The Tale of Genji

For other uses, seeThe Tale of Genji (disambiguation).

The Tale of Genji(Genji Monogatari,Genji monogatari,pronounced[ɡeɲdʑimonoɡaꜜtaɾi]),also known asGenji Monogatari,is a classic work ofJapanese literaturewritten by the noblewoman, poet, andlady-in-waitingMurasaki Shikibuaround the peak of theHeian period,in the early 11th century. The original manuscript no longer exists. It was made in "concertina"ororihonstyle: several sheets of paper pasted together and folded alternately in one direction then the other.

The Tale of Genji

Written text from the earliest illustrated handscroll (12th century)
Author	Murasaki Shikibu
Original title	Genji Monogatari(Genji Monogatari)
Translator	Suematsu Kenchō,Arthur Waley,Edward G. Seidensticker,Helen McCullough,Royall Tyler,Dennis Washburn
Language	Early Middle Japanese
Genre	Monogatari
Published	Before 1021
Publication place	Japan
Media type	manuscript
Dewey Decimal	895.63 M93

The work is a unique depiction of the lifestyles of highcourtiersduring the Heian period. It is written in archaic language and a poetic style that requires specialised study.In the early 20th centuryGenjiwas translated into modern Japanese by the poetAkiko Yosano.The first English translation ofGenjiwas made in 1882 bySuematsu Kencho,but was of poor quality and left incomplete.Arthur Waleytranslated an almost complete version which excludes only the 38th chapter (Suzumushi/The Bell Cricket) between 1925 to 1933. Since then, complete English translations have been made byEdward Seidensticker,Royall Tyler,andDennis Washburn.

The work recounts the life ofHikaru Genji,or "Shining Genji". Genji is the son of theemperor(known to readers as Emperor Kiritsubo) and a low-ranking concubine calledKiritsubo Consort,but for political reasons the emperor removes Genji from the line of succession, demoting him to commoner status by giving him the surnameMinamoto.Genji then pursues a career as an imperial officer. The tale concentrates on Genji's romantic life and describes the customs of the aristocratic society of the time. It is one of history's firstnovels,the first by a woman to have won global recognition, and in Japan today has a stature like that of Shakespeare in England.

Historical context

Murasaki lived at the height of theFujiwara clan's power.Fujiwara no Michinagawas the regent in all but name, and the most significant political figure of his day. Consequently, Murasaki is believed to have formed the character of Genji partly through her experience of Michinaga.

The Tale of Genjimay have been written chapter by chapter, as Murasaki delivered installments to aristocratic women (ladies-in-waiting). It has many elements found in a modern novel: a central character and a large number of major and minor characters, well-developed characterization of the major players, a sequence of events covering the central character's lifetime and beyond. There is no specifiedplot,but events play out and characters grow older. Despite adramatis personæof some four hundred characters, it maintains internal consistency; for instance, all characters age in step, and both family andfeudalrelationships stay intact throughout.

Almost none of the characters in the original text are given an explicit name. They are instead referred to by their function or role (e.g. Minister of the Left), anhonorific(e.g. His Excellency), or their relation to other characters (e.g. Heir Apparent), which changes as the novel progresses. This lack of names stems from Heian-era court manners that would have made it unacceptably familiar and blunt to freely mention a person's given name. Modern readers and translators have used various nicknames to keep track of themany characters.

Authorship

Murasaki Shikibu,illustration byTosa Mitsuokiwho created a series of illustrations ofThe Tale of Genji(17th century)

There is debate over how much ofGenjiwas actually written by Murasaki Shikibu. Debates over the novel's authorship have gone on for centuries, and are unlikely to ever be settled unless some major archival discovery is made.

It is generally accepted that the tale was finished in its present form by 1021, when the author of theSarashina Nikkiwrote a diary entry about her joy at acquiring a complete copy of the tale. She writes that there are over 50 chapters and mentions a character introduced at the end of the work, so if other authors besides Murasaki did work on the tale, the work was finished very near to the time of her writing.Murasaki's own diaryincludes a reference to the tale, and indeed the application to herself of the name 'Murasaki' in an allusion to the main female character. That entry confirms that some if not all of the diary was available in 1008 when internal evidence convincingly suggests that the entry was written.

Murasaki is said to have written the character of Genji based on the Minister on the Left at the time she was at court. Other translators, such as Tyler, believe the character Murasaki no Ue, whom Genji marries, is based on Murasaki Shikibu herself.

Yosano Akiko,who made the first modern Japanese translation ofGenji,believed that Murasaki had written only chapters 1 to 33, and that chapters 35 to 54 were written by her daughter,Daini no Sanmi.Other scholars have also doubted the authorship of chapters 42 to 54, particularly 44, which contains continuity mistakes (in the rest of the book such mistakes are rare).Royall Tylerwrites that computer analysis has turned up "statistically significant" discrepancies of style between chapters 45–54 and the rest, and also among the early chapters.

Plot

Chapter 15 –Yomogiu(Bồng sinh,"Waste of Weeds" ).Scene from the 12th-century illustrated handscrollGenji Monogatari Emakikept at the Tokugawa Art Museum.

Chapter 16 –Sekiya(Quan phòng,"At The Pass" )

Chapter 37 –Yokobue(Hoành địch,"Flute" )

Chapter 39 –Yūgiri(Tịch sương mù,"Evening Mist" ).12th-century Gotoh Museum handscroll.

Chapter 48 –Sawarabi(Sớm dương xỉ,"Bracken Shoots" ).Tokugawa Art Museum's illustrated handscroll.

Chapter 49 –Yadorigi(Túc り mộc,"Ivy" ).Tokugawa Art Museum's illustrated handscroll.

Genji's mother dies when he is three years old, and the Emperor cannot forget her. The Emperor Kiritsubo then hears of a woman (Lady Fujitsubo), formerly a princess of the preceding emperor, who resembles his deceased concubine, and later she becomes one of his wives. Genji loves her first as a stepmother, but later as a woman, and they fall in love with each other. Genji is frustrated by his forbidden love for the Lady Fujitsubo and is on bad terms with his own wife (Aoi no Ue,the Lady Aoi). He engages in a series of love affairs with many other women. These are however unfulfilling, as in most cases his advances are rebuffed, or his lover dies suddenly, or he becomes bored.

Genji visits Kitayama, a rural hilly area north of Kyoto, where he finds a beautiful ten-year-old girl. He is fascinated by this little girl (Murasaki no Ue), and discovers that she is a niece of the Lady Fujitsubo. Finally he kidnaps her, brings her to his own palace and educates her to be like the Lady Fujitsubo, who is his womanly ideal. During this time Genji also meets Lady Fujitsubo secretly, and she bears his son, Reizei. Everyone except the two lovers believes the father of the child is the Emperor Kiritsubo. Later the boy becomes theCrown Princeand Lady Fujitsubo becomes the Empress, but Genji and Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep the child's true parentage secret.

Genji and his wife, Lady Aoi, reconcile. She gives birth to a son but dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful but finds consolation in Murasaki, whom he marries. Genji's father, the Emperor Kiritsubo, dies. He is succeeded by his son Suzaku, whose mother (Kokiden), together with Kiritsubo's political enemies, take power in the court. Then another of Genji's secret love affairs is exposed: Genji and a concubine of the Emperor Suzaku are discovered while meeting in secret. The Emperor Suzaku confides his personal amusement at Genji's exploits with the woman (Oborozukiyo), but is duty-bound to punish Genji even though he is his half-brother. He exiles Genji to the town ofSumain ruralHarima Province(now part ofKobeinHyōgo Prefecture). There, a prosperous man known as the Akashi Novice (because he is fromAkashiinSettsu Province) entertains Genji, and Genji has an affair with Akashi's daughter. She gives birth to Genji's only daughter, who will later become the Empress.

In the capital, the Emperor Suzaku is troubled by dreams of his late father, Kiritsubo, and something begins to affect his eyes. Meanwhile, his mother, Kokiden, grows ill, which weakens her influence over the throne, and leads to the Emperor ordering Genji to be pardoned. Genji returns to Kyoto. His son by Lady Fujitsubo, Reizei, becomes the emperor. The new Emperor Reizei knows Genji is his real father, and raises Genji's rank to the highest possible.

However, when Genji turns 40 years old, his life begins to decline. His political status does not change, but his love and emotional life begin to incrementally diminish as middle age takes hold. He marries another wife,the Third Princess(known as Onna san no miya in the Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's). Genji's nephew, Kashiwagi, later forces himself on the Third Princess, and she bearsKaoru(who, in a similar situation to that of Reizei, is legally known as the son of Genji). Genji's new marriage changes his relationship with Murasaki, who had expressed her wish of becoming a nun (bikuni) though the wish was rejected by Genji.

Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the following chapter,Maboroshi( "Illusion" ), Genji contemplates how fleeting life is. The next chapter is titledKumogakure( "Vanished into the Clouds" ), which is left blank, but implies the death of Genji.

Chapter 45–54 are known as the "Uji Chapters". These chapters follow Kaoru and his best friend, Niou. Niou is an imperial prince, the son of Genji's daughter, the current Empress now that Reizei has abdicated the throne, while Kaoru is known to the world as Genji's son but is in fact fathered by Genji's nephew. The chapters involve Kaoru and Niou's rivalry over several daughters of an imperial prince who lives inUji,a place some distance away from the capital. The tale ends abruptly, with Kaoru wondering if Niou is hiding Kaoru's former lover away from him. Kaoru has sometimes been called the firstanti-heroin literature.

Completion

The tale has an abrupt ending. Opinions vary on whether this was intended by the author.Arthur Waley,who made the first English translation of the whole ofThe Tale of Genji,believed that the work as we have it was finished.Ivan Morris,however, author ofThe World of the Shining Prince,believed that it was not complete and that later chapters were missing.Edward Seidensticker,who made the second translation of theGenji,believed that Murasaki Shikibu had not had a planned story structure with an ending as such but would simply have continued writing as long as she could.

Literary context

Because it was written to entertain the Japanese court of the 11th century, the work presents many difficulties to modern readers. First and foremost, Murasaki's language, Heian-period court Japanese, was highly inflected and had very complex grammar.Another problem is that almost none of the characters are named within the work. Instead, the narrator refers to men often by their rank or their station in life, and to women often by the color of their clothing, or by the words used at a meeting, or by the rank of a prominent male relative. This results in different appellations for the same character, depending on the chapter.

Another aspect of the language is the importance of usingpoetryin conversations.Modifying or rephrasing a classic poem according to the current situation was expected behavior in Heian court life, and often served to communicate thinly veiled allusions. The poems in theGenjiare often in the classic Japanesetankaform. Many of the poems were well known to the intended audience, so usually only the first few lines are given, and the reader is supposed to complete the thought themselves, leaving the rest – which the reader would be expected to know – unspoken.

As with most literature in the Heian period,Genjiwas written mostly inkana(Japanese phonetic script), specificallyhiragana,and not inkanji.Writing in kanji was at the time a masculine pursuit.Women were generally discreet when using kanji, confining themselves mostly to native Japanese words (yamato kotoba).

Outside of vocabulary related to politics and Buddhism,Genjicontains remarkably few Chinese loan words (kango). This has the effect of giving the story a very even smooth flow. However it also introduces confusion: there are a number ofhomophones(words with the same pronunciation but different meanings); and for modern readers context is not always sufficient to determine which meaning was intended.

Structure

Outline

The novel is traditionally divided into three parts, the first two dealing with the life of Genji and the last with the early years of two of Genji's prominent descendants, Niou and Kaoru. There are also several short transitional chapters which are usually grouped separately and whose authorships are sometimes questioned.

1. Genji's rise and fall
   1. Youth, chapters 1–33: Love, romance, and exile
   2. Success and setbacks, chapters 34–41: A taste of power and the death of his beloved wife
2. The transition (chapters 42–44): Very short episodes following Genji's death
3. Uji, chapters 45–54: Genji's official and secret descendants, Niou and Kaoru

The 54th and last chapter, "The Floating Bridge of Dreams", is sometimes argued by modern scholars to be a separate part from the Uji part. It seems to continue the story from the previous chapters but has an unusually abstract chapter title. It is the only chapter whose title has no clear reference within the text, although this may be due to the chapter being unfinished. This question is made more difficult by the fact that we do not know exactly when the chapters acquired their titles.

List of chapters

The English translations here are taken from theArthur Waley,theEdward Seidensticker,theRoyall Tyler,and theDennis Washburntranslations. It is not known for certain when the chapters acquired their titles. Early mentions of the Tale refer to chapter numbers, or contain alternate titles for some of the chapters. This may suggest that the titles were added later. The titles are largely derived from poetry that is quoted within the text, or allusions to various characters.

Chapter 5 –Wakamurasaki(Nếu tím,"Young Murasaki" ).Tosa Mitsuoki, 1617–91.

Chapter 20 –Asagao(Triều nhan,"The Bluebell" ).Tosa Mitsuoki.

Chapter 42 –Niō no Miya(Hung cung,"The Perfumed Prince" ).Tosa Mitsuoki.

Chapter 50 –Azumaya(Đông phòng,"Eastern Cottage" ).12th-century Tokugawa Art Museum handscroll.

Chapter	Japanese	Waley	Seidensticker	Tyler	Washburn
01	Kiritsubo(Đồng hồ)	"Kiritsubo"	"The Paulownia Court"	"The Paulownia Pavilion"	"The Lady of the Paulownia-Courtyard Chambers"
02	Hahakigi(Chổi mộc)	"The Broom-Tree"			"Broom Cypress"
03	Utsusemi(Không ve)	"Utsusemi"	"The Shell of the Locust"	"The Cicada Shell"	"A Molted Cicada Shell"
04	Yūgao(Tịch nhan)	"Yugao"	"Evening Faces"	"The Twilight Beauty"	"The Lady of the Evening Faces"
05	Wakamurasaki(Nếu tím)	"Murasaki"	"Lavender"	"Young Murasaki"	"Little Purple Gromwell"
06	Suetsumuhana(Mạt trích hoa)	"The Saffron-Flower"	"The Safflower"
07	Momiji no Ga(Hồng diệp hạ)	"The Festival of Red Leaves"	"An Autumn Excursion"	"Beneath the Autumn Leaves"	"An Imperial Celebration of Autumn Foliages"
08	Hana no En(Hoa yến)	"The Flower Feast"	"The Festival of the Cherry Blossoms"	"Under the Cherry Blossoms"	"A Banquet Celebrating Cherry Blossoms"
09	Aoi(Quỳ)	"Aoi"	"Heartvine"	"Heart-to-Heart"	"Leaves of Wild Ginger"
10	Sakaki(Hiền mộc)	"The Sacred Tree"		"The Green Branch"	"A Branch of Sacred Evergreens"
11	Hana Chiru Sato(Hoa tán)	"The Village of Falling Flowers"	"The Orange Blossoms"	"Falling Flowers"	"The Lady at the Villa of Scattering Orange Blossoms"
12	Suma(Cần ma)	"Exile at Suma"	"Suma"		"Exile to Suma"
13	Akashi(Phèn chua)	"Akashi"			"The Lady at Akashi"
14	Miotsukushi(Linh tiêu)	"The Flood Gauge"	"Channel Buoys"	"The Pilgrimage to Sumiyoshi"	"Channel Markers"
15	Yomogiu(Bồng sinh)	"The Palace in the Tangled Woods"	"The Wormwood Patch"	"A Waste of Weeds"	"A Ruined Villa of Tangled Gardens"
16	Sekiya(Quan phòng)	"A Meeting at the Frontier"	"The Gatehouse"	"At the Pass"	"The Barrier Gate"
17	E Awase(Hội hợp)	"The Picture Competition"	"A Picture Contest"	"The Picture Contest"	"A Contest of Illustrations"
18	Matsukaze(Tùng phong)	"The Wind in the Pine-Trees"	"The Wind in the Pines"	"Wind in the Pines"
19	Usugumo(Mỏng vân)	"A Wreath of Cloud"	"A Rack of Clouds"	"Wisps of Cloud"	"A Thin Veil of Clouds"
20	Asagao(Triều nhan)	"Asagao"	"The Morning Glory"	"The Bluebell"	"Bellflowers"
21	Otome(Ất nữ)	"The Maiden"		"The Maidens"	"Maidens of the Dance"
22	Tamakazura(Ngọc man)	"Tamakatsura"	"The Jewelled Chaplet"	"The Tendril Wreath"	"A Lovely Garland"
23	Hatsune(Sơ âm)	"The First Song of the Year"	"The First Warbler"	"The Warbler's First Song"	"First Song of Spring"
24	Kochō(Hồ điệp)	"The Butterflies"	"Butterflies"
25	Hotaru(Huỳnh)	"The Glow-Worm"	"Fireflies"	"The Fireflies"	"Fireflies"
26	Tokonatsu(Thường hạ)	"A Bed of Carnations"	"Wild Carnation"	"The Pink"	"Wild Pinks"
27	Kagaribi(Lửa trại)	"The Flares"	"Flares"	"The Cressets"	"Cresset Fires"
28	Nowaki(Dã phân)	"The Typhoon"			"An Autumn Tempest"
29	Miyuki(Hành hạnh)	"The Royal Visit"	"The Royal Outing"	"The Imperial Progress"	"An Imperial Excursion"
30	Fujibakama(Đằng khố)	"Blue Trousers"	"Purple Trousers"	"Thoroughwort Flowers"	"Mistflowers"
31	Makibashira(Thật mộc trụ)	"Makibashira"	"The Cypress Pillar"	"The Handsome Pillar"	"A Beloved Pillar of Cypress"
32	Umegae(Mai chi)	"The Spray of Plum-Blossom"	"A Branch of Plum"	"The Plum Tree Branch"	"A Branch of Plum"
33	Fuji no Uraba(Đằng diệp)	"Fuji no Uraba"	"Wisteria Leaves"	"New Wisteria Leaves"	"Shoots of Wisteria Leaves"
34	Wakana: Jō(Nếu đồ ăn thượng)	"Wakana, Part I"	"New Herbs, Part I"	"Spring Shoots I"	"Early Spring Greens: Part 1"
35	Wakana: Ge(Nếu đồ ăn hạ)	"Wakana, Part II"	"New Herbs, Part II"	"Spring Shoots II"	"Early Spring Greens: Part 2"
36	Kashiwagi(Bách mộc)	"Kashiwagi"	"The Oak Tree"
37	Yokobue(Hoành địch)	"The Flute"			"The Transverse Flute"
38	Suzumushi(Linh trùng)	(omitted)	"The Bell Cricket"		"Bell Crickets"
39	Yūgiri(Tịch sương mù)	"Yugiri"	"Evening Mist"
40	Minori(Ngự pháp)	"The Law"	"Rites"	"The Law"	"Rites of Sacred Law"
41	Maboroshi(Huyễn)	"Mirage"	"The Wizard"	"The Seer"	"Spirit Summoner"
X	Kumogakure(Vân ẩn)			"Vanished into the Clouds"
42	Niō Miya(Hung cung)	"Niou"	"His Perfumed Highness"	"The Perfumed Prince"	"The Fragrant Prince"
43	Kōbai(Hồng mai)	"Kobai"	"The Rose Plum"	"Red Plum Blossoms"	"Red Plum"
44	Takekawa(Trúc hà)	"Bamboo River"
45	Hashihime(Kiều cơ)	"The Bridge Maiden"	"The Lady at the Bridge"	"The Maiden of the Bridge"	"The Divine Princess at Uji Bridge"
46	Shii ga Moto(Chuy bổn)	"At the Foot of the Oak-Tree"	"Beneath the Oak"		"At the Foot of the Oak Tree"
47	Agemaki(Tổng giác)	"Agemaki"	"Trefoil Knots"		"A Bowknot Tied in Maiden's Loops"
48	Sawarabi(Sớm dương xỉ)	"Fern-Shoots"	"Early Ferns"	"Bracken Shoots"	"Early Fiddlehead Greens"
49	Yadorigi(Túc mộc)	"The Mistletoe"	"The Ivy"		"Trees Encoiled in Vines of Ivy"
50	Azumaya(Đông phòng)	"The Eastern House"	"The Eastern Cottage"		"A Hut in the Eastern Provinces"
51	Ukifune(Phù thuyền)	"Ukifune"	"A Boat upon the Waters"	"A Drifting Boat"	"A Boat Cast Adrift"
52	Kagerō(Tinh linh)	"The Gossamer-Fly"	"The Drake Fly"	"The Mayfly"	"Ephemerids"
53	Tenarai(Tay tập)	"Writing-Practice"	"The Writing Practice"	"Writing Practice"	"Practising Calligraphy"
54	Yume no Ukihashi(Mộng phù kiều)	"The Bridge of Dreams"	"The Floating Bridge of Dreams"		"A Floating Bridge in a Dream"

The additional chapter between 41 and 42 in some manuscripts is calledKumogakure(Vân ẩn)which means "Vanished into the Clouds" —the chapter is a title only, and is probably intended to evoke Genji's death. Some scholars have posited the earlier existence of a chapter between 1 and 2 which would have introduced some characters that seem to appear very abruptly in the book as it stands.

The Waley translation completely omits the 38th chapter.

Later authors have composed additional chapters, most often either between 41 and 42, or after the end.

Manuscripts

Main article:Textual tradition of The Tale of Genji

The original manuscript written by Murasaki Shikibu no longer exists. Numerous copies, totaling around 300 according to Ikeda Kikan, exist with differences between each. It is thought that Shikibu often went back and edited early manuscripts introducing discrepancies with earlier copies.

The various manuscripts are classified into three categories:

• Kawachibon(Hà nội bổn)
• Aobyōshibon(Thanh biểu giấy bổn)
• Beppon(Bản khác)

In the 13th century, two major attempts by Minamoto no Chikayuki andFujiwara Teikawere made to edit and revise the differing manuscripts. The Chikayuki manuscript is known as theKawachibon;edits were many beginning in 1236 and completing in 1255. The Teika manuscript is known as theAobyōshibon;its edits are more conservative and thought to better represent the original. These two manuscripts were used as the basis for many future copies.

TheBepponcategory represents all other manuscripts not belonging to eitherKawachibonorAobyōshibon.This includes older but incomplete manuscripts, mixed manuscripts derived from bothKawachibonandAobyōshibon,and commentaries.

On 10 March 2008, it was announced that a lateKamakura period(1192–1333) manuscript had been found in Kyoto,containing the sixth chapter,Suetsumuhana;the manuscript was 65 pages in length. Most remaining manuscripts are based on copies of the Teika manuscript which introduced revisions in the original; this manuscript, however, belongs to a different lineage and was not influenced by Teika. Professor Yamamoto Tokurō, who examined the manuscript, said, "This is a precious discovery as Kamakura manuscripts are so rare." Professor Katō Yōsuke said, "This is an important discovery as it asserts that non-Teika manuscripts were being read during the Kamakura period."

On 29 October 2008,Konan Women's Universityannounced that a mid-Kamakura period manuscript had been found, containing the 32nd chapter,Umegae.The manuscript was recognized as the oldest extant copy of this chapter, dating to between 1240 and 1280. The manuscript, considered to be of theBepponcategory, is 74 pages in length and differs fromAobyōshimanuscripts in at least four places, raising the "possibility that the contents may be closer to the undiscovered Murasaki Shikibu original manuscript".

On 9 October 2019, it was announced that an original copy of Teika'sAobyōshibonhad been found in Tokyo at the home of the current head of theOkochi-Matsudaira clan,who ran theYoshida Domain.The manuscript is the 5th chapter,Wakamurasaki(Nếu tím),and is the oldest version of the chapter. Blue ink common in Teika's manuscript and handwriting analysis confirmed that the manuscript was written by Teika, making it among the 5 original versions of theAobyōshibonknown to exist.

Illustrated scrolls

Late-16th- or early-17th-century hanging scroll in ink and gold leaf illustrating a scene fromGenji

Numerous illustrations of scenes fromGenjihave been produced, most notably a 12th-century scroll, theGenji Monogatari Emaki,containing illustrated scenes fromGenjitogether with handwrittensōganatext. This scroll is the earliest extant example of a Japanese "picture scroll": collected illustrations and calligraphy of a single work. The original scroll is believed to have comprised 10–20 rolls and covered all 54 chapters. The extant pieces include only 19 illustrations and 65 pages of text, plus nine pages of fragments. This is estimated at 15% of the envisioned original.

TheTokugawa Art MuseuminNagoyahas three of the scrolls handed down in theOwaribranch of theTokugawa clanand one scroll held by the Hachisuka family is now in theGotoh Museumin Tokyo. The scrolls are designatedNational Treasures of Japan.The scrolls are so fragile that they normally are not shown in public. The original scrolls in the Tokugawa Museum were shown from 21 November to 29 November in 2009. Since 2001, they have been displayed in the Tokugawa Museum annually for around one week in November. An oversize English photoreproduction and translation was published in limited edition in 1971 byKodanshaInternational.

Other notable illustrated scrolls ofGenjiare byTosa Mitsuoki,who lived from 1617 to 1691. His paintings are closely based on Heian style from the existing scrolls from the 12th century and are fully complete. The tale was also a popular theme inukiyo-eprints from theEdo period.

Modern readership

Japanese

Pages from the illustrated handscroll from the 12th century

The Tale of Genjiwas written in an archaic court language, and a century after its completion it was difficult to read without specialized study. Annotated and illustrated versions existed as early as the 12th century.It was not until the early 20th century thatGenjiwas translated into modern Japanese by the poetAkiko Yosano.Translations into modern Japanesehave made it easier to read though changed some meaning, and has given names to the characters, usually the traditional names used by academics. This gives rise toanachronisms;for instance, Genji's first wife is named Aoi because she is known as the lady of the Aoi chapter, in which she dies.

Other known translations were done by the novelistsJun'ichirō TanizakiandFumiko Enchi.

Because of the cultural differences, reading an annotated version of theGenjiis quite common, even among Japanese readers. There are several annotated versions by novelists, includingSeiko Tanabe,Jakucho Setouchiand Osamu Hashimoto.Many works, including amangaseries and different television dramas, are derived fromThe Tale of Genji.There have been at least five manga adaptations ofGenji.A manga version was created byWaki Yamato,Asakiyumemishi(The Tale of Genjiin English), and a current version by Sugimura Yoshimitsuis in progress. Another manga,Genji Monogatari,by Miyako Maki, won theShogakukan Manga Awardin 1989.

Selected English translations

The first partial translation ofGenjiinto English was bySuematsu Kenchō,published in 1882.Arthur Waleypublished a six-volume translation of all but one chapter, with the first volume published in 1925 and the last in 1933.In 1976,Edward Seidenstickerpublished the first complete translation into English, made using a self-consciously "stricter" approach with regards to content if not form.The English translation published in 2001 byRoyall Tyleraims at fidelity in content and form to the original text.

The major translations into English are each slightly different, mirroring the personal choices of the translator and the period in which the translation was made. Each version has its merits, its detractors and its advocates, and each is distinguished by the name of the translator. For example, the version translated byArthur Waleywould typically be referred to as "the WaleyGenji".

• The SuematsuGenji(1882) – Suematsu'sGenjiwas the first translation into English, but is considered of poor quality and is not often read today.It includes seventeen of the chapters.
• The WaleyGenji(1925–1933) – Waley'sGenjiis considered a great achievement for his time,although some purists have criticized Waley's changes to the original.Others have criticized as overly-free the manner in which Waley translated the original text. Regardless, it continues to be well-appreciated and widely read today.When the WaleyGenjiwas first published, it was eagerly received. For example,Timeexplained that "the reviewers' floundering tributes indicate something of its variegated appeal. In limpid prose The Tale combines curiously modern social satire with great charm of narrative. Translator Waley has done service to literature in salvaging to the Occident this masterpiece of the Orient."The translation omits the 38th chapter completely.
• The SeidenstickerGenji(1976) – Seidensticker'sGenjiis an attempt to correct what were perceived to have been Waley's failings without necessarily making his translation obsolete. Seidensticker hews more closely to the original text, but in the interests of readability, he takes some liberties. For example, he identifies most of the characters by name so that the narrative can be more easily followed by a broad-based audience of Western readers. (In 2008, a 4,400-pageBrailleversion of the SeidenstickerGenjiwas completed. This Braille edition was the product of five Japanese housewives fromSetagaya, Tokyo,working voluntarily for five years and was subsequently donated to the Japan Braille Library(Nhật Bản điểm tự đồ thư quán)and theLibrary of Congress.It is also available for download.)
• The McCulloughGenji(1994) – A selection from ten chapters ofThe Tale of Genjialong with selections fromThe Tale of the Heike,translated by Helen Craig McCullough for Stanford University Press.
• The TylerGenji(2001) – Tyler'sGenjicontains more extensive explanatory footnotes and commentary than the previous translations, describing the numerous poetical allusions and cultural aspects of the tale. Tyler consciously attempted to mimic the original style in ways that the previous translations did not. For example, this version does not use names for most characters, identifying them instead by their titles in a manner which was conventional in the context of the 11th-century original text. Writing forThe New York Times,reviewerJanice Nimuradescribed it as "wonderfully evocative of the original, [but] can be difficult to follow".According to Michael Wood, Tyler's version "makes a special virtue of attending to a certain ceremonial indirectness in the way the characters address one another. The great temptation for a translator is to say the unsaid things, and Tyler never gives in to it."Machiko Midorikawa notes in a review of Genji translations that more recent translators from classical Japanese "have endeavoured to find ways of preserving more of what once seemed unfamiliar or strange to English readers".
• The WashburnGenji(2015) – Dennis Washburn'sGenjiseparates the poems from the prose and puts interior thoughts in italics. The translation has been received slightly more controversially than Tyler's, with most criticism aimed at the perceived over-clarification of the text and addition of modern colloquialisms.

Reception and legacy

The Tale of Genjiis an important work of world literature.Jorge Luis Borgesis among the modern authors who have cited it as inspiration. He said of it, "The Tale of Genji,as translated byArthur Waley,is written with an almost miraculous naturalness, and what interests us is not the exoticism—the horrible word—but rather the human passions of the novel. Such interest is just: Murasaki's work is what one would quite precisely call apsychological novel... I dare to recommend this book to those who read me. "It is noted for its internal consistency, psychological depiction, and characterization. The novelistYasunari Kawabatasaid in hisNobel Prizeacceptance speech: "The Tale of Genjiin particular is the highest pinnacle of Japanese literature. Even down to our day there has not been a piece of fiction to compare with it. "

2000 yen note withThe Tale of Genjiand Murasaki Shikibu on the right corner

TheGenjiis also often referred to as "the first novel",though there is considerable debate over this; other texts that predateGenji,such as the 7th-centurySanskritKādambari,or the Greek and Roman novels from classical antiquity, such asDaphnis and Chloeand theSatyricon,are considered to be novels, and there is debate around whetherGenjican even be considered a "novel". Ivan Morris considers the psychological insight, complexity and unity of the work to qualify it for "novel" status while simultaneously disqualifying earlier works of prose fiction.Otherssee these arguments as subjective and unconvincing.

Related claims, perhaps in an attempt to sidestep these debates, are thatGenjiis the "first psychological novel" or "historical novel","the first novel still considered to be a classic" or other more qualified terms. However, critics have almost consistently describedThe Tale of Genjias the oldest, first, and/or greatest novel in Japanese literature,though enthusiastic proponents may have later neglected the qualifying category of 'in Japanese literature', leading to the debates over the book's place in world literature. Even in Japan, theTale of Genjiis not universally embraced; the lesser-knownOchikubo Monogatarihas been proposed as the "world's first full-length novel", even though its author is unknown.Despite these debates,The Tale of Genjienjoys solid respect, and its influence on Japanese literature has been compared to that ofPhilip Sidney'sArcadiaon English literature.

The novel and other works by Lady Murasaki are staple reading material in the curricula of Japanese schools. The Bank of Japan issued the 2000yenbanknote in her honor, featuring a scene from the novel based on the 12th-century illustrated handscroll. Since a 1 November 1008 entry inThe Diary of Lady Murasakiis the oldest date on which a reference toThe Tale of Genjihas appeared, 1 November was designated as the official day to celebrate Japanese classics. According to Act onClassics Day,the "classics" that are honored not only include literature, but encompass a wide range of arts such as music, art, traditional performing arts, entertainment, lifestyle art including tea ceremony and flower arrangement and other cultural products.

The names of the chapters became a central element in a incense-based game called Genjikō, part of the larger practice ofMonkōpopular among the nobility. In Genjikō, players must match the scents of a series of five incense samples without being told the names of said samples. Each possible combination was matched to a symbol, called agenji-mon,that represented a chapter from the story.

Adaptations in other media

• 12th-century illustrated hand scroll,Genji Monogatari Emaki
• 1951 filmThe Tale of GenjibyKōzaburō Yoshimura
• 1966 film byTetsuji Takechi
• 1980 mangaAsaki Yume MishibyWaki Yamato
• 1981 theatre performance run by theTakarazuka Revue
• 1987 anime filmThe Tale of GenjibyGisaburō Sugii– covers only the first 12 chapters, while adding in some psychological motivation that is not explicit in the novel.
• 1987 filmO Desejado ou As montanhas da luabyPaulo Rocha
• 1988mangabyMiyako Maki
• 1989 theatre performance run by the Takarazuka Revue
• 2000operabyMiki Minoru
• 2001 filmSennen no Koi Story of Genji
• 2009 anime seriesGenji Monogatari SennenkibyOsamu Dezaki
• 2011 filmGenji Monogatari: Sennen no Nazo
• 2015 theatre performance run by the Takarazuka Revue; actress Asumi Rio received the Agency for Cultural Affairs Arts Festival award for her portrayal of Genji.
• 2022 manga in EnglishLady Murasaki’s Tale of Genjiby Ai Takita andSean Michael Wilson

See also

• Ghost stories
• Hagiwara Hiromichi
• Jūnihitoe,the layered, colour-coded robes worn by female members of the Imperial court
• Sudare
• The Pillow Book
• The Tale of Genji Museum
• Tales of Ise
• Yang Guifei
• You Xian Ku

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External links

• The Tale of GenjiatProject Gutenberg
• Genji Monogataripublic domain audiobook atLibriVox
• Japanese Literature – Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of JapanContains the 1882 Suematsu translation of the first 17 chapters ofThe Tale of Genji,with an introduction and notes.
• World Digital Librarypresentation ofGenji MonogatariGenji monogatari: Volume One, Kiritsubo.Library of Congress.Primary source moveable type book. 1596–1615, first printed edition of the world's first great novel.