Theravada

Theravāda(/ˌtɛrəˈvɑːðə/;lit.'School of the Elders';Chinese:Ghế trên bộ Phật giáo;Vietnamese:Thượng tọa bộ)is the most commonly accepted name ofBuddhism's oldest existing school.The school's adherents, termedTheravādins(anglicizedfromPalitheravādī),have preserved their version ofGautama Buddha's teaching orDhammain thePāli Canonfor over two millennia.

The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in aclassical Indian language,Pāli,which serves as the school'ssacred languageandlingua franca.In contrast toMahāyānaandVajrayāna,Theravāda tends to be conservative in matters of doctrine (pariyatti) and monastic discipline (vinaya).One element of thisconservatismis the fact that Theravāda rejects the authenticity of theMahayana sutras(which appearedc. 1st century BCEonwards).Consequently, Theravāda generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas andbodhisattvasbelieved by the Mahāyāna school, such asAmitābhaandVairocana,because they are not found in their scriptures.

Theravāda derives fromIndianSthavira nikāya(anearly Buddhist school). This tradition later began to develop significantly inIndiaandSri Lankafrom the 3rd century BCE onwards, particularly with the establishment of the Pāli Canon in its written form and the development of itscommentarialliterature.From both India, as its historical origin, and Sri Lanka, as its principal center of development, the Theravāda tradition subsequentlyspread to Southeast Asia,where it became the dominant form of Buddhism.Theravāda is the official religion ofSri Lanka,Myanmar,andCambodia,and the main dominant Buddhist variant found inLaosandThailand.It is practiced by minorities inIndia,Bangladesh,China,Nepal,North Korea,Vietnam,thePhilippines,Indonesia,Malaysia,andTaiwan.Thediasporaof all of these groups, as well as converts around the world, also embrace and practice Theravāda Buddhism.

During the modern era, new developments have includedBuddhist modernism,theVipassana movementwhich reinvigorated Theravāda meditation practice,the growth of theThai Forest Traditionwhich reemphasized forest monasticism and the spread of Theravāda westward to places such as India and Nepal, along with Buddhist immigrants and converts in theEuropean Unionand in theUnited States.

History

Main article:History of Theravāda Buddhism

Pre-modern

TheThuparamayaStupa, the earlieststupaafter Theravada Buddhism became the official religion inSri Lanka,dating back to the reign of KingDevanampiya Tissa(247–207 BCE)

TheRuwanwelisayastupa, built by the Sri LankanKing Dutugemunu(c. 140 BCE)

The Theravāda school descends from theVibhajjavāda,a division within theSthāvira nikāya,one of the two major orders that arose after thefirst schismin the Indian Buddhist community.Theravāda sources trace their tradition to the Third Buddhist council when elderMoggaliputta-Tissais said to have compiled theKathavatthu,an important work which lays out the Vibhajjavāda doctrinal position.

Aided by the patronage of Mauryan kings likeAshoka,this school spread throughout India and reachedSri Lankathrough the efforts of missionary monks likeMahinda.In Sri Lanka, it became known as theTambapaṇṇiya (and later as Mahāvihāravāsins)which was based at theGreat Vihara (Mahavihara)inAnuradhapura(the ancient Sri Lankan capital).According to Theravāda sources, another one of the Ashokan missions was also sent toSuvaṇṇabhūmi( "The Golden Land" ), which may refer to Southeast Asia.

By the first century BCE, Theravāda Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of theKingdom of Anuradhapura.The Pali Canon, which contains the main scriptures of the Theravāda, was committed to writing in the first century BCE.Throughout the history of ancient and medieval Sri Lanka, Theravāda was the main religion of theSinhalese peopleand its temples and monasteries were patronized by theSri Lankan kings,who saw themselves as the protectors of the religion.

Gold Plates containing fragments of the Pali Tipitaka (5th century) found in Maunggan (a village near the city ofSriksetra)

Bagan,the capital of theBagan Kingdom.Between the 11th and 13th centuries, more than 10,000 temples,pagodasand monasteries were constructed in the Bagan plains.

Over time, two other sects split off from the Mahāvihāra tradition, theAbhayagiriandJetavana.While the Abhayagiri sect became known for thesyncreticstudy ofMahayanaandVajrayanatexts, as well as the Theravāda canon, the Mahāvihāra tradition did not accept these new scriptures.Instead, Mahāvihāra scholars likeBuddhaghosafocused on the exegesis of the Pali scriptures and on theAbhidhamma.These Theravāda sub-sects often came into conflict with each other over royal patronage.The reign ofParākramabāhu I(1153–1186) saw an extensive reform of the Sri Lankan sangha after years of warfare on the island. Parākramabāhu created a single unified sangha which came to be dominated by the Mahāvihāra sect.

Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravāda Buddhism became a dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms ofSri KsetraandDvaravatifrom about the 5th century CE onwards.The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language are gold plates found at Sri Ksetra dated circa the 5th to 6th century.Before the Theravāda tradition became the dominant religion in Southeast Asia, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana and Hinduism were also prominent.

Starting at around the 11th century, Sinhalese Theravāda monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the TheravādinMahaviharaschool.The patronage of monarchs such as the Burmese kingAnawrahta(Pali: Aniruddha, 1044–1077) and the Thai kingRam Khamhaeng(floruit.late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravāda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand.

Burmese and Thai kings saw themselves asDhamma Kingsand as protectors of the Theravāda faith. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices.During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda also became established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. In Cambodia, numerous Hindu and Mahāyāna temples, most famouslyAngkor WatandAngkor Thom,were transformed into Theravādin monasteries.

Modern history

A Burmese man meditates inMyanmar.The widespread practice of meditation by laypersons is a modern development in Theravāda.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called "Buddhist modernism".In the British colonies ofCeylon(modern Sri Lanka) andBurma(Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools).In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide a Buddhist education.Anagarika Dhammapala,Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera,Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala TheraandHenry Steel Olcott(one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival.Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, theAmarapura Nikāyaand theRāmañña Nikāya.

In Burma, an influential modernist figure was kingMindon Min(1808–1878), known for his patronage of theFifth Buddhist council(1871) and theTripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda(still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the "Vipassana movement",which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation anddoctrinal learning.Ledi Sayadaw(1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement.After independence, Myanmar held theSixth Buddhist council(Vesak1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of thePāli Canon,which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era includeU Narada,Mahasi Sayadaw,Sayadaw U Pandita,Nyanaponika Thera,Webu Sayadaw,U Ba Khinand his studentS.N. Goenka.

Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout the colonial era), the religion became much more centralized,bureaucratizedand controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of theChakri dynasty.KingMongkut(r. 1851–1868) and his successorChulalongkorn(1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by theSangha Council of Elders(Pali:Mahāthera Samāgama), the highest body of the Thai sangha.Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, theDhammayuttikaNikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening).The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational.Under the leadership of PrinceWachirayan Warorot,a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks.

Thai Forest teacherAjahn ChahwithAjahn Sumedho(front right),Ajahn Pasanno(rear and left of Sumedho) and other monastics (1980)

The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are theSri Lankan Forest Traditionand theThai Forest Tradition,founded byAjahn Mun(1870–1949) and his students.

Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in the modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. UnderFrench Rule,French indologists of theÉcole française d'Extrême-Orientbecame involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914.While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after the end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile.In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since thePathet Laosought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control.During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study.

Global Vipassana Pagoda,Maharashtra, India. S.N. Goenka laid the foundation for the structure in 2000 and the pagoda opened in 2009. Regular meditation courses are held at the complex.

The modern era also saw the spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include:

• The 20th-century Nepalese Theravāda movement which introduced Theravāda Buddhism toNepaland was led by prominent figures such asDharmaditya Dharmacharya,Mahapragya,PragyanandaandDhammalok Mahasthavir.
• The establishment of some of the first Theravāda Viharas in the Western world, such as theLondon Buddhist Vihara(1926),Das Buddhistische Hausin Berlin (1957) and the Washington Buddhist Vihara in Washington, DC (1965).
• The founding of theBengal Buddhist Association(1892) and the Dharmankur Vihar (1900) inCalcuttaby the Bengali monkKripasaranMahasthavir, which were key events in the Bengali Theravāda revival.
• The founding of theMaha Bodhi Societyin 1891 byAnagarika Dharmapalawhich focused on the conservation and restoration of important Indian Buddhist sites, such asBodh GayaandSarnath.
• The introduction of Theravāda to other Southeast Asian nations like Singapore,IndonesiaandMalaysia.Especially with Ven.K. Sri Dhammanandamissionary efforts among English-speaking Chinese communities. In addition, the establishment of theIndonesian Theravāda Saṅghain 1976 and the Malaysian Theravāda Buddhist Council in 2012 also signaled the revival of Theravāda in both countries.
• The return of Western Theravādin monks trained in the Thai Forest Tradition to western countries and the subsequent founding of monasteries led by western monastics, such asAbhayagiri Buddhist Monastery,Chithurst Buddhist Monastery,Metta Forest Monastery,Amaravati Buddhist Monastery,Birken Forest Buddhist Monastery,Bodhinyana MonasteryandSantacittarama.
• The spread of theVipassana movementaround the world by the efforts of people likeMother Sayamagyi,S.N. Goenka,Anagarika Munindra,Joseph Goldstein,Jack Kornfield,Sharon Salzberg,Dipa Ma,andRuth Denison.
• The Vietnamese Theravāda movement, led by figures such as Ven. Hộ-Tông (Vansarakkhita).

Texts

Pāli Tipiṭaka

Main article:Pali Canon

Pre-modern copies of the Tipiṭaka were preserved inpalm-leaf manuscripts,most of which have not survived the humid climate of South Asia and Southeast Asia.

A full modern set of the Tipiṭaka can fill many volumes (from 40 to over 50 volumes depending on the edition).

According to Kate Crosby, for Theravāda, the PāliTipiṭaka,also known as the Pāli Canon is "the highest authority on what constitutes the Dhamma (the truth or teaching of the Buddha) and the organization of the Sangha (the community of monks and nuns)."

The language of the Tipiṭaka,Pāli,is amiddle-Indic languagewhich is the main religious and scholarly language in Theravāda. This language may have evolved out of various Indian dialects, and is related to, but not the same as, the ancient language ofMagadha.

An early form of the Tipiṭaka may have been transmitted toSri Lankaduring the reign ofAshoka,which saw a period of Buddhist missionary activity. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit its Tipiṭaka to writing.Therecensionof the Tipiṭaka which survives today is that of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara sect.

The oldest manuscripts of the Tipiṭaka from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 15th Century, and they are incomplete.Complete manuscripts of the fourNikayasare only available from the 17th Century onwards.However, fragments of the Tipiṭaka have been found in inscriptions from Southeast Asia, the earliest of which have been dated to the 3rd or 4th century.According to Alexander Wynne, "they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means that the Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years."

There are numerous editions of the Tipiṭaka, some of the major modern editions include thePali Text Societyedition (published in Roman script), the BurmeseSixth Counciledition (inBurmese script,1954–56) and the Thai Tipiṭaka edited and published inThai scriptafter the council held during the reign ofRama VII(1925–35). There is also aKhmeredition, published inPhnom Penh(1931–69).

The structure of the books considered canonical within the Pali Tripitaka. The Theravāda school generally only recognizes the Pali Tripitaka and rejects the authenticity of otherTripitakaversions.

The Pāli Tipitaka consists of three parts: theVinaya Pitaka,Sutta PitakaandAbhidhamma Pitaka.Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the collection, its composition dating from around the 3rd century BCE onwards.The Pāli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravāda school. There are also some texts which were late additions that are included in the fifth Nikaya, theKhuddaka Nikāya('Minor Collection'), such as thePaṭisambhidāmagga(possibly c. 3rd to 1st century BCE) and theBuddhavaṃsa(c. 1st and 2nd century BCE).

The main parts of theSutta Pitakaand some portions of theVinayashow considerable overlap in content with theAgamas,the parallel collections used by non-Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially inSanskrit,Prakrit,andTibetan,as well as the various non-Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, theseEarly Buddhist texts(i.e. the Nikayas and parts of the Vinaya) are generally believed to be some of the oldest and most authoritative sources on the doctrines ofpre-sectarian Buddhismby modern scholars.

Much of the material in the earlier portions is not specifically "Theravādan", but the collection of teachings that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According toPeter Harvey,while the Theravādans may have added texts to their Tipiṭaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material.

The historically later parts of the canon, mainly the Abhidhamma and some parts of the Vinaya, contain some distinctive elements and teachings which are unique to the Theravāda school and often differ from the Abhidharmas or Vinayas of otherearly Buddhist schools.For example, while the Theravāda Vinaya contains a total of 227 monastic rules forbhikkhus,theDharmaguptakaVinaya (used inEast Asian Buddhism) has a total of 253 rules for bhikkhus (though the overall structure is the same).These differences arose from the systematization and historical development of doctrines and monasticism in the centuries after the death of the Buddha.

The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language." Its texts present a new method, the Abhidhamma method, which attempts to build a single consistent philosophical system (in contrast with the suttas, which present numerous teachings given by the Buddha to particular individuals according to their needs).Because the Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional structure of consciousness, it has often been compared to a kind ofphenomenologicalpsychologyby numerous modern scholars such asNyanaponika,Bhikkhu BodhiandAlexander Piatigorsky.

The Theravāda school has traditionally held the doctrinal position that the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka was actually taught by the Buddha himself.Modern scholarship in contrast, has generally held that the Abhidhamma texts date from the 3rd century BCE onwards.However some scholars, such asFrauwallner,also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out ofexegeticalandcatecheticalwork which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in the suttas, calledmatikas.

Non-canonical literature

Main article:Pali literature

Buddhaghosa(right) (c. 5th century), shown here presenting three copies of his influential doctrinalcompendium,theVisuddhimagga,to the elders of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara school.

There are numerous Theravāda works which are important for the tradition even though they are not part of the Tipiṭaka. Perhaps the most important texts apart from the Tipiṭaka are the works of the influential scholarBuddhaghosa(4th–5th century CE), known for hisPāli commentaries(which were based on older Sri Lankan commentaries of the Mahavihara tradition). He is also the author of a very important compendium of Theravāda doctrine, theVisuddhimagga.Other figures likeDhammapalaandBuddhadattaalso wrote Theravāda commentaries and other works in Pali during the time of Buddhaghosa.While these texts do not have the same scriptural authority in Theravāda as the Tipiṭaka, they remain influential works for theexegesisof the Tipiṭaka.

An important genre of Theravādin literature is shorter handbooks and summaries, which serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentaries. Two of the more influential summaries are Sariputta Thera'sPālimuttakavinayavinicchayasaṅgaha,a summary of Buddhaghosa's Vinaya commentary and Anuruddha'sAbhidhammaṭṭhasaṅgaha(a "Manual of Abhidhamma" ).

Throughout the history of Theravāda, Theravāda monks also produced other works of Pāli literature such as historical chronicles (like theDipavamsaand theMahavamsa),hagiographies,poetry, Pāli grammars, and "sub-commentaries"(that is, commentaries on the commentaries).

While Pāli texts are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravādins, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings through vernacular literature, oral teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media.According to Kate Crosby, "there is a far greater volume of Theravāda literature in vernacular languages than in Pāli."

An important genre of Theravādin literature, in both Pāli and vernacular languages, are theJataka tales,stories of the Buddha's past lives. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. TheVessantara Jātakais one of the most popular of these.

Other Buddhist texts

Most Theravāda Buddhists generally considerMahāyānaBuddhist scriptures to beapocryphal,meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha.Consequently, Theravādin generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas andbodhisattvasbelieved by theMahāyānaschool, such asAmitābhaandVairocana,because they are not found in the canonical scriptures.

Doctrine (pariyatti)

Painting of Buddha's first sermon fromWat Chedi Liemin Thailand

Core teachings

The core of Theravāda Buddhist doctrine is contained in the Pāli Canon, the only complete collection ofEarly Buddhist Textssurviving in a classicalIndic language.These basic Buddhist ideas are shared by the other Early Buddhist schoolsas well as by Mahayana traditions.They include central concepts such as:

• A doctrine of action (karma), which is based on intention (cetana) and a related doctrine ofrebirthwhich holds that after death, sentient beings which are not fully awakened will transmigrate to another body, possibly in anotherrealm of existence.The type of realm one will be reborn in is determined by the being's past karma. This cyclical universe filled with birth and death is namedsamsara.
• A rejection of other doctrines and practices found inBrahmanical Hinduism,including the idea that theVedasare a divine authority. Any form of sacrifices to the gods (includinganimal sacrifices) andritual purificationby bathing are considered useless and spiritually corrupted.The Pāli texts also reject the idea thatcastesare divinely ordained.
• A set of major teachings called thebodhipakkhiyādhammā(factors conducive to awakening).
• Descriptions of various meditative practices or states, namely the fourjhanas(meditative absorptions) andthe formless dimensions (arupāyatana).
• Ethical training (sila)including the ten courses of wholesome action and thefive precepts.
• Nirvana(Pali:nibbana), the highest good and final goal in Theravāda Buddhism. It is the complete and final end of suffering, a state of perfection. It is also the end of all rebirth, but it isnotan annihilation (uccheda).
• The corruptions or influxes (āsavas), such as the corruption of sensual pleasures (kāmāsava), existence-corruption (bhavāsava), and ignorance-corruption (avijjāsava).
• The doctrine of impermanence (anicca), which holds that all physical and mental phenomena are transient, unstable and inconstant.
• The doctrine of not-self (anatta), which holds that all the constituents of a person, namely, thefive aggregates(physical form,feelings,perceptions,intentionsandconsciousness), are empty of a self (atta), since they are impermanent and not always under our control. Therefore, there is no unchanging substance, permanent self,soul,or essence.
• TheFive hindrances(pañca nīvaraṇāni), which are obstacles to meditation: (1) sense desire, (2) hostility, (3) sloth and torpor, (4) restlessness and worry and (5) doubt.
• TheFour Divine Abodes(brahmavihārā), also known as the four immeasurables (appamaññā)
• The Four Noble Truths,which state, in brief: (1) There isdukkha(suffering, unease); (2) There is a cause of dukkha, mainly craving (tanha); (3) The removal of craving leads to the end (nirodha) of suffering, and (4) there is a path (magga) to follow to bring this about.
• The framework ofDependent Arising(paṭiccasamuppāda), which explains how suffering arises (beginning withignoranceand ending in birth, old age and death) and how suffering can be brought to an end.
• TheMiddle Way,which is seen as having two major facets. First, it is a middle path between extreme asceticism and sensual indulgence. It is also seen as a middle view between the idea that at death beings are annihilated and the idea that there is an eternal self (Pali:atta).
• The Noble Eightfold Path,one of the main outlines of theBuddhist path to awakening.The eight factors are: Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and RightSamadhi.
• The practice oftaking refuge in the "Triple Gems":theBuddha,theDhammaand theSaṅgha.
• TheSeven Aids to Awakening(satta bojjhaṅgā): mindfulness (sati), investigation (dhamma vicaya), energy (viriya), bliss (pīti),relaxation (passaddhi),samādhi,and equanimity (upekkha).
• Thesix sense bases (saḷāyatana)and a corresponding theory ofSenseimpression (phassa) and consciousness (viññana).
• Various frameworks for the practice ofmindfulness(sati), mainly, the foursatipatthanas(establishments of mindfulness) and the 16 elements ofanapanasati(mindfulness of breathing).

Main doctrinal differences with other Buddhist traditions

A statue of the arahantMoggallana,who is identifiable by his dark (nila,i.e. blue/black) skin. He was one of the two most senior disciples of the Buddha and regarded asthe foremost in psychic powers.

The orthodox standpoints of Theravāda in comparison to otherBuddhist schoolsare presented in theKathāvatthu( "Points of Controversy" ), as well as in other works by later commentators like Buddhaghosa.

Traditionally, the Theravāda maintains the following key doctrinal positions, though not all Theravādins agree with the traditional point of view:

• On thephilosophy of time,the Theravāda tradition followsphilosophical presentism,the view that only present moment phenomena (dhamma) exist, against theeternalistview of the Sarvāstivādin tradition, which held that dhammas exist in all three times – past, present, future.
• The arahant is never a layperson, for they have abandoned the fetters of a layperson, including married life, using money, etc.
• The power (bala) of a Buddha is unique and not common to the disciples (savaka) or arahants.
• Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that a single thought (citta) cannot last as long as a day.
• Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that insight into the four noble truths happens in one moment (khaṇa), rather than gradually (anupubba), as was held by Sarvastivada. The defilements (kilesa) are also abandoned in a single moment, not gradually.
• Theravāda Abhidhamma traditionally rejects the view that there is an intermediate or transitional state (antarabhāva) between rebirths, they hold that rebirth happens instantaneously (in one mind moment).However, as has been noted by various modern scholars likeBhikkhu Sujato,there are canonical passages which support the idea of an intermediate state (such as theKutuhalasāla Sutta).Some Theravāda scholars (such asBalangoda Ananda Maitreya) have defended the idea of an intermediate state and it is also a very common belief among some monks and laypersons in the Theravāda world (where it is commonly referred to as thegandhabbaorantarabhāva).
• Theravāda also does not accept the Mahayana notion that there are two forms of nibbana, an inferior "localized" or "abiding" (pratiṣṭhita) nirvana anda non-abiding (apratiṣṭhita) nirvana.Such a dual nirvana theory is absent in the suttas.According to theKathāvatthu,there can be no dividing line separating the unconditioned element and there is no superiority or inferiority in the unity of nibbana.
• Theravāda exegetical works consider nibbana to be a real existent, instead of just a conceptual or nominal existent (prajñapti) referring to the mere destruction (khayamatta) of the defilements or non-existence of the five aggregates, as was held by some in theSautrantikaschool for example.In Theravāda scholasticism, nibbana is defined as the cessation (nirodha) consisting in non-arising and exists separately from the mere destruction of passion, hatred and delusion.
• Theravāda exegetical works, mental phenomena last for a very short moment or instant (khaṇa), but physical phenomena do not.
• Theravāda holds that the Buddha resided in the human realm (manussa-loka). It rejects thedocetic viewfound in Mahayana, which says that the Buddha's physical body was a mere manifestation, emanation or magical creation (nirmāṇa) of a transcendental being, and thus, that his birth and death a mere show and unreal.Also, the Theravāda school rejects the view that there are currently numerous Buddhas in all directions.
• Theravāda holds that there is a ground level of consciousness called thebhavaṅga,which conditions the rebirth consciousness.
• Theravāda rejects thePudgalavadadoctrine of thepudgala( "person" or "personal entity" ) as being more than a conceptual designation imputed on the five aggregates.
• Theravāda rejects the view of theLokottaravadaschools which held that the all acts done by theBuddha(including all speech, defecation and urination, etc.) were supramundane or transcendental (lokuttara).Also, for Theravāda, a Buddha does not have the power to stop something that has arisen from ceasing, they cannot stop a being from getting old, sick or dying, and they cannot create a permanent thing (like a flower that does not die).
• Theravāda traditionally defends the idea that the Buddha himself taught theAbhidhamma Pitaka.This is now being questioned by some modern Theravādins in light of modern Buddhist studies scholarship.
• In Theravāda,nibbanais the only unconstructed phenomenon (asankhata-dhamma, asankhatadhatu).Unlike in theSarvāstivādaschool,space(akasa), is seen as a constructed dhamma in Theravāda. Even the four noble truths are not unconstructed phenomena, neither is the domain of cessation (nirodhasamapatti). "Thatness" (tathatā) is also a constructed phenomenon. According to theDhammasangani,nibbana, the unconstructed element, is 'without condition' (appaccaya) and is different from the five aggregates which are 'with condition' (sappaccaya).
• In Theravāda, thebodhisatta pathis suitable only for a few exceptional people (like Sakyamuni and Metteya).Theravāda also defines a bodhisatta as someone who has made a vow in front of a living Buddha.
• In Theravāda, there is a physical sensory organ (indriya) that conditions the mental consciousness (manovinñāna) and is the material support for consciousness. Some later Theravāda works like theVisuddhimaggalocate this physical basis for consciousness at theheart(hadaya-vatthu), the Pali Canon itself is silent on this issue.Some modern Theravāda scholars propose alternative notions. For example,Suwanda H. J. Sugunasiriproposes that the basis for consciousness is the entire physical organism, which he ties with the canonical concept ofjīvitindriyaor life faculty.W. F. Jayasuriya meanwhile, argues that "hadaya"is not meant literally (it can also mean" essence "," core "), but refers to the entirenervous system(including the brain), which is dependent on the heart and blood.
• Theravādins generally reject theMahayana sutrasasBuddhavacana(word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts (or Mahayana doctrines) as reliable sources. They reject the view that theTipitakais incomplete or inferior (i.e. "Hinayana") and that Mahayana texts are somehow more advanced.
• Theravādins traditionally believe that an awakenedarahanthas an "incorruptible nature" and are thus morally perfect.They have no ignorance or doubts. According to Theravāda doctrine, arahants (as well as the other three lesser ariyas: stream enterers etc.) cannot fall back or regress from their state.

Abhidhamma philosophy

Main article:Theravāda Abhidhamma

Ledi Sayadawwas one of the great Abhidhamma scholars of the 20th century as well as a teacher of meditation.

Theravāda scholastics developed a systematic exposition of the Buddhist doctrine called theAbhidhamma.In the Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through an analytical method in which experience is explained using various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called "dhammas". Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha include the twelve sense 'spheres' orayatanas,thefive aggregatesor khandha and the eighteen elements of cognition ordhatus.

Theravāda traditionally promotes itself as theVibhajjavāda"teaching of analysis" and as the heirs to the Buddha's analytical method. Expanding this model, Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism concerned itself with analyzing "ultimate truth"(paramattha-sacca) which it sees as being composed ofall possibledhammas and their relationships. The central theory of the Abhidhamma is thus known as the "dhamma theory"."Dhamma" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst), "psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" (Nyanaponika Thera).

According to the Sri Lankan scholarY. Karunadasa,a dhammas ( "principles" or "elements" ) are "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate limits".However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it is "only for the purposes of description" that they are postulated.Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the constituents of sentient experience; the irreducible 'building blocks' that make up one's world, albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances."Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they are not seen assubstances,essencesor independent particulars, since they are empty (suñña) of a self (attā) and conditioned.This is spelled out in thePatisambhidhamagga,which states that dhammas are empty ofsvabhava(sabhavena suññam).

According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest inontology"in contrast with theSarvastivadatradition. Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on the practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored".Ronkin does note however that later Theravāda sub-commentaries (ṭīkā) do show a doctrinal shift towards ontologicalrealismfrom the earlier epistemic and practical concerns.

On the other hand, Y. Karunadasa contends that the tradition of realism goes back to the earliest discourses, as opposed to developing only in later Theravada sub-commentaries:

If we base ourselves on the Pali Nikayas, then we should be compelled to conclude that Buddhism is realistic. There is no explicit denial anywhere of the external world. Nor is there any positive evidence to show that the world is mind-made or simply a projection of subjective thoughts. That Buddhism recognizes the extra-mental existence of matter and, the external world is clearly suggested by the texts. Throughout the discourses it is the language of realism that one encounters. The whole Buddhist practical doctrine and discipline, which has the attainment of Nibbana as its final goal, is based on the recognition of the material world and the conscious living beings living therein.

The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned (sankhata), while one is unconditioned, which isnibbana.The 81 conditioned dhammas are divided into three broad categories: consciousness (citta), associated mentality (cetasika) and materiality, or physical phenomena (rupa).Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as acitta,arises associated (sampayutta) with at least sevenmental factors (cetasikas).In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized byintentionalityand never exist in isolation.Much of Abhidhamma philosophy deals with categorizing the different consciousnesses and their accompanying mental factors as well as their conditioned relationships (paccaya).

Cosmology

Sakka in Tavatimsa Heaven, Wat Yang Thong,Songkhla,Thailand

A Burmese depiction of a hell scene

Main article:Buddhist cosmology of the Theravada school

The Pāli Tipiṭaka outlines a hierarchical cosmological system with variousplanes existence(bhava) into which sentient beings may be reborn depending on their past actions. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms.However, even for the gods (devas) in the higher realms likeIndra,there is still death, loss and suffering.

The main categories of the planes of existence are:

• Arūpa-bhava,the formless or incorporeal plane. These are associated with thefour formless meditations,that is: infinite space, infinite consciousness, infinite nothingness and neither perception nor non-perception. Beings in these realms live extremely long lives (thousands ofkappas).
• Kāma-bhava,the spiritual plane of desires. This includes numerous realms of existence such as: varioushells(niraya) which are devoid of happiness, the realms of animals, the hungry ghosts (peta), the realm of humans, and variousheavenrealms where thedevaslive (such asTavatimsaandTusita).
• Rūpa-bhava,the plane of form. The realms in this plane are associated with the four meditative absorptions (jhanas) and those who attain these meditations are reborn in these divine realms.

These various planes of existence can be found in countless world systems (loka-dhatu), which are born, expand, contract and are destroyed in a cyclical nature across vast expanses of time (measures in kappas). This cosmology is similar to other ancient Indian systems, such as theJain cosmology.This entire cyclical multiverse of constant birth and death is calledsamsara.Outside of this system of samsara isnibbana(lit. "vanishing, quenching, blowing out" ), a deathless (amata) andtranscendentreality, which is a total and final release (vimutti) from all suffering (dukkha) and rebirth.

Soteriology and Buddhology

According to Theravāda doctrine, release from suffering (i.e.nibbana) is attained infour stagesof awakening (bodhi):

1. Stream-Enterers:Those who have destroyed the first threefetters(the falseviewof self, doubt/indecision, and clinging to ethics and vows);
2. Once-Returners:Those who have destroyed the first three fetters and have weakened the fetters of desire and ill-will;
3. Non-Returners:Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters, which bind beings to the world of the senses;
4. Arahants(lit. "honorable" or "worthies" ): Those who have realizedNibbanaand are free from all defilements. They have abandoned all ignorance, craving for existence, restlessness (uddhacca) and subtle pride (māna).

In Theravāda Buddhism, aBuddhais a sentient being who has discovered the path out of samsara by themselves, has reached Nibbana and then makes the path available to others by teaching (known as "turning the wheel of the Dhamma" ). A Buddha is also believed to have extraordinary powers and abilities (abhiññā), such as the ability to read minds and fly through the air.

The Theravāda canon depictsGautama Buddhaas being the most recent Buddha in a line of previous Buddhas stretching back for aeons. They also mention the future Buddha, namedMetteyya.Traditionally, the Theravāda school also rejects the idea that there can be numerous Buddhas active in the world at the same time.

A Burmese illustrated manuscript depicting Sumedha (the future Buddha Gautama) andDīpankaraBuddha

Regarding the question of how a sentient being becomes a Buddha, the Theravāda school also includes a presentation of this path. Indeed, according toBuddhaghosa,there are three main soteriological paths: the path of the Buddhas (buddhayāna); the way of the individual Buddhas (paccekabuddhayāna); and the way of the disciples (sāvakayāna).

However, unlike in Mahayana Buddhism, the Theravāda holds that the Buddha path is not for everyone and that beings on the Buddha path (bodhisattas) are quite rare.While in Mahayana, bodhisattas refers to beings who have developed thewish to become Buddhas,Theravāda (like other early Buddhist schools), defines a bodhisatta as someone who has made a resolution (abhinīhāra) to become a Buddha in front of a living Buddha, and has also received a confirmation from that Buddha that they will reach Buddhahood.Dhammapala'sCariyāpiṭakais a Theravāda text which focuses on the path of the Buddhas, while theNidānakathāand theBuddhavaṃsaare also Theravāda texts which discuss the Buddha path.

Modern developments

The modern era saw new developments in Theravāda scholarship due to the influence of Western thought. As Donald K. Swearer writes:

Although monastic education is still grounded in the study of Buddhist texts, doctrine, and the Pali language, the curricula of monastic colleges and universities also reflect subject matter and disciplines associated with Western education.

Buddhist modernisttrends can be traced to figures likeAnagarika Dhammapala,KingMongkut,and the first prime minister of BurmaU Nu.They promoted a form of Buddhism that was compatible withrationalismand science, and opposed to superstition and certain folk practices.Walpola Rahula's,What the Buddha Taughtis seen by scholars as an introduction to modernist Buddhist thought and the book continues to be widely used in universities.

Another modern phenomenon is Buddhist philosophers who received an education in the West, such asK. N. Jayatilleke(a student ofWittgensteinatCambridge) andHammalawa Saddhatissa(who received his Phd atEdinburgh), going on to write modern works onBuddhist philosophy(Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge,1963 andBuddhist Ethics,1987 respectively).Henepola Gunaratanais another modern Theravāda scholar who studied philosophy in the west (at theAmerican University). The modern encounter with Christian missionaries also led to new debates (such as thePanadura debate) and doctrinal works written in defense of Buddhism or attacking Christian ideas, such as Gunapala Dharmasiri'sA Buddhist critique of the Christian concept of God(1988).

There have also been several modern Theravāda scholars which have taken a historical critical perspective on Theravāda literature and doctrine, attempting to understand its historical development. Some of these figures, such asDavid Kalupahana,Buddhadasa,andBhikkhu Sujato,have criticized traditional Theravāda commentators like Buddhaghosa for their doctrinal innovations which differ in significant ways from the early Buddhist texts.

The modern era also saw new Buddhist works on topics which pre-modern Buddhists avoided, such as sociallyengaged BuddhismandBuddhist economics.Thinkers such as Buddhadasa,Sulak Sivaraksa,Prayudh Payutto,Neville Karunatilakeand Padmasiri de Silva have written on these topics. Modern scholarship in western languages by western Buddhist monks such asNyanatiloka,Nyanaponika,Nyanamoli,Bhikkhu BodhiandAnalayois another recent development in the Theravāda world.

Practice (paṭipatti)

TheDhamma Wheelwith eight spokes usually symbolizes theNoble Eightfold Path.

Textual basis

In thePāli Canon,the path (magga) or way (patipada) of Buddhist practice isdescribed in various ways,one of the most widely used frameworks in Theravāda is theNoble Eightfold Path:

The Blessed One said, "Now what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration."

The Noble Eightfold Path can also be summarized as the Three Noble Disciplines ofsīla(moral conduct or discipline),Samādhi(meditation or concentration) andPaññā(understanding or wisdom).

Theravāda orthodoxy takes theseven stages of purificationas outlined in theVisuddhimaggaas the basic outline of the path to be followed. TheVisuddhimagga,a Sinhala Theravāda doctrinalsummawritten in the fifth century byBuddhaghosa,became the orthodox account of the Theravāda path to liberation in Sri Lanka after the 12th century and this influence spread to other Theravāda nations.It gives the sequence of seven purifications, in three sections:

• The first section (part 1) explains the rules of discipline, and the method for finding a correct temple to practice, or how to meet agood teacher.
• The second section (part 2) describesSamatha(calming) practice, object by object (seeKammaṭṭhānafor the list of the forty traditional objects). It mentions different stages ofSamādhi.
• The third section (parts 3–7) is a description of the fivekhandhas,ayatanas,theFour Noble Truths,dependent origination,and the practise ofVipassanā(insight) through the development of wisdom. It emphasizesdifferent forms of knowledgeemerging because of the practice. This part shows a great analytical effort specific toBuddhist philosophy.

This basic outline is based on the threefold discipline. The emphasis is on understanding thethree marks of existence,which removesignorance.Understanding destroys the tenfettersand leads toNibbana.

Theravādins believe that every individual is personally responsible for achieving their own self-awakening and liberation, each being responsible for their ownkarma(actions and consequences). Applying knowledge acquired through direct experience and personal realization is more heavily emphasized than beliefs about the nature of reality as revealed by the Buddha.

Moral conduct

Giving (Dana) is an important Buddhist virtue. The community of monastics is seen as the most meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness.

Sīla,meaning moral conduct, is mainly defined asright speech,right action,andright livelihood.It is primarily understood through the doctrine ofkamma.In Theravāda, one's previous intentional actions strongly influence one's present experience. Whatever intended actions are carried out will have future consequences, whether in this life or subsequent lives.Intention is central to the idea of kamma. Actions done with good intentions, even if they have bad results, will not have negative kammic consequences.

Several sets of precepts or moral trainings (sikkhāpada) guide right action. After takingRefugein the Triple Gems, lay Theravādin Buddhists traditionally take theFive precepts(whether for life or for a limited time) in the presence of Sangha.Laypeople also sometimes take an extended set ofEight precepts,which includes chastity during sacred days of observance such asUposatha.

Performing good deeds is another important feature of Theravādin Buddhist ethics. Doing so is said to make "merit" (puñña), which results in a better rebirth. The "ten wholesome actions" is a common list of good deeds:

1. Generosity (Dāna); This typically involves providing monks with "the four requisites"; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine; however, giving to charity and the needy is also considered dāna.
2. Moral conduct (Sīla); Keeping the five precepts and generally refraining from doing harm.
3. Meditation (Bhāvanā).
4. Dedication of merit; doing good deeds in the name of someone who has passed away or in the name of all sentient beings.
5. Rejoicing in merit of good deeds done by others, this is common in communal activities.
6. Rendering service to others; looking after others or needy.
7. Honoring others; showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together inAñjali Mudrā,and sometimes bowing.
8. Preaching or sharing the Dhamma;the gift of Dhamma is seen as a form of highest gift. (Dhammapada 354)
9. Listening to Dhamma
10. Having right view or Sammādiṭṭhi; mainly theFour Noble Truthsand thethree marks of existence.

Meditation

Main article:Buddhist meditation

Theravādin monks meditating inBodh Gaya(Bihar,India)

Meditation (Pāli:Bhāvanā,literally "causing to become" or cultivation) means the positive cultivation of one's mind.

Forms

Theravāda Buddhist meditation practice varies considerably in technique and objects.Currently, there are also various traditions of Theravāda meditation practice, such as theBurmese Vipassana tradition,theThai Forest Tradition,the esotericBorān kammaṭṭhāna('ancient practices'), the BurmeseWeikzatradition,Dhammakaya meditationand the WesternInsight Meditationmovement.

Theravāda Buddhist meditation practices orBhavana(mental cultivation) are categorized into two broad categories:Samathabhavana (calming), andVipassanābhavana (investigation, insight).Originally these referred to effects or qualities of meditation, but after the time ofBuddhaghosa,they also referred to two distinct meditation types or paths (yāna).

Samatha( "calm" ) consists of meditation techniques in which the mind is focused on a single object, thought, or gatha, leading toSamādhi'.In traditional Theravāda it is considered to be the base forvipassanā( "insight" ). In the Theravāda-tradition, as early as thePāli Nikayas,the fourjhānasare regarded as asamatha-practice. The eighth and final step of the Eightfold Path, Right Samadhi, is often defined as the four jhanas.In thePāli Nikayas,Jhānas are described as preceding the awakening insight of the Buddha, which turned him into an awakened being.Yet the interpretation ofjhanaas single-pointed concentration and calm may be a later re-interpretation in which the original aim ofjhanawas lost.

Vipassana( "insight", "clear seeing" ) refers to practices that aim to develop an inner understanding or knowledge of the nature of phenomena (dhammas), especially the characteristics ofdukkha,anattaandanicca,which are seen as being universally applicable to all constructed phenomena (sankhata-dhammas).Vipassanais also described as insight intodependent origination,thefive aggregates,thesense spheresand theFour Noble Truths.It is the primary focus of the modernist Burmese Vipassana movement. In western countries it is complemented with thefour divine abidings,the development of loving-kindness and compassion.

Vipassanapractice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice ofsila,morality, giving up worldly thoughts and desires.The practitioner then engages inanapanasati,mindfulness of breathing, which is described in theSatipatthana Suttaas going into the forest and sitting beneath a tree and then simply to watch the breath. If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short.In the "New Burmese Method" the practitionerpays attentionto any arising mental or physical phenomenon, engaging invitaka,noting or naming physical and mental phenomena ( "breathing, breathing" ), without engaging the phenomenon with conceptual thinking.By noticing the arising of physical and mental phenomena the meditator becomes aware of how sense impressions arise from the contact between the senses and physical and mental phenomena,as described in the fiveskandhasandpaṭiccasamuppāda.The practitioner also becomes aware of the perpetual changes involved in breathing, and the arising and passing away of mindfulness.This noticing is accompanied by reflections oncausationand other Buddhist teachings, leading to insight intodukkha,anatta,andanicca.When the three characteristics have been comprehended, reflection subdues and the process of noticing accelerates, noting phenomena in general without necessarily naming them.

According to Vajiranāṇa Mahathera, writing from a traditional and text-based point of view, in the Pāli Canon whether one begins the practice by way of samatha or by way of vipassanā is generally seen as depending on one's temperament. According to Vajiranāṇa Mahathera, it is generally held that there are two kinds of individuals. Those of a passionate disposition (or those who enter the path by faith) attain Arahatship through vipassanā preceded by samatha. Those of a skeptical disposition (or those who enter by way of wisdom or the intellect) achieve it through samatha preceded by vipassanā.

Aims of meditation

Ajahn Mun, a key figure in the founding of theThai Forest Tradition,is widely considered to have been an Arahant in Thailand.

Traditionally, the ultimate goal of the practice is to achieve mundane and supramundane wisdom. Mundane wisdom is the insight in thethree marks of existence.The development of this insight leads to four supramundane paths and fruits, these experiences consist a direct apprehension of Nibbana.Supramundane (lokuttara)wisdom refers to that which transcends the world ofsamsara.

Apart fromnibbana,there are various reasons why traditional Theravāda Buddhism advocates meditation, including a goodrebirth,supranormal powers,combating fear and preventing danger. Recent modernist Theravādins have tended to focus on thepsychological benefitsand psychologicalwell-being.

Historical development and sources

The practice of Theravāda meditation can be traced back to the 5th century exegeteBuddhaghosa,who systematized the classic Theravāda meditation, dividing them into samatha and vipassana types and listing40 different forms(known as "kammaṭṭhānas","workplaces ") in his magnum opus, theVisuddhimagga.This text has remained central for the study and practice of Theravāda meditation. Buddhaghosa's commentary on theSatipatthana sutta( "Bases of mindfulness discourse" ), as well as the source text itself, are also another important source for meditation in this tradition.Buddhaghosa's work drew heavily on the Pali suttas as well as the PaliAbhidhamma.Kate Crosby notes that Buddhaghosa's work also "explicitly refers to the contemporaneous existence of secret meditation manuals but not to their content."

Regarding post Visuddhimagga Theravāda meditation, according to Kate Crosby,

In the period between the Visuddhimagga and the present, there have been numerous meditation texts, both manuals and descriptive treatises. Many of the texts found in manuscript collections relate to meditation, some on a single, simple subject such as the recollection of the qualities of the Buddha, others more complex. Little research has been done to assess their variety. One difficulty is that meditation manuals as such are often in a mixture of a classical language, that is, Pali, and a vernacular that may or may not be a currently used language. Also, actual manuals often contain prompts or reminders rather than an in-depth explanation. In recent years it has emerged that there is still extant a relatively high number of manuals and related texts pertaining to a system of meditation called – among other things – borān kammaṭṭhāna or yogāvacara. Its core text, the Mūla-kammaṭṭhāna "original, fundamental or basic meditation practice," circulated under a number of different titles, or without a title, throughout the Tai–Lao–Khmer and Sri Lankan Buddhist worlds. Some versions of this text are simple lists of kammaṭṭhāna and from that perspective look entirely in accord with the Visuddhimagga or Theravada Abhidhamma texts. Other versions contain extensive narratives, explanations of symbolism, and of the somatic locations involved in the practice that make it clear that we are dealing with techniques of practice not described in the Canon or Visuddhimagga.

According to Crosby, the esoteric borān kammaṭṭhāna or yogāvacara meditation tradition was the dominant form of meditation in the Theravāda world during the 18th century, and may date as far back as the 16th century. Crosby notes that this tradition of meditation involved a rich collection of symbols, somatic methods and visualizations which included "the physical internalisation or manifestation of aspects of the Theravada path by incorporating them at points in the body between the nostril and navel."In spite of the novel elements in this meditation tradition, close study of borān kammaṭṭhāna texts reveals that they are closely connected to Theravada Abhidhamma and the works of Buddhaghosa.Modernist reforms which emphasized Pali Canon study, a shift in state support to other traditions and modern wars in Indochina led to this tradition's decline, and it now only survives in a few Cambodian and Thai temples.

Mahasi Sayadaw

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Theravāda world saw a modernist revival and reinvention of meditation practice, as exemplified by the Burmese Vipassana movement.According to Buswellvipassana,"appears to have fallen out of practice" by the 10th century, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming ofMaitreya.The practice was revived in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century byMedawi(1728–1816) and by later figures such asLedi SayadawandMahāsī Sayadawduring the 19th and 20th centuries. These Burmese figures re-inventedvipassana-meditation and developed simplified meditation techniques, based on theSatipatthana sutta,theVisuddhimagga,and other texts, emphasizingsatipatthanaand bare insight.These techniques were globally popularized by theVipassana movementin the second half of the 20th century.

Similar revival movements developed inThailand,such as the Thai forest tradition and Dhammakaya meditation. These traditions are influenced by the older borān kammaṭṭhāna forms.Thailand and Cambodia also saw attempts to preserve and revive the ancient "borān kammaṭṭhāna" tradition of meditation.In Sri Lanka, the new Buddhist traditions of theAmarapuraandRāmañña Nikāyasdeveloped their own meditation forms based on the Pali Suttas, the Visuddhimagga, and other manuals, while borān kammaṭṭhāna mostly disappeared by the end of the 19th century.

Though theVipassana movementhas popularised meditation both in traditional Theravāda countries among the laity, and in western countries, "meditation plays a minor if not negligible role in the lives of the majority of Theravāda monks."Meditation is especially popular laypersons,especially during special religious holidays or in their old age, when they have more free time to spend at the temple.Buddhist modernists tend to present Buddhism as rational and scientific, and this has also affected how Vipassana meditation has been taught and presented. This has led in some quarters to a playing down of older non-empirical elements of Theravāda, associated with 'superstition'.Strains of older, traditional Theravāda meditation known as "borān kammaṭṭhāna" still exist, but this tradition has mostly been eclipsed by theBuddhist modernistmeditation movements.

Other practices

Circumambulationaround a temple or a stupa is also a common devotional practice.

Laypersons and monks also perform various types of religious practices daily or duringBuddhist holidays.One of these is keeping aBuddhist shrinewith a picture or statue of the Buddha for devotional practice in one's home, mirroring the larger shrines at temples.It is common to offer candles, incense, flowers and other objects to these shrine.Gestures of respect are also done in front of Buddha images and shrines, mainly the respectful salutation with the hands (añjalikamma), and the five-limbprostration(pañc'anga-vandana).

Buddhist forms of chantingis also widely practiced by both monks and laypersons, who may recite famous phrases such as the taking ofrefuge,theMetta Suttaand theMangala Suttain front of their shrine. Chanting may also be part of the practice of recollection (anussati), which refers to contemplating various topics such as the sublime qualities ofthe Buddha,Dhamma and Sangha or thefive subjects for daily recollection.This may be done as part of a dailypujaritual.

Another important religious practice for the devout is the keeping of special religious holidays known asUposathawhich are based on a lunar calendar. Laypersons commonly take the eight precepts while visiting a temple or monastery and commit to focusing on Buddhist practice for the day.

Study (ganthadhura) of the Buddhist texts and listening toDhamma talksby monks or teachers are also important practices.

Lay and monastic life

See also:Buddhist monasticism

Young Burmese monk

Distinction between lay and monastic life

Traditionally, Theravāda Buddhism has observed a distinction between the practices suitable for alay personand the practices undertaken by ordainedmonks(in ancient times, there was a separate body of practices for nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravāda, it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in theMahāyānaandVajrayānatraditions, with monastic life being hailed as a superior method of achievingNirvana.The view that Theravāda, unlike other Buddhist schools, is primarily a monastic tradition has, however, been disputed.

Some Western scholars have erroneously tried to claim that Mahāyāna is primarily a religion for laymen and Theravāda is a primarily monastic religion. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda have as their foundation strong monastic communities, which are almost identical in their regulations. Schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism without monastic communities of fully ordained monks and nuns are relatively recent and atypical developments, usually based on cultural and historical considerations rather than differences in fundamental doctrine. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda also provided a clear and important place for lay followers.

— Ron Epstein, "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism"

This distinction between ordained monks and laypeople – as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the Pāli Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks – have motivated some scholars to consider Theravāda Buddhism to be composed of multiple separate traditions, overlapping though still distinct. Most prominently, the anthropologistMelford Spiroin his workBuddhism and Societyseparated Burmese Theravāda into three groups: Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic Buddhism (concerned with makingmeritfor a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation ofNibbana,as described in the Tipitaka). He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the Pāli Canon. These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually considered non-exclusive by those who employ them.

The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termedmerit-making(falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit-making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, chanting protective or scriptural verses from thePali Canon,building roads and bridges, charity to the needy and providing drinking water to strangers along roadside. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.).Study of the Pāli scripturesand the practice ofmeditationare less common among the lay community in the past, though in the 20th century these areas have become more popular to the lay community, especially in Thailand.

Thai monks onpilgrimagein their orange robes

A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, includingBuddhadasa,Ajahn Maha Bua,Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo,Ajahn Pasanno,andAjahn Jayasaro,have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples.Ajahn Sumedho,a disciple ofAjahn Chah,founded theAmaravati Buddhist Monasteryin Hertfordshire, which has a retreat center specifically for lay retreats. Sumedho extended this to Harnham in Northumberland asAruna Ratanagiriunder the present guidance ofAjahn Munindo,another disciple of Ajahn Chah.

Lay devotee

The ceremony walks with lighted candles in hand around a temple onVesakhaPuja inUttaradit,Thailand.

In Pāli the word for a male lay devotee isUpasakaand a female devotee is Upasika. One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. As neither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives.

In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. Theravādin monasteries have been providing free education to many children since ancient times. In fact, today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. Religious rituals and ceremonies held in a monastery are always accompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel and monks often took up the role of mediators in most disputes. Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermonfour times a month:when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times.

It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. AsBhikkhu Bodhinotes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving."

In the modern era, it is now common for lay disciples to practice meditation, attend lay meditation centers and even aim for awakening. The impetus for this trend began in Myanmar and was supported by prime ministerU Nuwho himself established the International Meditation Center (IMC) inYangon.Modern lay teachers such asU Ba Khin(who was also the Accountant General of theUnion of Burma) promoted meditation as part of a laypersons daily routine.According to Donald K Swearer, another development in modern Theravāda is "the formation of lay Buddhist associations that have partially assumed the social service responsibilities formerly associated with the monastery".These include social service and activist organizations such as theYoung Men's Buddhist Associationof Colombo, the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress, theSarvodaya Shramadanaof A. T. Ariyaratne, the NGO's founded bySulak Sivaraksasuch as Santi Pracha.

Monastic vocation

A cavekuti(hut) in the Sri Lankan forest monasteryNa Uyana Aranya

Theravāda sources dating back to medieval Sri Lanka (2nd century BCE to 10th century CE) such as theMahavamsashow that monastic roles in the tradition were often seen as being in a polarity between urban monks (Sinhala:khaamawaasii,Pāli:gāmavasī) on one end and rural forest monks (Sinhala:aranyawaasii,Pali:araññavasi, nagaravasi,also known asTapassin) on the other.The ascetic focused monks were known by the namesPamsukulikas(rag robe wearers) andAraññikas(forest dwellers).

The Mahavamsa mentions forest monks associated with theMahavihara.The PāliDhammapadaCommentary mentions another split based on the "duty of study" and the "duty of contemplation".This second division has traditionally been seen as corresponding with the city – forest split, with the city monks focusing on the vocation of books (ganthadhura) or learning (pariyatti) while the forest monks leaning more towards meditation (vipassanadhura) and practice (patipatti).However this opposition is not consistent, and urban monasteries have often promoted meditation while forest communities have also produced excellent scholars, such as theIsland HermitageofNyanatiloka.

Scholar monks generally undertake the path of studying and preserving Theravāda'sPāli literature.Forest monks tend to be the minority among Theravāda sanghas and also tend to focus onasceticism(dhutanga) and meditative praxis.They view themselves as living closer to the ideal set forth by the Buddha, and are often perceived as such by lay folk, while at the same time often being on the margins of the Buddhist establishment and on the periphery of the social order.

While this divide seems to have been in existence for some time in the Theravāda school, only in the 10th century is a specifically forest monk monastery, mentioned as existing nearAnuradhapura,called "Tapavana".This division was then carried over into the rest of Southeast Asia as Theravāda spread.

Today there are forest based traditions in most Theravāda countries, including theSri Lankan Forest Tradition,theThai Forest Traditionas well as lesser known forest based traditions in Burma and Laos, such as the Burmese forest based monasteries (taw "yar) of thePa Auk Sayadaw.In Thailand, forest monks are known asphra thudong(ascetic wandering monks) orphra thudong kammathan(wandering ascetic meditator).

Ordination

Candidates for the Buddhist monkhood being ordained as monks in Thailand

The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, which is calculated from conception. Those under this age can perform traditional ceremonies such asshinbyu,in Myanmar, in order to ordain as novices (sāmaṇera). Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe the Ten Precepts. While there is no explicit minimum age for novices prescribed in the scriptures, it is traditionally accepted that boys as young as seven can be accepted for ordination. This tradition echoes the story of the Buddha's son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Both monks and nuns are expected to adhere to a specific code of discipline, of which monks follow 227 rules, and nuns follow 311.

In most Theravāda countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Myanmar, young men typically ordain for the retreat duringVassa,the three-month monsoon season, though shorter or longer periods of ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexible among Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill health.

Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay his gratitude" to his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination is dedicated for their well-being. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more mature and suitable husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally offered peasant boys an opportunity to receive free education in temple schools with sponsorship and accommodation.

In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practised, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon but not condemned. The continuing influence of thecaste system in Sri Lankaplays a role in the taboo against temporary or permanent ordination as a bhikkhu in some orders. Though Sri Lankan orders are often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.

For those born in Western countries who wish to become Buddhist monks or nuns, it is possible to undertake the lifestyle in their home countries, among other Buddhist monastics in Western countries, or to travel and take up residence in a Buddhist monastery in Asian countries such as Sri Lanka or Thailand. In countries where Buddhism is deeply rooted, it can often be easier to adhere to the lifestyle of a monk or nun, as it requires considerable discipline to successfully live by the non-secular rules and regulations for which Buddhist practices are known. For instance, Theravāda monastics are typically required to abstain from activities such as working, handling money, listening to music and cooking. Such obligations can be especially challenging in non-Buddhist societies.

Some of the more well-known Theravādin monks areAjahn Mun,Ajahn Chah,Ledi Sayadaw,Webu Sayadaw,Narada Maha Thera,Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo,Buddhadasa,Mahasi Sayadaw,Nyanatiloka Mahathera,Nyanaponika Thera,Preah Maha Ghosananda,U Pandita,Ajahn Sumedho,Ajahn Khemadhammo,Ajahn Brahm,Bhikkhu Bodhi,Ajahn Amaro,Ajahn Sucitto,Ajahn Jayasaro,Thanissaro Bhikkhu,Walpola Rahula Thero,Henepola Gunaratana,Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa,Bhante Yogavacara Rahula,Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro,K. Sri Dhammananda,Sayadaw U TejaniyaandBhikkhu Analayo.

Monastic practices

A Buddhist Monk chants evening prayers inside a monastery located near the town ofKantharalak,Thailand.

The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries within Theravāda. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.

In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3-month vassa period, the monk will wake up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed on alms-round and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from the bowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dhamma study and meditation. Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dhamma talk to the visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the traditionaleight Buddhist precepts.

The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex than the life of the forest monk. In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preachingbana,accepting alms, officiating funerals, teachingdhammato adults and children in addition to providing social services to the community.

After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they feel inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.

The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free, they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two and seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animals live in order to aid their meditation.

Those monks who have been able to achieve a high level of attainment will be able to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment.

Bhikkhunis

See also:Women in Buddhism,Ordination of women in Buddhism,andCriticism of Buddhism § Women in Buddhism

Dhammananda Bhikkhuni

A few years after the arrival ofMahinda,the bhikkhuSaṅghamittā,who is also believed to have been the daughter of Ashoka, came to Sri Lanka. She ordained the first nuns in Sri Lanka. In 429, by request of China's emperor, nuns fromAnuradhapurawere sent to China to establish the order there, which subsequently spread across East Asia. Theprātimokṣaof the nun's order inEast Asian Buddhismis theDharmaguptaka,which is different from the prātimokṣa of the current Theravāda school; the specific ordination of the early Sangha in Sri Lanka not known, although the Dharmaguptaka sect originated with the Sthāvirīya as well.

The nun's order subsequently died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century and in Burma in the 13th century. It had already died out around the 10th century in other Theravādin areas. Novice ordination has also disappeared in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as renunciates in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries. These "precept-holders" live in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular, the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better education than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests.In Tibet there is currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but theDalai Lamahas authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination.

In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan women were ordained fully as Theravāda bhikkhunis by a team of Theravāda monks in concert with a team of Korean nuns in India. There is disagreement among Theravādavinayaauthorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. TheDambullachapter of theSiam Nikayain Sri Lanka also carried out a nun's ordination at this time, specifically stating their ordination process was a valid Theravādin process where the other ordination session was not.This chapter has carried out ordination ceremonies for hundreds of nuns since then.This has been criticized by leading figures in the Siam Nikaya andAmarapura Nikaya,and the governing council ofBuddhism in Myanmarhas declared that there can be no valid ordination of nuns in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree with this.

In 1997Dhamma Cetiya Viharain Boston was founded by Ven. Gotami of Thailand, then a 10 precept nun; when she received full ordination in 2000, her dwelling became America's first Theravāda Buddhist bhikkhuni vihara.

A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen, became the first woman to receive the going-forth ceremony of a novice (and the gold robe) in Thailand, in 2002.On 28 February 2003,Dhammananda Bhikkhuni,formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination as a Theravāda nun. Dhammananda Bhikkhuni was ordained in Sri Lanka.The Thai Senate has reviewed and revoked the secular law passed in 1928 banning women's full ordination in Buddhism as unconstitutional for being counter to laws protecting freedom of religion. However, Thailand's two main Theravāda Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya, have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks.

In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravāda nuns, the first time such ordination had occurred in Australia.It was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October 2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and Hasapanna were ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full accordance with the Pāli Vinaya.

In 2010, in the US, four novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai Theravāda tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony.Henepola Gunaratanaand other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere.

The first bhikkhuni ordination in Germany, the ordination of German woman Samaneri Dhira, occurred on 21 June 2015 at Anenja Vihara.

In Indonesia, the first Theravāda ordination of bhikkhunis in Indonesia after more than a thousand years occurred in 2015 at Wisma Kusalayani in Lembang,BandunginWest Java.Those ordained included Vajiradevi Sadhika Bhikkhuni from Indonesia, Medha Bhikkhuni from Sri Lanka, Anula Bhikkhuni from Japan, Santasukha Santamana Bhikkhuni from Vietnam, Sukhi Bhikkhuni and Sumangala Bhikkhuni from Malaysia, and Jenti Bhikkhuni from Australia.

Monastic orders

Thai monks blessing theKing of Thailandin Wat Nong Wong,Amphoe Sawankhalok,Sukhothai,Thailand

Theravāda monks typically belong to a particularnikaya,variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines, but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination, typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks that established a new ordination tradition within a particular country or geographic area.

In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into nikayas. Some Theravāda Buddhist countries appoint or elect asangharaja,or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest ranking or seniormost monk in a particular area, or from a particular nikaya. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand. Myanmar and Cambodia ended the practice of appointing a sangharaja for some time, but the position was later restored, though in Cambodia it lapsed again.

• Bangladesh:
  • Mahasthabir Nikaya
  • Sangharaj Nikaya
• Myanmar(Myanmar):
  • Dwara Nikaya
  • Hngettwin Nikaya
  • Shwekyin Nikaya
  • Thudhamma Nikaya
• Sri Lanka:
  • Amarapura Nikayahas many Sub orders including
    • Dharmarakshitha
    • Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)
    • Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)
  • Ramañña Nikaya
    • Delduwa
    • Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha(or 'Galduwa Tradition')
  • Siam Nikaya
    • Asgiriya
    • Malwaththa
    • Rohana
    • Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya)
• Thailand and Cambodia
  • Dhammayuttika Nikaya
  • Maha Nikaya

Impact on modern society

Theravada monks meditating and practicing mindfulness over simple things like the meal they are about to have

Theravāda Buddhism's emphasis on mindfulness and meditation practices has influenced modern society by promoting mental well-being and stress reduction techniques leading to the integration of mindfulness in various therapeutic and self-improvement programs. Additionally, its teachings on ethical conduct and compassion continue to inspire individuals and organizations to prioritize moral values and social responsibility in their actions and decision-making.The emphasis on ethical conduct in Theravada Buddhism encourages individuals to lead virtuous lives. This includes refraining from actions that harm others, such as lying, stealing, and harming living beings. These principles promote personal integrity and honesty in modern society. Buddhism encourages the cultivation of compassion and loving-kindness (metta) towards all sentient beings. In contemporary society, these teachings inspire individuals and organizations to prioritize social responsibility, charitable activities, and humanitarian efforts aimed at alleviating suffering and promoting the welfare of others.Theravada Buddhism places significant emphasis on self-awareness and self-transformation. Practitioners are encouraged to explore the nature of the self (anatta), impermanence (anicca), and the nature of suffering (dukkha). These teachings have inspired individuals in modern society to embark on journeys of self-discovery, self-improvement, and personal growth. The teachings on mindfulness and the impermanence of life have provided individuals with effective tools for coping with stress and life's challenges. In today's fast-paced and often stressful world, these teachings offer valuable strategies for maintaining balance and emotional stability.This journey of mindfulness and mental health has been strengthened by top institutions encouraging the idea of mindfulness and the effects it has on people. The mindfulness classes/courses/programs provided by many top universities and institutions such as Yale, Stanford, etc. to their students, staff, and general public have benefited them

Demographics

Rank	Country	Population	Buddhist %	Buddhist total	Importance of religion
1	Thailand	66,720,153	95%	63,117,265	97%
2	Myanmar	56,280,000	89%	50,649,200	96%
3	Sri Lanka	20,277,597	70%	17,222,844	100%
4	Cambodia	14,701,717	98%	14,172,455	95%
5	Laos	6,477,211	67%	4,339,731	98%

Map showing thethree major Buddhist divisionsin Tibet,Mongolia,Nepal,Eastand Southeast Asia

Theravāda Buddhism is practiced in the following countries and by people worldwide:

• East Asia:
  • China(mainly by theShan,Tai,Dai,Hani,Wa,Achang,Blangethnic groups mainly inYunnan)
• South Asia:
  • Bangladesh(by 2% of the population) mainly inChittagong Hill Tractsand Kuwakata, Barishal
  • India,traditional Theravāda mainly in theSeven Sister States
  • Nepal
  • Sri Lanka(by 70% of the population)
• Southeast Asia:
  • Cambodia(by 97% of the population)
  • Indonesia
  • Laos(by 66% of the population)
  • Malaysia(in peninsular Malaysia especially north-western parts of Malaysia, primarily by theMalaysian SiameseandMalaysian Sinhalese)
  • Myanmar(by 89% of the population)
  • Singapore
  • Thailand(by 90% of the population, 94% of the population that practices religion)
  • Vietnam(by theKhmer Kromin the south and central parts of Vietnam andTai Damin northern Vietnam)
• Theravāda has also recently gained popularity in theWestern world.

Today, Theravādins number over 150 million worldwide, and during the past few decades Theravāda Buddhism has begun totake root in the Westand in theBuddhist revival in India.

See also

• Access to Insight
• Adhiṭṭhāna
• Arahant
• Awgatha
• Buddha Sasana
• Buddhism in China
• Buddhism in Southeast Asia
• Buddhist pilgrimage
• Cetiya
• Mahanayaka
• Sacca-kiriya
• Sambuddhatva jayanthi
• Sangharaja

Sources

Printed sources

• Braun, Eric (2018),The Insight Revolution,Lion's Roar
• Buswell, Robert, ed. (2004),Encyclopedia of Buddhism,MacMillan
• Crosby, Kate (2013),Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity,Wiley-Blackwell
• Dutt, Nalinaksha (1998),Buddhist Sects in India,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• Fronsdal, Gil (1998),Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness,retrieved8 January2017
• Gombrich, Richard F. (1996),Theravāda Buddhism. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo,London and New York: Routledge
• Gombrich, Richard F. (1997),How Buddhism Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings,New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
• Gomez, Luis O. (1991),Purifying Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in Buddhist Thought and Practice. In: Peter N. Gregory (editor)(1991),Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• Gunaratana, Henepola (1994),The Path of Serenity and Insight,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• Kalupahana, David J. (1994),A history of Buddhist philosophy,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• McMahan, David L. (2008),The Making of Buddhist Modernism,Oxford University Press,ISBN9780195183276
• Nyanaponika (1998),Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie (The heart of Buddhist Meditation),Asoka
• Polak, Grzegorz (2011),Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology,UMCS
• Salgado, Nirmala S. (November 2013),Buddhist Nuns and Gendered Practice: In Search of the Female Renunciant,OUP,ISBN978-0-19-976001-5
• Sharf, Robert H. (October 1995),"Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience"(PDF),Numen,42(3),Leiden:Brill Publishers:228–283,doi:10.1163/1568527952598549,hdl:2027.42/43810,ISSN0029-5973,retrieved20 January2016– viaUniversity of California, Berkeley(from author website at Dept. of Buddhist Studies, UC Berkeley)
• Tiyavanich, K. (1997),Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand,University of Hawaii Press
• Tuchrello, William P. (n.d.),The Society and Its Environment. (Religion: Historical Background section),Federal Research Division, Library of Congress{{citation}}:CS1 maint: year (link)
• Warder, A.K. (2000),Indian Buddhism,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
• Wilson, Jeff (2014),Mindful America: The Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture,Oxford University Press

External links

• Access to Insight– Readings in Theravāda Buddhism
• The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practiceby Jeffrey Samuels
• What are the teachings of Theravada Buddhism?on Tricycle's Buddhism for Beginners Series