wereClare Briggs'Mr. and Mrs.,Harry Haenigsen'sOur Bill,andPenny,Mell Lazarus'Miss Peach,andJohnny Hart'sB.C.Syndicated columns included Weare Holbrook's "Soundings" andJohn Crosby's radio and television column.

In 1963,Herald TribunepublisherJohn Hay Whitney(who also owned the Chicago-basedField Enterprises) acquired the Chicago-basedPublishers Syndicate,[177]merging Publishers' existing syndication operations with the New York Herald Tribune Syndicate, Field'sChicago Sun-Times Syndicate,and the syndicate of theChicago Daily News[178](a newspaper that had been acquired by Field Enterprises in 1959).

In 1966, when theNew York Herald Tribunefolded, Publishers Syndicate inherited the New York Herald Tribune Syndicate strips, includingB.C.,Miss Peach,andPenny.[177]

European edition

edit

The merger that created theHerald Tribunein 1924 also included bringing along the European edition of theNew York Herald,commonly known as theParis Herald,an edition that was produced in Paris and had an established reputation.[179]

For a while after 1924, the front-page masthead retained the title The New York Herald, with the subtitle European Edition Of The New York Herald Tribune.[180]This was in part to avoid confusion with the European edition of theChicago Tribune,which was a competitor publication; this was resolved in 1934 when the owners of the Herald Tribune bought the European edition of the Chicago paper.[181]The merger became effective December 1, 1934.[182]Subsequently, the masthead carried the full New York Herald Tribune title, with the subtitle European Edition.[180]In any case, throughout its lifetime, the European edition was often referred to as the Paris Herald Tribune,[183]or just the Paris Herald.[184]

In the pre-World War II years the European edition was known for its feature stories.[185]The edition looked positively on the emergence ofEuropean fascism,cheering on theItalian invasion of Ethiopiaas well as the Germanremilitarization of the Rhinelandandannexation of Austriaand calling for a fascist party to exist in the United States.[181]

This carried on until April 1939, when the New York paper required the Paris one to hew to its editorial line.[181]The European edition was the last newspaper to publish in Paris beforethe city fell in June 1940.[185]

Following theliberation of Parisfour years later, it resumed publication on December 22, 1944.[185]In the years after the war, it was initially profitable, then not, then did better again when it began publishing the first columns by humoristArt Buchwald,who subsequently became a popular syndicated columnist.[186]Later, the European edition took on more serious reporting while also employing what has been described as "breezy promotion tactics".[185]Herald Tribuneowner John Hay Whitney began taking an active interest in the European edition in 1961.[185]TheInternational Edition ofThe New York Timeswas a competitor of sorts, and by 1964 had a circulation of some 32,000 although it attracted little advertising.[187]As a commercial proposition it was inferior to the European edition of theHerald Tribune,which had a circulation of around 50,000 and more advertising in it.[187]In general, the European edition of theHerald Tribunewas considered the stronger publication.[188]

The European edition was not involved in the complex multi-paper merger discussions of 1966,[185]and did not shut down when it was announced on August 15, 1966, that theNew York Herald Tribunewould not continue. Instead, earlier that month on August 4, it had been announced thatThe Washington Postwas buying a 45 percent interest in the European edition, and that once the deal was closed it would begin publishing asThe International Edition of the New York Herald Tribune–The Washington Post.[189]The change became official in early December 1966.[190]As Buchwald wrote about the ungainly title in his column, "if you ask for it under that name at the airport you'll miss your plane."[184]

During the following year, the publisher ofThe New York Timesgave up on its own international edition.[191]Instead, the Times invested jointly and equally with Whitney Communications andThe Washington Postto create a new paper, theInternational Herald Tribune.[192]The first issue of theInternational Herald Tribunewas published on May 22, 1967; in appearance it was very similar to the European edition of theNew York Herald Tribune.[193]

Awards and cultural references

edit

In the 1920s, theNew York Herald Tribuneestablished one of the first book review sections that reviewed children's books, and in 1937, the newspaper established the Children's Spring Book Festival Award for the best children's book of the previous year, awarded for three target age groups: 4–8, 8–12, and 12–16. This was the second nationwide children's book award, after theNewbery Medal.[194]

At an event in Washington, on November 23, 1946,Secretary of WarRobert P. Pattersonhonored 82 war correspondents.[195]18 of them had been employees of theNew York Herald Tribune.They wereHoward Barnes,Homer Bigart,Herbert Clark,Joseph F. Driscoll,Joseph Evans,Lewis Gannett,Marguerite Higgins,Russell Hill,John D. O'Reilly,Geoffrey Parsons,John C. Smith,John Steinbeck,Dorothy Thompson,Sonia Tomora,Thomas Twitty,William W. White,andGill Robb Wilson.

InJean-Luc Godard's 1960 filmBreathless,the lead female character Patricia (Jean Seberg) is an American student journalist who sells the European edition on the streets of Paris.[196]She periodically calls out "New York Herald Tribune!" while engaged in conversation with her love interest, the wandering criminal Michel (Jean-Paul Belmondo).[197]

The "Dingbat"

edit

For more than a century, the logo of theNew York Herald-Tribune,and its later successor, theInternational Herald Tribune,featured a hand-drawn "dingbat"between the wordsHeraldandTribune,which first originated as part of the front page logotype of theTribuneon April 10, 1866.[2]The "dingbat" was replaced with an all-text header beginning with the issue of May 21, 2008, to give a "more contemporary and concise presentation that is consistent with our digital platforms."[198]The drawing included a clock in the center, set to 6:12 p.m., and two figures on either side of it, a toga-clad thinker facing leftward and a young child holding an American flag marching rightward. An eagle spreading its wings was perched atop the clock. The dingbat served as an allegorical device to depict antiquity on the left and the progressive American spirit on the right. The significance of the clock's time remains a mystery.[2]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^The winners were: Leland Stowe, Correspondence, 1930; John J. O'Neill, Reporting, 1937; Geoffrey Parsons, Editorial Writing, 1942; Homer Bigart, Telegraphic Reporting – International, 1946; Bert Andrews, National Reporting, 1948; Nathaniel Fein, Photography, 1949; Homer Bigart & Marguerite Higgins, International Reporting, 1951; Sanche De Gramont, Local Reporting – Edition Time, 1961; Walter Lippmann, International Reporting, 1962 (New York Herald Tribune syndicate)[4]

References

edit

Citations

edit
  1. ^abcKluger 1986,p. 647.
  2. ^abcdRoberts 2013.
  3. ^Kluger 1986,p. 8.
  4. ^"Pulitzer Prize web page".Pulitzer Prizes.RetrievedFebruary 18,2017.
  5. ^Kluger 1986,p. 9.
  6. ^ab1634–1699:McCusker, J. J.(1997).How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda(PDF).American Antiquarian Society.1700–1799:McCusker, J. J.(1992).How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States(PDF).American Antiquarian Society.1800–present:Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis."Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–".RetrievedFebruary 29,2024.
  7. ^abKluger 1986,p. 736.
  8. ^"No more IHT".Deutsche Welle. October 15, 2013.
  9. ^Kluger 1986,p. 34.
  10. ^Kluger 1986,p. 31.
  11. ^abKluger 1986,p. 32.
  12. ^abKluger 1986,p. 35.
  13. ^Kluger 1986,p. 36.
  14. ^Kluger 1986,p. 37.
  15. ^Kluger 1986,p. 39.
  16. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 63–64.
  17. ^Kluger 1986,p. 99.
  18. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 26–28.
  19. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 42–44.
  20. ^Kluger 1986,p. 46.
  21. ^Kluger 1986,p. 75.
  22. ^Kluger 1986,p. 51.
  23. ^Kluger 1986,p. 59.
  24. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 49–50.
  25. ^Kluger 1986,p. 106.
  26. ^Kluger 1986,p. 79.
  27. ^abKluger 1986,p. 125.
  28. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 126–29.
  29. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 129–130.
  30. ^Kluger 1986,p. 141.
  31. ^abKluger 1986,p. 143.
  32. ^Kluger 1986,p. 142.
  33. ^abKluger 1986,p. 144.
  34. ^Kluger 1986,p. 135.
  35. ^Kluger 1986,p. 139.
  36. ^Kluger 1986,p. 152.
  37. ^Kluger 1986,p. 162.
  38. ^Kluger 1986,p. 161.
  39. ^Swanberg 1967,p. 74.
  40. ^Kluger 1986,p. 163.
  41. ^Swanberg 1967,p. 161.
  42. ^abKluger 1986,p. 166.
  43. ^abKluger 1986,p. 167.
  44. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 175, 179.
  45. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 32.
  46. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 31.
  47. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,pp. 34, 39.
  48. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 44.
  49. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,pp. 63–64.
  50. ^Kluger 1986,p. 182.
  51. ^Kluger 1986,p. 183.
  52. ^Swanberg 1967,pp. 333–34.
  53. ^Kluger 1986,p. 183–184.
  54. ^Kluger 1986,p. 184.
  55. ^Swanberg 1967,p. 334.
  56. ^Kluger 1986,p. 176.
  57. ^Kluger 1986,p. 178.
  58. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 181–182.
  59. ^abcKluger 1986,p. 186.
  60. ^Kluger 1986,p. 187–88.
  61. ^Kluger 1986,p. 200.
  62. ^abKluger 1986,p. 210.
  63. ^Quoted inKluger 1986,p. 229.
  64. ^Kluger 1986,p. 203.
  65. ^Kluger 1986,p. 204.
  66. ^Kluger 1986,p. 286.
  67. ^Kluger 1986,p. 205.
  68. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 207–208.
  69. ^abKluger 1986,p. 208.
  70. ^Kluger 1986,p. 212.
  71. ^Kluger 1986,p. 213.
  72. ^abcKluger 1986,p. 214.
  73. ^"About New-York tribune. (New York [N.Y.]) 1866–1924".Chronicling America.RetrievedApril 1,2015.
  74. ^abKluger 1986,p. 215.
  75. ^Kluger 1986,p. 232.
  76. ^Kluger 1986,p. 262.
  77. ^Kluger 1986,p. 266–68.
  78. ^Kluger 1986,p. 6.
  79. ^Kluger 1986,p. 280.
  80. ^Kluger 1986,p. 285.
  81. ^Kluger 1986,p. 237.
  82. ^Kluger 1986,p. 242.
  83. ^Kluger 1986,p. 269.
  84. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 259–60.
  85. ^Kluger 1986,p. 263.
  86. ^Kluger 1986,p. 292.
  87. ^Kluger 1986,p. 293.
  88. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 295–296.
  89. ^Kluger 1986,p. 303.
  90. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 325–27.
  91. ^Kluger 1986,p. 329.
  92. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 328–29.
  93. ^Talese 1969,p. 199.
  94. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 208.
  95. ^Kluger 1986,p. 357.
  96. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,pp. 206, 208.
  97. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 357–58.
  98. ^abcdKluger 1986,p. 358.
  99. ^Kluger 1986,p. 361.
  100. ^Kluger 1986,p. 368.
  101. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 371–74.
  102. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 8–9.
  103. ^Kluger 1986,p. 140.
  104. ^abKluger 1986,p. 360.
  105. ^Kluger 1986,p. 433.
  106. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 419–423.
  107. ^Kluger 1986,p. 460–61.
  108. ^Kluger 1986,p. 335.
  109. ^Kluger 1986,p. 461.
  110. ^abKluger 1986,p. 424.
  111. ^Kluger 1986,p. 425–26.
  112. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 453–55.
  113. ^Kluger 1986,p. 459.
  114. ^"Robinson Dies; Ex-President Of Coca-Cola".Chicago Tribune.June 8, 1969. p. 10A.Retrieved2017-02-24.
  115. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 448–49.
  116. ^Kluger 1986,p. 417.
  117. ^Kluger 1986,p. 487.
  118. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 494–495.
  119. ^Kluger 1986,p. 495.
  120. ^Kluger 1986,p. 504.
  121. ^Kluger 1986,p. 505.
  122. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 505–507.
  123. ^Kluger 1986,p. 506.
  124. ^Kluger 1986,p. 521.
  125. ^Kluger 1986,p. 541.
  126. ^Kluger 1986,p. 527.
  127. ^abKluger 1986,p. 529.
  128. ^Kluger 1986,p. 528.
  129. ^abKluger 1986,p. 530.
  130. ^Kluger 1986,p. 550.
  131. ^Kluger 1986,p. 551.
  132. ^Kluger 1986,p. 553.
  133. ^Kluger 1986,p. 556.
  134. ^Kluger 1986,p. 581–82.
  135. ^Kluger 1986,p. 583.
  136. ^Kluger 1986,p. 603.
  137. ^Kluger 1986,p. 606.
  138. ^Kluger 1986,p. 609.
  139. ^Kluger 1986,p. 608–609.
  140. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 612–13.
  141. ^Kluger 1986,p. 612.
  142. ^Kluger 1986,p. 615.
  143. ^Kluger 1986,p. 619.
  144. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 323.
  145. ^abTifft & Jones 1999,p. 320.
  146. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 329.
  147. ^Kluger 1986,p. 622.
  148. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 613–14.
  149. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 364.
  150. ^Kluger 1986,p. 657.
  151. ^Kluger 1986,p. 643.
  152. ^Kluger 1986,p. 645.
  153. ^Kluger 1986,p. 651.
  154. ^abcKluger 1986,p. 649.
  155. ^Kluger 1986,p. 655.
  156. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 655, 663.
  157. ^Tifft & Jones 1999,p. 383.
  158. ^Kluger 1986,p. 668.
  159. ^World Cat (accessed April 5, 2021).[1]Sontag's essays, "The Literary Criticism of Georg Lukács" and "Reflections onThe Deputy",were reprinted in her first book,Against Interpretation.
  160. ^Kluger 1986,p. 671.
  161. ^Kluger 1986,p. 673.
  162. ^Hevesi, Dennis (March 7, 2009)."James Bellows, 86, Newspaper Editor Who Promoted New Journalism, Dies".The New York Times.
  163. ^abKluger 1986,p. 695.
  164. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 699–703.
  165. ^Kluger 1986,p. 688.
  166. ^Kluger 1986,p. 690.
  167. ^Kluger 1986,p. 692.
  168. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 716, 730.
  169. ^Kluger 1986,p. 714.
  170. ^Kluger 1986,p. 731.
  171. ^Kluger 1986,p. 732.
  172. ^Kluger 1986,p. 735.
  173. ^Times 1966,p. 38.
  174. ^"World Journal Trib Conceived in High Hopes; Lost Anyway".Daytona Beach Sunday News-Journal.Associated Press.May 7, 1967. p. 5A.RetrievedApril 1,2015.
  175. ^"Book and Author Luncheon".WNYC.RetrievedFebruary 25,2017.
  176. ^"Briggs Succumbs: Clare Briggs, Cartoon Genius, Dies at 54,"Editor & Publisher(Jan. 11, 1930). Archived at"News of Yore 1930,"Stripper's Guide.Accessed Dec. 1, 2017.
  177. ^abStetson, Damon."Herald Tribune Is Closing Its News Service: But Meyer Says Columns That Appeared in Paper Will Be in Merged Publication,"New York Times(June 24, 1966).
  178. ^Toni Mendez Collection
  179. ^"New York Herald Is Sold".The Kansas City Times.March 18, 1924. p. 1 – viaNewspapers.
  180. ^ab"International Herald Tribune Historical Archive 1887–2013"(PDF).Gale Cengage.RetrievedMarch 7,2022.
  181. ^abcRichard Reeves,"The Paris Tribune at One Hundred",American Heritage Magazine,November 1987. Volume 38, Issue 7.
  182. ^"27 Dec 1934, 14 - The State at".Newspapers. 1934-12-27.Retrieved2022-06-05.
  183. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 790 andpassim.
  184. ^abBuchwald, Art(December 9, 1966)."Real Blow For Freedom Was Once Struck By Paris Herald".Lubbock Avalanche-Journal.p. 10C – viaNewspapers.
  185. ^abcdef"Washington Post Seeks Interest In European Herald Tribune".The New York Times.July 18, 1966. p. 7.
  186. ^Kluger 1986,pp. 482–85.
  187. ^abKluger 1986,p. 696.
  188. ^Talese 1969,p. 425.
  189. ^Stetson, Damon (August 16, 1966)."The Herald Tribune Is Discontinued".The New York Times.pp. 1, 26.
  190. ^"Herald-Trib Lives—With Post Flag".Oakland Tribune.United Press International.December 4, 1966. p. 19 – viaNewspapers.
  191. ^Talese 1969,pp. 457–458.
  192. ^Kluger 1986,p. 737.
  193. ^"New Herald Tribune Makes Paris Debut Merged With Times".The New York Times.May 23, 1967. p. 94.
  194. ^Alm, Richard S. (April 1956). "The Development of Literature for Adolescents".The School Review.64(4): 172–177.doi:10.1086/442307.JSTOR1083500.S2CID144804469.
  195. ^ "TASK OF OCCUPATION DECLARED IN PERIL; Patterson at Dinner Honoring War Correspondents Says More Appropriations Are Needed".The New York Times.Washington DC.1946-11-23. p. 28.Retrieved2020-11-26.
  196. ^"End of an era as venerable 'Herald Tribune' to be reborn as 'International New York Times'".Irish Times.12 October 2013.
  197. ^Vecsey, George (February 7, 2022)."Queens Boy Went to Paris".georgevecsey.
  198. ^Hodge, Hope (May 30, 2008)."American Flag Lowered At Herald Tribune".The New York Sun.p. 10.

Bibliography

edit

Further reading

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York_Herald_Tribune&oldid=1256899521"