Treason

For other uses, seeTreason (disambiguation),High Treason (disambiguation),andTraitor (disambiguation).

"Traitor" redirects here. For the act itself, seeBetrayal.

Treasonis the crime of attacking astateauthority to which one owes allegiance.This typically includes acts such as participating in awaragainst one's native country, attempting to overthrow itsgovernment,spyingon its military, its diplomats, or its secret services for a hostile and foreign power, orattempting to killitshead of state.A person who commits treason is known in law as atraitor.

A 17th-century illustration of the leaders of theGunpowder Plot,a failed assassination attempt againstJames I of England.

Historically, incommon lawcountries, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife or that of a master by his servant. Treason (i.e. disloyalty) against one's monarch was known ashigh treasonand treason against a lesser superior waspetty treason.As jurisdictions around the world abolished petty treason, "treason" came to refer to what was historically known as high treason.

At times, the termtraitorhas been used as a politicalepithet,regardless of any verifiable treasonable action. In acivil warorinsurrection,the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. Likewise the termtraitoris used in heated political discussion – typically as a slur against political dissidents, or against officials in power who are perceived as failing to act in the best interest of their constituents. In certain cases, as with theDolchstoßlegende(stab-in-the-back myth), the accusation of treason towards a large group of people can be a unifying political message.

History

CartoondepictingVáclav Bělský(1818–1878),Mayor of Praguefrom 1863 until 1867, in charge of the city duringPrussian occupation in July 1866.Some forces wanted to try him for high treason (left: "What some men wished" – "Dr. Bělský for high treason" ), but he got a full confidence from the Council of Prague (right: "but what they did not expect" – "address of confidence from the city of Prague" ).

Frederic William Maitlandexplained that "Treason is a crime which has a vague circumference and more than one centre".

TheTreason Act of 1351,called "the pole star of English jurisprudence" byJoseph Story,was the first time treason was defined by statute. During the 12th century the rights of the king were gradually set apart from the other nobles. Beginning with the reign ofEdward Ithe Crown asserted its authority to recognize rebellions ( "levying war" ) as treasonous.

By the Elizabethan age courts had shed the restrictions of statutory treason in favor ofconstructive treasonapplied as a form of political control.Edward Cokedecides inR v Owenthat mere speech about the monarch could be treason if it "disabled his title" in departure from his earlier statement "it is commonly said that bare words may make a heretick, but not a traytor without an overt act".

InEnglish law,high treason was punishable by beinghanged, drawn and quartered(men) orburnt at the stake(women), althoughbeheadingcould be substituted by royal command (usually for royalty and nobility). Those penalties were abolished in 1814, 1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors. Many of them would now just be considereddissidents.

The words "treason" and "traitor" are derived from theLatintradere,"to deliver or hand over".Specifically, it is derived from the term "traditors",which refers tobishopsand other Christians who turned oversacred scripturesor betrayed their fellow Christians to theRoman authoritiesunder threat ofpersecutionduring theDiocletianic Persecutionbetween AD 303 and 305.

Originally, the crime of treason was conceived of as being committed against themonarch;a subject failing in his duty of loyalty to the sovereign and acting against the sovereign was deemed to be a traitor. QueensAnne BoleynandCatherine Howardwere executed for treason foradulteryagainstHenry VIII,although most historians regard the evidence against Anne Boleyn and her alleged lovers to be dubious. As asserted in the 18th century trial ofJohann Friedrich StruenseeinDenmark,a man having sexual relations with a queen can be considered guilty not only of ordinary adultery but also of treason against her husband, the king.

TheEnglish Revolutionin the 17th century and theFrench Revolutionin the 18th century introduced a radically different concept of loyalty and treason, under which sovereignty resides with "The Nation" or "The People" - to whom also the monarch has a duty of loyalty, and for failing which the monarch, too, could be accused of treason.Charles Iin England andLouis XVIin France were found guilty of such treason and duly executed. However, whenCharles IIwas restored to his throne, he considered the revolutionaries who sentenced his father to death as having been traitors in the more traditional sense.

In medieval times, most treason cases were in the context of a kingdom's internal politics. Though helping a foreign monarch against one's own sovereign would also count as treason, such were only a minority among treason cases. Conversely, in modern times, "traitor" and "treason" are mainly used with reference to a person helping an enemy in time of war or conflict.

During theAmerican Revolution,aslavenamedBillywas sentenced todeathon charges of treason toVirginiafor having joined the British in their war against the American colonists - but was eventually pardoned byThomas Jefferson,thenGovernor of Virginia.Jefferson accepted the argument, put forward by Billy's well-wishers, that - not being a citizen and not enjoying any of the benefits of being one - Billy owed no loyalty to Virginia and therefore had committed no treason.This was a ground-breaking case, since in earlier similar cases slaves were found guilty of treason and executed.

Under very different circumstances, a similar defense was put forward in the case ofWilliam Joyce,nicknamedLord Haw-Haw,who had broadcastNazi propagandato the UK from Germany during theSecond World War.Joyce's defence team, appointed by the court, argued that, as an American citizen and naturalised German, Joyce could not be convicted of treason against theBritish Crown.However, theprosecutionsuccessfully argued that, since he had incorrectly stated his nationality to obtain a British passport and voted in Britain, Joyce did owe allegiance to the king. Thus, Joyce was convicted of treason, and was eventuallyhanged.

AfterNapoleonfell from power for the first time, MarshalMichel Neyswore allegiance to the restored KingLouis XVIII,but when the Emperor escaped from Elba, Ney resumed his Napoleonic allegiance, and commanded the French troops at theBattle of Waterloo.After Napoleon was defeated, dethroned, and exiled for the second time in the summer of 1815, Ney was arrested and tried for treason by theChamber of Peers.In order to save Ney's life, his lawyerAndré Dupinargued that as Ney's hometown ofSarrelouishad been annexed by Prussia according to theTreaty of Paris of 1815,Ney was now aPrussian,no longer owing allegiance to the King of France and therefore not liable for treason in a French court. Ney ruined his lawyer's effort by interrupting him and stating:"Je suis Français et je resterai Français!"(I am French and I will remain French!).Having refused that defence, Ney was duly found guilty of treason and executed.

Until the late 19th century, Britain - like various other countries - held to a doctrine of "perpetual allegiance to the sovereign", dating back to feudal times, under which British subjects, owing loyalty to the British monarch, remained such even if they emigrated to another country and took its citizenship. This became a hotly debated issue in the aftermath of the 1867Fenian Rising,whenIrish-Americanswho had gone toIrelandto participate in the uprising and were caught were charged with treason, as the British authorities considered them to be British subjects. This outraged many Irish-Americans, to which the British responded by pointing out that, just like British law, American law also recognized perpetual allegiance.As a result, Congress passed theExpatriation Act of 1868,which granted Americans the right to freely renounce their U.S. citizenship. Britain followed suit with a similar law, and years later, signed a treaty agreeing to treat British subjects who had become U.S. citizens as no longer holding British nationality - and thus no longer liable to a charge of treason.

Many nations' laws mention various types of treason. "Crimes Related to Insurrection" is the internal treason, and may include acoup d'état."Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression" is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside. "Crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression" is the crime of communicating withalienssecretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on the country,conspiracyis added to these.

In individual jurisdictions

Australia

InAustralia,there are federal and state laws against treason, specifically in the states ofNew South Wales,South Australiaand Victoria. Similarly toTreason laws in the United States,citizens of Australia owe allegiance to theirsovereignat the federal and state level.

The federal law defining treason in Australia is provided under section 80.1 of the Criminal Code, contained in the schedule of the Commonwealth Criminal Code Act 1995.It defines treason as follows:

A person commits an offence, called treason, if the person:

(a) causes the death of the Sovereign, the heir apparent of the Sovereign, the consort of the Sovereign, the Governor-General or the Prime Minister; or

(b) causes harm to the Sovereign, the Governor-General or the Prime Minister resulting in the death of the Sovereign, the Governor-General or the Prime Minister; or

(c) causes harm to the Sovereign, the Governor-General or the Prime Minister, or imprisons or restrains the Sovereign, the Governor-General or the Prime Minister; or

(d) levies war, or does any act preparatory to levying war, against the Commonwealth; or

(e) engages in conduct that assists by any means whatever, with intent to assist, an enemy:

(i) at war with the Commonwealth, whether or not the existence of a state of war has been declared; and

(ii) specified by Proclamation made for the purpose of this paragraph to be an enemy at war with the Commonwealth; or

(f) engages in conduct that assists by any means whatever, with intent to assist:

(i) another country; or

(ii) an organisation;

that is engaged in armed hostilities against the Australian Defence Force; or

(g) instigates a person who is not an Australian citizen to make an armed invasion of the Commonwealth or a Territory of the Commonwealth; or

(h) forms an intention to do any act referred to in a preceding paragraph and manifests that intention by anovert act.

A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs (e), (f) or (h) if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature.

The maximum penalty for treason islife imprisonment.Section 80.1AC of the Act creates the related offence oftreachery.

New South Wales

TheTreason Act 1351,theTreason Act 1795and theTreason Act 1817form part of the law ofNew South Wales.TheTreason Act 1795and theTreason Act 1817have been repealed by Section 11 of theCrimes Act 1900,except in so far as they relate to the compassing, imagining, inventing, devising, or intending death or destruction, or any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim, or wounding, imprisonment, or restraint of the person of the heirs and successors ofKing George III of the United Kingdom,and the expressing, uttering, or declaring of such compassings, imaginations, inventions, devices, or intentions, or any of them.

Section 12 of theCrimes Act 1900(NSW) creates an offence which is derived from section 3 of theTreason Felony Act 1848:

12 Compassing etc deposition of the Sovereign–overawing Parliament etc Whosoever, within New South Wales or without, compasses, imagines, invents, devises, or intends to deprive or depose Our Most Gracious Lady the Queen, her heirs or successors, from the style, honour, or Royal name of the Imperial Crown of the United Kingdom, or of any other of Her Majesty's dominions and countries, or to levy war against Her Majesty, her heirs or successors, within any part of the United Kingdom, or any other of Her Majesty's dominions, in order, by force or constraint, to compel her or them to change her or their measures or counsels, or in order to put any force or constraint upon, or in order to intimidate or overawe, both Houses or either House of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, or the Parliament of New South Wales, or to move or stir any foreigner or stranger with force to invade the United Kingdom, or any other of Her Majesty's dominions, or countries under the obeisance of Her Majesty, her heirs or successors, and expresses, utters, or declares such compassings, imaginations, inventions, devices, or intentions, or any of them, by publishing any printing or writing, or by open and advised speaking, or by any overt act or deed, shall be liable to imprisonment for 25 years.

Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by theTreason Act 1351(25 Edw.3 c. 2).This section reproduces section 6 of theTreason Felony Act 1848.

Victoria

The offence of treason was created by section 9A(1) of theCrimes Act 1958.It is punishable by a maximum penalty of life imprisonment.

South Australia

In South Australia, treason is defined under Section 7 of the South Australia Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 and punished under Section 10A. Any person convicted of treason against South Australia will receive a mandatory sentence oflife imprisonment.

Brazil

According toBrazilian law,treason is the crime of disloyalty by a citizen to theFederal Republic of Brazil,applying to combatants of the Brazilian military forces. Treason during wartime is the only crime for which a person can be sentenced to death(seecapital punishment in Brazil).

The only military person in thehistory of Brazilto be convicted of treason wasCarlos Lamarca,an army captain who deserted to become the leader of a communist-terrorist guerrilla against themilitary government.

Canada

Section 46 of theCriminal Codehas two degrees of treason, called "high treason" and "treason". However, both of these belong to the historical category ofhigh treason,as opposed topetty treasonwhich does not exist in Canadian law. Section 46 reads as follows:

High treason
(1) Every one commits high treason who, in Canada,

(a) kills or attempts to kill His Majesty, or does him any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maims or wounds him, or imprisons or restrains him;

(b) levies war against Canada or does any act preparatory thereto; or

(c) assists an enemy at war with Canada, or any armed forces against whom Canadian Forces are engaged in hostilities, whether or not a state of war exists between Canada and the country whose forces they are.

Treason
(2) Every one commits treason who, in Canada,

(a) uses force or violence for the purpose of overthrowing the government of Canada or a province;

(b) without lawful authority, communicates or makes available to an agent of a state other than Canada, military or scientific information or any sketch, plan, model, article, note or document of a military or scientific character that he knows or ought to know may be used by that state for a purpose prejudicial to the safety or defence of Canada;

(c) conspires with any person to commit high treason or to do anything mentioned in paragraph (a);

(d) forms an intention to do anything that is high treason or that is mentioned in paragraph (a) and manifests that intention by anovert act;or

(e) conspires with any person to do anything mentioned in paragraph (b) or forms an intention to do anything mentioned in paragraph (b) and manifests that intention by an overt act.

It is also illegal for a Canadian citizen or a person who owes allegiance to His Majesty in right of Canada to do any of the above outside Canada.

The penalty for high treason is life imprisonment.The penalty for treason is imprisonment up to a maximum of life, or up to 14 years for conduct under subsection (2)(b) or (e) in peacetime.

China

InChina,there are different laws regarding treason inMainland China,Hong KongorMacau.The law defining treason in Mainland China is provided under article 102 of the Criminal Law as follows:

Whoever colludes with a foreign State to endanger the sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of the People's Republic of China shall be sentenced to life imprisonment or fixed-term imprisonment of not less than 10 years.

Hong Kong

Section 10 of theSafeguarding National Security Ordinanceprovides that:

A Chinese citizen who—

(a) joins an external armed force that is at war with China, or is a part of the armed force;

(b) with intent to prejudice the situation of China in a war, assists an enemy at war with China in a war,

(c) levies war against China;

(d) instigates a foreign country or an external armed force to invade China with force; or

(e) with intent to endanger the sovereignty, unity or territorial integrity of China, uses force or threatens to use force,

commits an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment to life imprisonment.

where "enemy at war with China" is defined as a government of a foreign country or external armed force that is at war with China and "external armed force" means an armed force that does not belong to China. Section 11 of the same ordinance also provides that:

A Chinese citizen who intends to commit an offence under section 10(1) and publicly manifests such intention commits an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for 14 years.

Finland

Finnish lawdistinguishes between two types of treasonable offences:maanpetos,treachery in war, andvaltiopetos,an attack against the constitutional order. The termsmaanpetosandvaltiopetosare unofficially translated as treason and high treason, respectively. Both are punishable by imprisonment, and if aggravated, by life imprisonment.

Maanpetos(translates literally tobetrayal of land) consists in joining enemy armed forces, making war againstFinland,or serving or collaborating with the enemy.Maanpetosproper can only be committed under conditions of war or the threat of war. Espionage, disclosure of a national secret, and certain other related offences are separately defined under the same rubric in the Finnish criminal code.

Valtiopetos(translates literally tobetrayal of state) consists in using violence or the threat of violence, or unconstitutional means, to bring about the overthrow of the Finnish constitution or to overthrow the president, cabinet or parliament or to prevent them from performing their functions.

France

5 January 1895: The treason conviction of CaptainAlfred Dreyfus.

Article 411-1of theFrench Penal Codedefines treason as follows:

The acts defined by articles 411-2 to 411–11 constitute treason where they are committed by a French national or a soldier in the service of France, and constitute espionage where they are committed by any other person.

Article 411-2 prohibits "handing over troops belonging to theFrench armed forces,or all or part of the national territory, to a foreign power, to a foreign organisation or to an organisation under foreign control, or to their agents ". It is punishable by life imprisonment and a fine of€750,000. Generally parole is not available until 18 years of a life sentence have elapsed.

Articles 411–3 to 411–10 define various other crimes of collaboration with the enemy, sabotage, and the like. These are punishable with imprisonment for between seven and 30 years. Article 411-11 make it a crime to incite any of the above crimes.

Besides treason and espionage, there are many other crimes dealing with national security, insurrection, terrorism and so on. These are all to be found in Book IV of the code.

Germany

German law differentiates between two types of treason: "High treason" (Hochverrat) and "treason" (Landesverrat). High treason, as defined in Section 81of theGerman criminal codeis defined as an attempt against the existence or the constitutional order of theFederal Republic of Germanythat is carried out either with the use of violence or the threat of violence. It carries a penalty of life imprisonment or a fixed term of at least ten years. In less serious cases, the penalty is 1–10 years in prison. German criminal law also criminalises high treason against aGerman state.Preparation of either types of the crime is criminal and carries a penalty of up to five years.

The other type of treason,Landesverratis defined in Section 94.It is roughly equivalent to espionage; more precisely, it consists of betraying a secret either directly to a foreign power, or to anyone not allowed to know of it; in the latter case, treason is only committed if the aim of the crime was explicitly to damage the Federal Republic or to favor a foreign power. The crime carries a penalty of one to fifteen years in prison. However, in especially severe cases, life imprisonment or any term of at least five years may be sentenced.

As for many crimes with substantial threats of punishment active repentance is to be considered in mitigation under §83a StGB (Section 83a, Criminal Code).

Notable cases involvingLandesverratare theWeltbühne trialduring theWeimar Republicand theSpiegel scandalof 1962. On 30. July 2015,Germany's Public Prosecutor GeneralHarald Rangeinitiated criminal investigation proceedings against the German blognetzpolitik.org.

Ireland

Main article:Treason in the Republic of Ireland

Article 39 of theConstitution of Ireland(adopted in 1937) states:

treason shall consist only in levying war against the State, or assisting any State or person or inciting or conspiring with any person to levy war against the State, or attempting by force of arms or other violent means to overthrow the organs of government established by the Constitution, or taking part or being concerned in or inciting or conspiring with any person to make or to take part or be concerned in any such attempt.

Following the enactment of the 1937 constitution, theTreason Act 1939provided for imposition of the death penalty for treason.The Criminal Justice Act 1990abolished the death penalty,setting the punishment for treason at life imprisonment, with parole in not less than forty years.No person has been charged under the Treason Act.Irish republican legitimatistswho refuse to recognise the legitimacy of theRepublic of Irelandhave been charged with lesser crimes under theOffences against the State Acts 1939–1998.

India

TheBharatiya Nyaya Sanhitahas described treason inSection 147,which states that

Whoever wages war against the Government of India, or attempts to wage such war, or abets the waging of such war, shall be punished with death, or imprisonment for life and shall also be liable to fine.

Italy

TheCzechoslovak legionnairesin Italy executed after being captured by the Austro-Hungarian forces.

TheItalianlaw defines various types of crimes that could be generally described as treason (tradimento), although they are so many and so precisely defined that no one of them is simply calledtradimentoin the text ofCodice Penale(Italian Criminal Code). The treason-type crimes are grouped as "crimes against the personhood of the State" (Crimini contro la personalità dello Stato) in the Second Book, First Title, of the Criminal Code.

Articles 241 to 274 detail crimes against the "internationalpersonhoodof the State "such as" attempt against wholeness, independence andunity of the State"(art. 241)," hostilities against a foreign State bringing the Italian State in danger of war "(art. 244),"briberyof a citizen by a foreigner against the national interests "(art. 246), and" political or militaryespionage"(art. 257).

Articles 276 to 292 detail crimes against the "domestic personhood of the State", ranging from "attempt on thePresident of the Republic"(art. 271)," attempt with purposes ofterrorismor ofsubversion"(art. 280)," attempt against theConstitution"(art. 283)," armedinsurrectionagainst the power of the State "(art. 284), and"civil war"(art. 286).

Further articles detail other crimes, especially those of conspiracy, such as "political conspiracythrough association "(art. 305), or" armed association: creating and participating "(art. 306).

The penalties for treason-type crimes before the abolition of themonarchyin 1948 includeddeathas maximum penalty and, for some crimes, as the only penalty possible. Nowadays the maximum penalty islife imprisonment(ergastolo).

Japan

From 1947Japandoes not technically have a law of treason.Instead it has an offence against taking part in foreign aggression against the Japanese state (gaikan zai;literally "crime of foreign mischief" ). The law applies equally to Japanese and non-Japanese people, while treason in other countries usually applies only to their own citizens. Technically there are two laws, one for the crime of inviting foreign mischief (Japan Criminal Codesection 2 clause 81) and the other for supporting foreign mischief once a foreign force has invaded Japan. "Mischief" can be anything from invasion to espionage. BeforeWorld War II,Imperial Japanhad a crime similar to the English crime of high treason (Taigyaku zai), which applied to anyone who harmed theJapanese emperororimperial family.This law was abolished by theAmerican occupation forceafter World War II.

The application of "Crimes Related to Insurrection" to theAum Shinrikyocult ofreligious terroristswas proposed from lawyers of a defendant who was a high-ranked subordinate so that the cult leader solely would be deemed as responsible. The court rejected this argument.

New Zealand

New Zealandhas treason laws that are stipulated under theCrimes Act 1961.Section 73 of the Crimes Act reads as follows:

Every one owing allegiance to the Sovereignin right of New Zealandcommits treason who, within or outside New Zealand,–

(a) kills or wounds or does grievous bodily harm to the Sovereign, or imprisons or restrains her or him; or

(b) levies war against New Zealand; or

(c) assists an enemy at war with New Zealand, or any armed forces against which New Zealand forces are engaged in hostilities, whether or not a state of war exists between New Zealand and any other country; or

(d) incites or assists any person with force to invade New Zealand; or

(e) uses force for the purpose of overthrowing the Government of New Zealand; or

(f) conspires with any person to do anything mentioned in this section.

The penalty is mandatorylife imprisonment,except for conspiracy and attempts, for which the maximum sentence is 14 years' imprisonment.Treason was the lastcapital crimeinNew Zealand law:the death penalty for the offence was not revoked until 1989, 28 years after it was abolished formurder.

Very few people have been prosecuted for the act of treason in New Zealand, and none have been prosecuted in recent years.

Norway

Article 85 of theConstitution of Norwaystates that "[a]ny person who obeys an order the purpose of which is to disturb the liberty and security of theStorting[Parliament] is thereby guilty of treason against the country. "

Russia

Russian political activistVladimir Kara-Murzawas sentenced to 25 years in prison for treason and other offences

Article 275 of theCriminal Code of Russia,as updated in April 2023, defines treason as "espionage, disclosure of state secrets, or any other assistance rendered to a foreign State, a foreign organization, or their representatives in hostile activities to the detriment of the external security of theRussian Federation,committed by a citizen of the Russian Federation. "The penalty is imprisonment from 12 years to life. Subsequent sections provide for further offences against state security, such as armed rebellion and forcible seizure of power.

On 30 June 2022, Russian physicistDmitry Kolkerwas arrested on suspicion of passing information toChina.

On 17 April 2023, Russian opposition politician and anti-war activistVladimir Kara-Murzawas convicted on charges of treason andspreading disinformation about the Russian military,and sentenced to 25 years in prison.Kara-Murza's conviction is the longest sentence for political activity since thefall of the Soviet Union,and the length of the sentence is comparable only toStalin's purgesin the 1930s.

In early 2024,Russian Americanballet dancerKsenia Karelinawas arrested in Yekaterinburg and charged with treason for sending $51.80 toRazom,aNew York City-based nonprofit organization that sends humanitarian assistance toUkraine.She initially faced life in prison, but pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 12 years in prison.

South Korea

According to Article 87 of theCriminal Code of South Korea,"a person who creates a violence for the purpose of usurping the national territory or subverting the Constitution" can be found guilty of insurrection.The punishments for insurrection are as follows:

• "Ring Leader": death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment without prison labor for life.
• "A person who participates in a plot, or commands, or engages in other essential activities": death, imprisonment for life, imprisonment or imprisonment without prison labor, for not less than five years.
• "A person who has committed acts of killing, wounding, destroying or plundering": death, imprisonment for life, imprisonment or imprisonment without prison labor, for not less than five years.
• "A person who merely responds to the agitation and follows the lead of another or merely joins in the violence": imprisonment or imprisonment without prison labor for not more than five years.

Sweden

Sweden's treason laws are divided into three parts;Högförräderi(High treason),Landsförräderi(Treason) andLandssvek(Treachery).

High treason means crimes committed with the intent to put the Nation, or parts thereof, under foreign rule or influence. It is governed byBrottsbalken(Criminal Code) chapter 19 paragraph 1.

A person who, with intent that the country or a part of it will, by violent or otherwise illegal means or with foreign assistance, be subjugated by a foreign power or made dependent on such a power, or that, in this way, a part of the country will be detached, undertakes an action that involves danger of this intent being realised is guilty of high treason and is sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term of at least ten and at most eighteen years, or for life or, if the danger was minor, to imprisonment for at least four and at most ten years.

A person who, with intent that a measure or decision of the Head of State, the Government, the Riksdag or the supreme courts will be forced or impeded with foreign assistance, undertakes an action that involves danger of this is also guilty of high treason.

Treason is only applicable when the nation is at war and involves crimes committed with the intent of hindering, misguiding or betraying the defence of the Nation. It is governed by Brottsbalken chapter 22 paragraph 1.

A person who, when the country is at war:

1. impedes, misleads or betrays others who are engaged in the country's defence, or induces them to mutiny, disloyalty or dejection;

2. betrays, destroys or damages property of importance for the total defence;

3. obtains personnel, property or services for the enemy; or

4. commits another similar treacherous act,

is, if the act is liable to result in considerable detriment to the total defence, or includes considerable assistance to the enemy, guilty of treason and is sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term of at least four and at most ten years, or for life.

Treachery is a lesser form of Treason, where the intended effects are less severe. It is governed by Brottsbalken chapter 22 paragraph 2.

A person who commits an act referred to in Section 1 that is only liable to result in detriment to the total defence to a lesser extent, or includes more minor assistance to the enemy than is stated there, is guilty of treachery and is sentenced to imprisonment for at most six years.

Until 1973 Sweden also had another form of treason calledKrigsförräderi(treason at war), which were acts of Treason committed by military personnel. Although Sweden had outlawedcapital punishmentin peace time in 1922, this type of treason carried thedeath penaltyuntil 1973.

Some media reported that four teenagers (their names were not reported) were convicted of treason after they assaultedKing Carl XVI Gustafof Sweden by throwing a cake on his face on 6 September 2001.In reality they were however not convicted of treason but ofHögmålsbrott,translated asTreasonable offencein English, which in Swedish criminal law are acts with the intent to overthrow the Form of Government, or impede or hinder the Government, the Riksdag, the Supreme Court or the Head of State. The law also prohibits the use of force against the King or any member of the royal family. It is governed by Brottsbalken chapter 18. They were fined between 80 and 100 days' income.

Switzerland

There is no single crime of treason inSwiss law;instead, multiple criminal prohibitions apply. Article 265 of theSwiss Criminal Codeprohibits "high treason" (Hochverrat/haute trahison) as follows:

Whoever commits an act with the objective of violently
– changing theconstitution of the Confederationor of acanton,
– removing the constitutional authorities of the state from office or making them unable to exercise their authority,
– separating Swiss territory from the Confederation or territory from a canton, shall be punished with imprisonment of no less than a year.

A separate crime is defined in article 267 as "diplomatic treason" (Diplomatischer Landesverrat/Trahison diplomatique):

1. Whoever makes known or accessible a secret, the preservation of which is required in the interest of the Confederation, to a foreign state or its agents, (...) shall be punished with imprisonment of no less than a year.
2. Whoever makes known or accessible a secret, the preservation of which is required in the interest of the Confederation, to the public, shall be punished with imprisonment of up to five years or a monetary penalty.

In 1950, in the context of theCold War,the following prohibition of "foreign enterprises against the security of Switzerland" was introduced as article 266^bis:

¹Whoever, with the purpose of inciting or supporting foreign enterprises aimed against the security of Switzerland, enters into contact with a foreign state or with foreign parties or other foreign organizations or their agents, or makes or disseminates untrue or tendentious claims (unwahre oder entstellende Behauptungen / informations inexactes ou tendancieuses), shall be punished with imprisonment of up to five years or a monetary penalty.
²In grave cases the judge may pronounce a sentence of imprisonment of no less than a year.

The criminal code also prohibits, among other acts, the suppression or falsification of legal documents or evidence relevant to the international relations of Switzerland (art. 267, imprisonment of no less than a year) and attacks against the independence of Switzerland and incitement of a war against Switzerland (art. 266, up to life imprisonment).

The Swiss military criminal code contains additional prohibitions under the general title of "treason", which also apply to civilians, or which in times of war civilians are also (or may by executive decision be made) subject to. These includeespionageor transmission of secrets to a foreign power (art. 86);sabotage(art. 86a); "military treason", i.e., the disruption of activities of military significance (art. 87); acting as afranc-tireur(art. 88); disruption of military action by disseminating untrue information (art. 89); military service against Switzerland by Swiss nationals (art. 90); or giving aid to the enemy (art. 91). The penalties for these crimes vary, but include life imprisonment in some cases.

Turkey

GeneralAkın Öztürkwas reported as being the leader of the2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.Öztürk and 26 other generals and admirals were charged with treason.

Treasonper seis not defined in the Turkish Penal Code. However, the law defines crimes which are traditionally included in the scope of treason, such as cooperating with the enemy during wartime. Treason is punishable by imprisonment up to life.

Ukraine

See also:Collaboration with Russia during the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Article 111, paragraph 1, of the Ukrainian Criminal Code (adopted in 2001) states:

High treason, that is an act willfully committed by a citizen of Ukraine in the detriment of sovereignty, territorial integrity and inviolability, defense capability, and state, economic or information security of Ukraine: joining the enemy at the time of martial law or armed conflict, espionage, assistance in subversive activities against Ukraine provided to a foreign state, a foreign organization or their representatives,- shall be punishable by imprisonment for a term of ten to fifteen years.

Articles 109 to 114 set out other offences against the state, such as sabotage.

United Kingdom

Main article:High treason in the United Kingdom

See also:Petty treasonandTreason felony

Engraving depicting the execution ofSir Thomas Armstrongin 1684 for complicity in theRye House Plot;he washanged, drawn and quartered.

The British law of treason is entirelystatutoryand has been so since theTreason Act 1351(25 Edw. 3 St. 5 c. 2). The Act is written inNorman French,but is more commonly cited in its English translation.

The Treason Act 1351 has since been amended several times, and currently provides for four categories of treasonable offences, namely:

• "when a man doth compass or imagine the death of our lord the King, or of our lady his Queen or of their eldest son and heir" (following theSuccession to the Crown Act 2013this is read to mean the eldest child and heir);
• "if a man do violate the King's companion, or the King's eldest daughter unmarried, or the wife of the King's eldest son and heir"(following theSuccession to the Crown Act 2013this is read to mean the eldest son if the heir);
• "if a man do levy war against our lord the King in his realm, or be adherent to the King's enemies in his realm, giving to them aid and comfort in the realm, or elsewhere"; and
• "if a man slea [slay] thechancellor,treasurer,or the King's justices of the one bench or the other,justices in eyre,or justices of assise, and all other justices assigned to hear and determine, being in their places, doing their offices ".

Another Act, theTreason Act 1702(1 Anne stat. 2 c. 21), provides for a fifth category of treason, namely:

• "if any person or persons... shall endeavour to deprive or hinder any person who shall be the next in succession to the crown... from succeeding after the decease of her Majesty (whom God long preserve) to the imperial crown of this realm and the dominions and territories thereunto belonging".

By virtue of theTreason Act 1708,the law of treason inScotlandis the same as the law in England, save that in Scotland the slaying of theLords of SessionandLords of Justiciaryand counterfeiting theGreat Seal of Scotlandremain treason under sections 11 and 12 of the Treason Act 1708 respectively.Treason is areserved matterabout which theScottish Parliamentis prohibited from legislating. Two acts of the formerParliament of Irelandpassed in1537and1542create further treasons which apply inNorthern Ireland.

Thepenalty for treasonwas changed from death to a maximum of imprisonment for life under theCrime and Disorder Act 1998.Before 1998, the death penalty was mandatory, subject to theroyal prerogative of mercy.Since the abolition of thedeath penaltyfor murder in 1965 an execution for treason was unlikely to have been carried out.

Treason laws were used against Irish insurgents beforeIrish independence.However, members of theProvisional IRAand othermilitant republicangroups were not prosecuted or executed for treason for levying war against the British government duringthe Troubles.They, along with members ofloyalistparamilitary groups, were jailed formurder,violent crimes orterroristoffences.William Joyce( "Lord Haw-Haw") was the last person to be put to death for treason, in 1946. (On the following dayTheodore Schurchwas executed fortreachery,a similar crime, and was the last man to be executed for a crime other than murder in the UK.)

TheIndische Legionattached to theGerman Armywas created in 1941, mainly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army.

As to who can commit treason, it depends on the ancient notion ofallegiance.As such, allBritish nationals(but not otherCommonwealth citizens) owe allegiance to the sovereign in right of the United Kingdom wherever they may be, as do Commonwealth citizens and aliens present in the United Kingdom at the time of the treasonable act (except diplomats and foreign invading forces), those who hold a British passport however obtained, and aliens who have lived in Britain and departed, but leaving behind family and belongings.

International influence

TheTreason Act 1695enacted, among other things, a rule that treason could be proved only in a trial by the evidence of two witnesses to the same offence. Nearly one hundred years later this rule was incorporated into theU.S. Constitution,which requires two witnesses to the sameovert act.It also provided for a three-year time limit on bringing prosecutions for treason (except for assassinating the king), another rule which has been imitated in some common law countries.

TheSedition Act 1661made it treason to imprison, restrain or wound the king. Although this law was repealed in the United Kingdom in 1998, it still continues to apply in someCommonwealthcountries.

United States

See also:Treason laws in the United States

The offense of treason exists at both federal and state levels. The federal crime is defined in the Constitution (and is the only crime defined by it) as either levying war against the United States or adhering to its enemies, and carries a sentence of death or imprisonment and fine.

In the 1790s,oppositionpolitical parties were new and not fully accepted. Government leaders often considered their opponents to be traitors. HistorianRon Chernowreports that Secretary of the TreasuryAlexander Hamiltonand PresidentGeorge Washington"regarded much of the criticism fired at their administration as disloyal, even treasonous, in nature."When the undeclaredQuasi-Warbroke out withFrancein 1797–98, "Hamilton increasingly mistook dissent for treason and engaged in hyperbole." Furthermore, theJeffersonian opposition partybehaved the same way.After 1801, with a peaceful transition in the political party in power, the rhetoric of "treason" against political opponents diminished.

In the United States,Benedict Arnold's name is considered synonymous with treason due to his collaboration with the British during theAmerican Revolutionary War.

"Traitor" was in some cases treated as an honorable label when there had been considerable dissent from policies of the central government. "All the Founding Fathers had once been branded traitors by an unjust establishment power structure. So too, before them, had the Plymouth and Salem Puritans to whom so many...traced their roots."Abolitionists,who denied the authority of the federal government (seeSecession in the United States), proudly called each other traitors. This includesTheodore Parker,Thomas Wentworth Higginson,Samuel Gridley Howe,"and those like them."William Lloyd Garrison"proudly called himself a traitor for decades."

Federal

To avoid the abuses of the English law, the scope of treason was specifically restricted in theUnited States Constitution.Article III,section 3 reads as follows:

Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but noAttainderof Treason shall workCorruption of Blood,or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

The Constitution does not itself create the offense; it only restricts the definition (the first paragraph), permits theUnited States Congressto create the offense, and restricts any punishment for treason to only the convicted (the second paragraph). The crime is prohibited by legislation passed byCongress.Therefore, theUnited States Codeat18 U.S.C.§ 2381states:

Whoever, owing allegiance to the United States, levies war against them or adheres to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort within the United States or elsewhere, is guilty of treason and shall suffer death, or shall be imprisoned not less than five years and fined under this title but not less than $10,000; and shall be incapable of holding any office under the United States.

The requirement of testimony of two witnesses was inherited from the BritishTreason Act 1695.

However, Congress has passed laws creating related offenses that punish conduct that undermines the government or the national security, such asseditionin the 1798Alien and Sedition Acts,orespionageandseditionin theEspionage Act of 1917,which do not require the testimony of two witnesses and have a much broader definition than Article Three treason. Some of these laws are still in effect. The well-known spiesJulius and Ethel Rosenbergwere charged with conspiracy to commit espionage, rather than treason.

Treason against U.S. states

Most states have treason provisions in their constitutions or statutes similar to those in the U.S. Constitution. TheExtradition Clausespecifically defines treason as an extraditable offense.

Thomas Jefferson in 1791 said that anyVirginiaofficial who cooperated with the federalBank of the United Statesproposed byAlexander Hamiltonwas guilty of "treason" against the state of Virginia and should be executed. The bank opened and no one was prosecuted.

Several persons have been prosecuted for treason on the state level.Thomas Dorrwas convicted for treason against the state ofRhode Islandfor his part in theDorr Rebellion,but was eventually grantedamnesty.John Brownwas convicted of treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia for his part in the 1859raid on Harpers Ferry,and was hanged. TheMormonprophet,Joseph Smith,was charged with treason againstMissourialong with five others, at first in front of a statemilitary court,but Smith was allowed to escapetoIllinoisafter his case was transferred to a civilian court for trial on charges of treason and other crimes.Smith was then later imprisoned for trial on charges of treason against Illinois, but was murdered by a lynch mob while in jail awaiting trial.

Vietnam

TheConstitution of Vietnamproclaims that treason is the most serious crime. It is further regulated in the country's 2015 Criminal Code with the 78th article:

1. Any Vietnamese citizen acting in collusion with a foreign country with a view to causing harm to the independence, sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity of the Fatherland, the national defense forces, the socialist regime or the State of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam shall be sentenced to between twelve and twenty years of imprisonment, life imprisonment or capital punishment.
2. In the event of many extenuating circumstances, the offenders shall be subject to between seven and fifteen years of imprisonment.

Also, according to the Law on Amnesty amended in November 2018, it is impossible for those convicted for treason to be granted amnesty.

Muslim-majority countries

Early inIslamic history,the only form of treason was seen as the attempt to overthrow a just government or waging war against the State. According to Islamic tradition, the prescribed punishment ranged from imprisonment to the severing of limbs and the death penalty depending on the severity of the crime. However, even in cases of treason the repentance of a person would have to be taken into account.

Currently, the consensus among major Islamic schools is thatapostasy(leaving Islam) is considered treason and that the penalty is death; this is supported not in theQuranbut inhadith.This confusion between apostasy and treason almost certainly had its roots in theRidda Wars,in which an army of rebel traitors led by the self-proclaimed prophetMusaylimaattempted to destroy thecaliphateofAbu Bakr.

In the 19th and early 20th century, the Iranian ClericSheikh Fazlollah Nooriopposed theIranian Constitutional Revolutionby inciting insurrection against them through issuing fatwas and publishing pamphlets arguing that democracy would bring vice to the country. The new government executed him for treason in 1909.

InMalaysia,it is treason to commit offences against theYang di-Pertuan Agong's person, or to wage or attempt to wage war or abet the waging of war against theYang di-Pertuan Agong,a Ruler orYang di-Pertua Negeri.All these offences are punishable by hanging, which derives from the English treason acts (as a former British colony, Malaysia's legal system is based on Englishcommon law).

Saudi Arabiaaccused 10 judges of treason, the crime that is punishable by death in the Kingdom. One of the judges, Abdullah bin Khaled al-Luhaidan sentencedLoujain al-Hathloulto five years and eight months in prison over "inciting change to the basic ruling regime". Such prison sentences were considered "lenient". The judges were forced to sign a confession that they were not giving tougher prison sentence to the activists and in the social media censorship cases. The treason charges were handed out to them in a secret hearing on 16 February 2023. After their detention,Mohammed bin Salman's loyalist were made to hold their positions.

Algeria

A youngHarki,an Algerian who served the French during the Algerian War, circa 1961

InAlgeria,treason is defined as the following:

• attempts to change the regime or actions aimed at incitement
• destruction of territory, sabotage to public and economic utilities
• participation in armed bands orin insurrectionary movements

Bahrain

InBahrain,plotting to topple the regime, collaborating with a foreign hostile country and threatening the life of the Emir are defined as treason and punishable by death. TheState Security Law of 1974was used to crush dissent that could be seen as treasonous, which was criticised for permitting severe human rights violations in accordance with Article One:

If there is serious evidence that a person has perpetrated acts, delivered statements, exercised activities, or has been involved in contacts inside or outside the country, which are of a nature considered to be in violation of the internal or external security of the country, the religious and national interests of the State, its social or economic system; or considered to be an act of sedition that affects or can possibly affect the existing relations between the people and Government, between the various institutions of the State, between the classes of the people, or between those who work in corporations propagating subversive propaganda or disseminating atheistic principles; the Minister of Interior may order the arrest of that person, committing him to one of Bahrain's prisons, searching him, his residence and the place of his work, and may take any measure which he deems necessary for gathering evidence and completing investigations. The period of detention may not exceed three years. Searches may only be made and the measures provided for in the first paragraph may only be taken upon judicial writ.

Palestine

Further information:Capital punishment in the Gaza Strip

In the areas controlled by thePalestinian National Authority,it is treason to give assistance to Israeli troops without the authorization of the Palestinian Authority or to sell land toJews(irrespective of nationality) or non-JewishIsraeli citizensunder thePalestinian Land Laws,as part of the PA's general policy of discouraging the expansion ofIsraeli settlements.Both crimes are capital offences subject to thedeath penalty,although the former provision has not often been enforced since the beginning of effective security cooperation between theIsrael Defense Forces,Israel Police,andPalestinian National Security Forcessince the mid-2000s (decade) under the leadership of Prime MinisterSalam Fayyad.Likewise, in theGaza Stripunder theHamas-led government, any sort of cooperation or assistance to Israeli security forces during military actions is alsopunishable by death.

Related offences

There are a number of other crimes against the state short of treason:

• Apostasy in Islam,considered treason in Islamic belief
• Compounding treason,dropping a prosecution for treason in exchange for money or money's worth
• Defection,or leaving the country, regarded in some communist countries (especially during theCold War) as disloyalty to the state
• Espionageor spying
• Lèse-majesté,insulting ahead of stateand a crime in some countries
• Misprision of treason,a crime consisting of the concealment of treason
• Sedition,inciting civil unrest or insurrection, or undermining the government
• Treachery,attacking a state regardless of allegiance
• Treason felony,a British offence tantamount to treason

See also

• Betrayal
• Constructive treason
• Law of majestas
• List of people convicted of treason

Terms for traitors

• Benedict Arnold
• Ephialtes
• Han gian
• Jash (term)
• Judas
• Mir Jafar
• Quisling
• Việt gian
• Vlasov

Sources

• Bellemare, Pierre; Nahmias, Jean-François (2009).La Terrible vérité: 26 grandes énigmes de l'histoire enfin résolues(in French). Albin Michel. p.149.ISBN978-2-226-19676-7.
• The National Archives (2022).A History of Treason: The bloody history of Britain through the stories of its most notorious traitors.John Blake Publishing.ISBN978-1-78946-628-7.
• Bellamy, J. G. (2004).The Law of Treason in England in the Later Middle Ages.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-52638-8.
• Hostettler, John (2009).A History of Criminal Justice in England and Wales.Waterside Press.ISBN978-1-906534-79-0.

Further reading

• Ben-Yehuda, Nachman, "Betrayals and Treason. Violations of trust and Loyalty." Westview Press, 2001,ISBN0-8133-9776-6
• Ó Longaigh, Seosamh, "Emergency Law in Independent Ireland, 1922–1948", Four Courts Press, Dublin 2006ISBN1-85182-922-9
• Philippe Buc, "Civil war and religion in Medieval Japan and Medieval Europe: War for the gods, emotions at death, and treason", The Indian Economic and Social History Review 57:2 (2020), 1-27.
• West, Rebecca. 1952.The Meaning of Treason.London: Macmillan & Co. LTD.

External links

• Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations,Official site