Wikipedia

Island

(Redirected fromTropical island)

For other uses, seeIsland (disambiguation).

Anislandorisleis a piece of land, distinct from a continent, completely surrounded by water. There are continental islands, which were formed by being split from acontinentbyplate tectonics,and oceanic islands, which have never been part of a continent. Oceanic islands can be formed fromvolcanicactivity, grow intoatollsfromcoral reefs,and form fromsedimentalong shorelines, creatingbarrier islands.River islandscan also form from sediment and debris in rivers.Artificial islandsare those made by humans, including small rocky outcroppings built out of lagoons and large-scaleland reclamationprojects used for development.

A satellite view of the Hawaiian islands, with the top of the image being North. There are few if any clouds, and most of the image is the seawater swirling in the wind, surrounding the islands.
TheHawaiian Islands,a major archipelago in thePacific Ocean

Islands are host to diverseplantandanimallife. Oceanic islands have theseaas a natural barrier to the introduction of new species, causing the species that do reach the island to evolve in isolation. Continental islands share animal and plant life with the continent they split from. Depending on how long ago the continental island formed, the life on that island may have diverged greatly from the mainland due tonatural selection.

Humans have lived on and traveled between islands for thousands of years at a minimum. Some islands became host to humans due to aland bridgeor a continental island splitting from the mainland. Today, up to 10% of the world's population lives on islands. Islands are popular targets fortourismdue to their perceived natural beauty, isolation, and unique cultures.

Islands became the target ofcolonizationby Europeans, resulting in the majority of islands in the Pacific being put under European control.Decolonizationhas resulted in some but not all island nations becomingself-governing,with lasting effects related toindustrialisation,invasive species,nuclear weapons testing,andtourism.Islands andisland countriesare threatened byclimate change.Sea level risethreatens to submerge nations such asMaldives,theMarshall Islands,andTuvalucompletely. Increases in the frequency and intensity oftropical cyclonescan cause widespread destruction of infrastructure and animal habitats. Species that live exclusively on islands are some of those most threatened byextinction.

Definition

An island is an area of land surrounded by water on all sides that is distinct from a continent.[1]There is no standard of size that distinguishes islands andcontinents.Continents have an accepted geological definition – they are the largestlandmassof a particulartectonic plate.[2]Islands can occur in any body of water, includinglakes,rivers,seas.[3]Low-tide elevations,areas of land that are not above the surface during ahigh tide,are generally not considered islands.[4]Islands that have been bridged or otherwise joined to a mainland with land reclamation are sometimes considered "de-islanded", but not in every case.[5]

Etymology

The wordislandderives fromMiddle Englishiland,fromOld Englishigland(fromigorieg,similarly meaning 'island' when used independently, and-landcarrying its contemporary meaning.Old Englishiegis actually acognateofSwedishöandGermanAue,and more distantly related to Latinaqua(water).[6]

The spelling of the word was modified in the 15th century because of afalse etymologycaused by an association with theOld Frenchloanwordisle,which itself comes from theLatinwordinsula.[1][7]

Geology

Cross sectionthrough Earth at the Hawaii hotspot.Magmafrom themantlerises into thelithosphere,creating a chain of volcanoes as the lithosphere moves over the hotspot.

Formation in oceans

Islands often are found inarchipelagosor island chains, which are collections of islands. These chains are thought to form fromvolcanic hotspots,areas of thelithospherewhere themantleis hotter than the surrounding area.[8][9]These hotspots would give rise tovolcanoeswhoselavawould form the rock the islands are made of.[8]For some islands, themovement of tectonic platesabove stationary hotspots would form islands in a linear chain, with the islands further away from the hotspot being progressively older and moreeroded,before disappearing under the sea entirely.[10]An example is theHawaiian Islands,[10]with the oldest island being 25 million years old, and the youngest,Hawaii,still being anactive volcano.[9]However, not all island chains are formed this way. Some may be formed all at once by fractures in the tectonic plates themselves, simultaneously creating multiple islands. One supporting piece of evidence is that of theLine Islands,which are all estimated to be 8 million years old, rather than being different ages.[9]

Map fromCharles Darwin's 1842The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefsshowing the world's major groups of atolls and coral reefs

Other island chains form due to being separated from existing continents. TheJapanese archipelagomay have been separated fromEurasiadue toseafloor spreading,a phenomenon where newoceanic crustis formed, pushing away older crust.[9]Islands sitting on thecontinental shelfmay be called continental islands.[3]Other islands, like those that make upNew Zealand,are what remains of continents that shrank and sunk beneath the sea.[11]It was estimated thatZealandia,the continent-like area of crust that New Zealand sits on, has had 93% of its original surface area submerged.[11]

Some islands are formed whencoral reefsgrow on volcanic islands that have submerged beneath the surface.[12]When thesecoral islandsencircle a centrallagoon,the island is known as anatoll.[13]The formation of reefs and islands related to those reefs is aided by the buildup of sediment in shallow patches of water. In some cases, tectonic movements lifting a reef out of the water by as little as 1 meter can cause sediment to accumulate and an island to form.[12]

A barrier island in theOuter Banksoff theEast Coast of the United States

Barrier islandsare long, sandy bars that form along shorelines due to the deposition of sediment bywaves.These islands erode and grow as the wind and waves shift. Barrier islands have the effect of protecting coastal areas fromsevere weatherbecause they absorb some of the energy of large waves before they can reach the shore.[14]

Formation in freshwater

Afluvial islandis an island that forms from theerosionandsedimentationof debris in rivers; almost all rivers have some form of fluvial islands.[15]These islands may only be a few meters high, and are usually temporary. Changes in the flow speed, water level, and sediment content of the river may effect the rate of fluvial island formation and depletion.[15]Permanent river islands also exist, the largest of which (that is completely inland) isBananal Islandin theTocantinsof Brazil, which has a maximum width of 55 kilometers.[16]

Lakesform for a variety of reasons, includingglaciers,plate tectonics, and volcanism.[17]Lake islandscan form as part of these processes.[18]

Life on islands

The field ofinsular biogeographystudies the ecological processes that take place on islands, with a focus on what factors effect theevolution,extinction,andrichnessof species. Scientists often study islands as an isolatedmodelof how the process ofnatural selectiontakes place.[19][20]Island ecologystudies organisms on islands and their environment. It has yielded important insights for its parent field ofecologysince the time ofCharles Darwin.[20]

Endemism

Main article:Endemism
TheGalapagos penguinis endemic to the Galápagos Islands.

In biology, endemism is defined as the phenomenon where species or genus is only found in a certain geographical area. Islands isolate land organisms from others with water, and isolate aquatic organisms living on them with land.[20]Island ecosystems have the highest rates of endemism globally. This means that islands contribute heavily to globalbiodiversity.[21]Areas with high lives of biodiversity are a priority target ofconservationefforts, to prevent the extinction of these species.[22]Despite high levels of endemism, the totalspecies richness,the total number of unique species in a region, is lower on islands than on mainlands.[23]The level of species richness on islands is proportional to the area of that island, a phenomenon known as thespecies-area relationship.This is because larger areas have more resources and thus can support more organisms. Populations with a highercarrying capacityalso have moregenetic diversity,which promotesspeciation.[20]

Dispersal

TheSeychelles fruit bathas a major role in distributing the seeds of trees between islands, a form of oceanic dispersal.[24]

Oceanic islands, ones that have never been connected to shore, are only populated by life that can cross the sea. This means that any animals present on the island had to have flown there, in the case ofbirdsorbats,were carried by such animals, or were carried in a sea current in what is known as a "rafting event". This phenomenon is known asoceanic dispersal.[25]Tropical storms have the capacity to transport species over great distances.[26]Animals like tortoises can live for weeks without food or water, and are able to survive floating on debris in the sea.[27]One case study showed that in 1995, fifteeniguanassurvived a 300 km journey toAnguillain theCaribbean,an island which no iguana had lived on previously. They survived floating on a mass of uprooted trees from a storm.[28]Plant species are thought to be able to travel great distances of ocean. New Zealand and Australia share 200 native plant species, despite being separated by 1500 km.[25]

Continental islands, islands that were at one point connected to a continent, are expected to share a common history of plant and animal life up until the point that the island broke away from the continent.[25]For example, the presence offreshwater fishon an island surrounded by ocean would indicate that it once was attached to a continent, since these fish cannot traverse the ocean on their own.[20]Over the course of time, evolution and extinction changes the nature of animal life on a continental island, but only once it splits from the mainland. An example is that of thesouthern beech,a tree that is present in Australia, New Zealand, parts of South American, and New Guinea, places that today are geographically distant. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that these landmasses were once all part of the continentGondwanaand separated by tectonic drift. However, there are competing theories that suggest this species may have reached faraway places by way of oceanic dispersal.[25]

Evolution on island groups

Adaptive radiationof finch A (Geospiza magnirostris) into three other species of finches on theGalapagos Islands.Due to the absence of other birds,Darwin's finchesadapted to new niches. Their seed-eating beaks evolved to handle foods such as nuts, fruits, and insects.

Species that colonize island archipelagos exhibit a specific property known asadaptive radiation.In this process, a species that arrives on a group of islands rapidly becomes more diverse over time, splitting off into new species or subspecies. A species that reaches an island ecosystem may face little competition for resources, or may find that the resources that they found in their previous habitat are not available. These factors together result in individual evolutionary branches with different means of survival.[29]

The classical example of this isDarwin's finches,a group of up to fifteentanagerspecies that are endemic to the Galápagos Islands.[30]These birds evolved differentbeaksin order to eat different kinds of food available on the islands. Thelarge ground finchhas a large bill used to crack seeds and eat fruit. TheGenovesa cactus finchpreferscactias a food source, and has a beak adapted for removing pulp and flowers from cacti. Thegreen warbler-finch(in the habit of truewarblerspecies) consumes spiders and insects that live on plants.[29]Other examples of this phenomenon exist worldwide, including in Hawaii and Madagascar, and are not limited to island ecosystems.[29]

The island rule

The extinctDodois an example of island gigantism.

Species endemic to islands show a common evolutionary trajectory.Foster's rule(also known as the island rule), states that small mammals such asrodentsevolve to become larger, known asisland gigantism.One such example is thegiant tortoiseof theSeychelles,though it is unknown if it grew in size before or after reaching the island. Larger animals such as thehippopotamustend to become smaller, such as in the case of thepygmy hippopotamus.This is known asinsular dwarfism.[31]In the case of smaller animals, it has been hypothesized that animals on islands may have fewerpredatorsand competitors, resulting in selection pressure towards larger animals. Larger animals may exhaust food resources quickly due to their size, causingmalnutritionin their young, resulting in a selection pressure for smaller animals that require less food. Having fewer predators would mean these animals did not need not be large to survive.[31]

Darwin, the Galápagos, and natural selection

Charles Darwinformulated the theory ofnatural selectionthrough the study of island ecology.[20]The species he observed on theGalápagos Islands,including tanager birds, contributed to his understanding of how evolution works.[32]He first traveled to the islands as anaturalistonHMS Beaglein 1835, as part of a five-yearcircumnavigationof Earth. He wrote that "the different islands to a considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings".[33]Through the study of the finches and other animals he realized that organisms survive by changing to adapt to their habitat.[33]It would be over twenty years before he published his theories inOn the Origin of Species.[34]

Humans and islands

History of exploration

See also:Sea § Humans and the sea

The first evidence of humans colonizing islands probably occurred in thePaleolithicera, 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. Reaching theIndonesian islandsofFloresandTimorwould have required crossing distances of water of at least 29 km (18 mi).[35]Some islands, such asHonshu,were probably connected to the mainland with aland bridgethat allowed humans to colonize it before it became an island.[35]

Chronological dispersal of theAustronesian peoples[36]

The first people tocolonizedistant oceanic islands were thePolynesians.[37]Many of the previous island settlements required traveling distances of less than 100 km (62 mi), whereas Polynesians may have traveled 2,000–3,200 km (1,200–2,000 mi) to settle islands such asTahiti.[35]They would send navigators to sail the ocean without the aid ofnavigational instrumentsto discover new islands for settlement.[37][38]Between 1100 and 800 BC, Polynesians sailed East fromNew Guineaand theSolomon Islandsand reached the islands that make up the modern-dayFijiandSamoa.[39]The furthest extent of this migration would beEaster Islandin the East, andNew Zealandin the South, with New Zealand's first settlements between 1250 and 1300.[40]

Historians have sought to understand why some remote islands have always been uninhabited, while others, especially in thePacific Ocean,have long been populated by humans.[35]Generally, larger islands are more likely to be able to sustain humans and thus are more likely to have been settled. Small islands that cannot sustain populations on their own can still be habitable if they are within a "commuting" distance to an island that has enough resources to be sustainable.[35]The presence of an island is marked byseabirds,differences in cloud and weather patterns, as well as changes in the direction of waves.[38][37]It is also possible for human populations to have gone extinct on islands, evidenced by explorers finding islands that show evidence of habitation but no life.[35]

Not all islands were or are inhabited by maritime cultures.[35][41]In the past, some societies were found to have lost their seafaring ability over time, such as the case of theCanary Islands,which were occupied by anindigenous peoplesince the island's first discovery in the first century until being conquered by theSpanish Empirein 1496.[41]It has been hypothesized that since the inhabitants had little incentive fortradeand had little to any contact with the mainland, they had no need for boats.[41]

The motivation for island exploration has been the subject of research and debate. Some early historians previously argued that early island colonization was unintentional, perhaps by a raft being swept out to sea.[42]Others compare the motivations of Polynesian and similar explorers with those ofChristopher Columbus,the explorer who sailed westward over theAtlantic Oceanin search of an alternate route to theEast Indies.[35]These historians theorize that successful explorers were rewarded with recognition and wealth, leading others to attempt possibly dangerous expeditions to discover more islands, usually with poor results.[35]

Lifestyle

About 10% of the world's population lives on islands.[43]The study of the culture of islands is known asisland studies.The interest in the study of islands is due to their unique cultures and natural environments that differ from mainland cultures.[43]This is for a few reasons: First, the obvious political and geographic isolation from mainland cultures.[43]Second, unique restraints on resources and ecology creating marine-focused cultures with a focus onfishingand sailing.[43]Third, a lasting historical and political significance of islands.[43]

A breadfruit tree inMalaysia,used in Polynesia for making an edible breadfruit paste.
Cultivated taro plants, astaple foodfor many island cultures.

Diet

The Polynesian diet got most of its protein from fishing.[44]Polynesians were known to fish close to shore, as well as in deep water. It was reported thatRapa Nui peoplewere known to fish as far as 500 km (310 mi) from shore at coral reefs.[45]Spear,line,andnetfishing were all used,[46]to catchtunaas well assharksandstingrays.[45]Island cultures also cultivate native and non-native crops.[41]Polynesians grew the nativeyam,taro,breadfruit,banana,coconutand other fruits and vegetables.[47]Different island climates made different resources more important, such as the Hawaiian islands being home toirrigatedfields of taro,[46]whereas in some islands, like Tahiti, breadfruit was more widely cultivated andfermentedin order to preserve it.[48]There is archeological evidence that Canary Islanders would chew the roots offernsfor sustenance, a practice that wore heavily on theirmolars.[41]These islanders would also growbarleyand raised livestock such asgoats.[41]

Island nations and territories

Further information:Island country

Many island nations have little land and a restricted set of natural resources. However, these nations control some of the largestfisheriesin the world, deposits ofcopper,gold,andnickel,as well asoil deposits.The natural beauty of island nations also makes them a magnet fortourism.Islands also have geopolitical value fornaval bases,weapons testing,and general territorial control. One such example isFrench Polynesia,a territory that receives substantial military expenditure and aid from France.[49]

Colonization

Residents ofBikini Atollleaving due to nuclear testing.

Since the first discoveries of Polynesian,Micronesian,and other islands by Westerners, these nations have been the subject of colonization.[50]Islands were the target ofChristian missionaries.These missionaries faced resistance, but found success when some local chiefs used European support to centralize power. Beginning in the 16th century, European states placed most ofOceaniain undercolonial administration.[51]Pohnpeiwas colonized by Spain as early as 1526. It changed hands from Germany to Japan to the United States before joining theFederated States of Micronesiain 1982, maintaining a "free association" status with the U.S.[52]Guamwas a Spanish territory until 1898, and now is aunincorporated territoryof the U.S.[53]

Thedecolonizationera saw many island states achieve independence or some form ofself-governance.[54]Nuclear weapons testing on theMarshall Islandsleft many atolls destroyed or uninhabitable, causing theforced displacementof people from their home islands as well as increases in cancer rates due toradiation.[50]Colonization has resulted in a decline of observance of traditional cultural practices in places such as Hawaii, where Native Hawaiians are now a minority. Cultural attitudes related to communal ownership of land as well as a lack of individualistic decision-making may make some island cultures less compatible with the globalcapitalisteconomy, causing these nations to experience less economic growth.[54]

Tourists are attracted to tropical beaches in large numbers, such as this one inMalapascua,thePhilippines.

Tourism

Islands have long been a popular target fortourism,thanks to their unique climates, cultures, and natural beauty. However, islands may suffer from poor transportation connectivity fromairplanesand boats and strains on infrastructure from tourist activity.[55]Islands in colder climates often rely on seasonal tourists seeking to enjoy nature or local cultures, and may only be one aspect of an island's economy. In contrast, tourism on tropical islands can often make up the majority of the local economy andbuilt environment.These islands sometimes also require consistentforeign aidon top of tourism in order to ensure economic growth. This reliance can result insocial inequalityandenvironmental degradation.During tourism downturns, these economies struggle to make up the lost inflow of cash with other industries.[55]

Threats to islands

San Juan, Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria. Climate change is expected to cause more frequent inland flooding on islands.
Further information:Effects of climate change on small island countries

Climate changethreatens human development on islands due tosea level rise,more dangeroustropical cyclones,coral bleaching,and an increase ininvasive species.[56]For example, in 2017Hurricane Mariacaused a loss of almost all the infrastructure in Dominica. Sea level rise and other climate changes can reduce freshwater reserves, resulting indroughts.[56]These risks are expected to decrease the habitability of islands, especially small ones. Beyond risks to human life, plant and animal life are threatened. It has been estimated that almost 50 percent of land species threatened byextinctionlive on islands.[56]In 2017, a detailed review of 1,288 islands found that they were home to 1,189 highly-threatened vertebrate species, which was 41 percent of the global figure.[57]Coral bleaching is expected to occur with more frequency, threatening marine ecosystems, some of which island economies are dependent on.[56]

Some islands that are low-lying may cease to exist given high enough amounts of sea level rise.Tuvalureceived media attention for a press conference publicizing the ongoing submerging of the island country.[58]Tuvalu signed a cooperation agreement with Australia agreeing to annually allow 280 of its citizens to becomepermanent residentsof Australia. The Marshall Islands, a country of 1,156 islands, have also been identified as a country that may be existentially threatened by rising seas.[58]

Increasing intensity of tropical storms also increases the distances and frequency with which invasive species may be transported to islands. Floodwaters from these storms may also wash plants further inland than they would travel on their own, introducing them to new habitats.[26]Agricultureand trade also have introduced non-native life to islands. These processes result in an introduction ofinvasive speciesto ecosystems that are especially small and fragile. One example is theapple snail,initially introduced to the U.S. byaquariumowners. It has since been transported by hurricanes across theGulf Coastand neighboring islands.[26]These species compete for resources with native animals, and some may grow so densely that they displace other forms of existing life.[26]

Artificial islands

Main article:Artificial island
Kansai International AirportinOsakais built on an artificial island.

For hundreds of years, islands have been created throughland reclamation.[59]One of the first recorded instances of this when people of theSolomon Islandscreated eighty such islands by piling coral and rock in theLau Lagoon.[59]One traditional way of constructing islands is with the use of arevetment.Sandbags or stones are dropped with a barge into the sea to bring the land level slightly out of the water. The island area is then filled with sand or gravel, followed by a construction of this revetment to hold it together.[60]Islands have also been constructed with a permanentcaisson,a steel or concrete structure built in a closed loop and then filled with sand.[60]

Some modern islands have been constructed by pouring millions of tons of sand into the sea, such as withPearl Islandin Qatar or thePalm Islandsin Dubai.[59]These islands are usually created forreal estate development,and are sold for private ownership or construction of housing.[59]Offshore oil platformshave also been described as a type of island. Some atolls have been covered in concrete to create artificial islands for military purposes, such as those created by China in theSouth China Sea.[59][61]These atolls were previously low-tide elevations, landmasses that are only above water duringlow tide.TheUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Seaindicates that these islands may not have the same legal status as a naturally occurring island, and as such may not confer the same legal rights.[61]

See also

References

  1. ^ab"Island".Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on March 7, 2007.RetrievedMarch 5,2007.
  2. ^"Continent".education.nationalgeographic.org.Archived fromthe originalon July 16, 2019.RetrievedJune 26,2024.
  3. ^ab"Island".education.nationalgeographic.org.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  4. ^Baldacchino, Godfrey (2007).Bridging islands: the impact of fixed links.Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island: Acorn Press.ISBN978-1-894838-24-5.OCLC70884504.
  5. ^Pigou-Dennis, Elizabeth; Grydehøj, Adam (2014)."Accidental and ideal island cities: islanding processes and urban design in Belize City and the urban archipelagos of Europe".Island Studies Journal.9(2): 259–276.doi:10.24043/isj.305.
  6. ^Ringe, Donald A. (2006).A Linguistic History of English: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic.Oxford University Press. p. 109.ISBN0-19-928413-X.
  7. ^Wedgwood, Hensleigh(1855)."On False Etymologies".Transactions of the Philological Society(6): 66.Archivedfrom the original on November 6, 2018.RetrievedSeptember 22,2018.
  8. ^abWilson, J. Tuzo (June 1, 1963)."A Possible Origin of the Hawaiian Islands".Canadian Journal of Physics.41(6): 863–870.Bibcode:1963CaJPh..41..863W.doi:10.1139/p63-094.ISSN0008-4204.
  9. ^abcdNeall, Vincent E.; Trewick, Steven A. (October 27, 2008)."The age and origin of the Pacific islands: a geological overview".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.363(1508): 3293–3308.doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0119.ISSN0962-8436.PMC2607379.PMID18768382.
  10. ^abJones, Anthony T (1993)."Review of the chronology of marine terraces in the Hawaiian Archipelago".Quaternary Science Reviews.12(9): 811–823.Bibcode:1993QSRv...12..811J.doi:10.1016/0277-3791(93)90019-I– via Research Gate.
  11. ^abWallis, Graham P.; Trewick, Steven A. (2009)."New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent".Molecular Ecology.18(17): 3548–3580.Bibcode:2009MolEc..18.3548W.doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x.ISSN0962-1083.PMID19674312.
  12. ^abNunn, Patrick D.; Kumar, Lalit; Eliot, Ian; McLean, Roger F. (March 2, 2016)."Classifying Pacific islands".Geoscience Letters.3(1): 7.Bibcode:2016GSL.....3....7N.doi:10.1186/s40562-016-0041-8.ISSN2196-4092.
  13. ^Magazine, Smithsonian."Why Some Geologists Say Charles Darwin's Theory of Coral Atoll Formation Is Wrong".Smithsonian Magazine.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  14. ^US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration."What is a barrier island?".oceanservice.noaa.gov.RetrievedJune 28,2024.
  15. ^abBaubinienė, Aldona (December 20, 2014)."Formation of fluvial islands and its determining factors, case study of the River Neris, the Baltic Sea basin"(PDF).Geomorphology.231(231): 343–352.Bibcode:2015Geomo.231..343B.doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.025– via Elsevier Science Direct.
  16. ^"Bananal Island | Amazon Rainforest, Wildlife & Conservation | Britannica".britannica.RetrievedJune 27,2024.
  17. ^"Lake".education.nationalgeographic.org.RetrievedJune 28,2024.
  18. ^"Largest And Highest Islands Of The World".WorldAtlas.May 18, 2021.RetrievedJune 28,2024.
  19. ^Whittaker, Robert J.; Fernández-Palacios, José María; Matthews, Thomas J.; Borregaard, Michael K.; Triantis, Kostas A. (September 2017)."Island biogeography: Taking the long view of nature's laboratories".Science.357(6354).doi:10.1126/science.aam8326.ISSN0036-8075.PMID28860356.
  20. ^abcdefGraham, Natalie R.; Gruner, Daniel S.; Lim, Jun Y.; Gillespie, Rosemary G. (June 27, 2017)."Island ecology and evolution: challenges in the Anthropocene".Environmental Conservation.44(4): 323–335.Bibcode:2017EnvCo..44..323G.doi:10.1017/S0376892917000315.ISSN0376-8929.
  21. ^Veron, Simon; Haevermans, Thomas; Govaerts, Rafaël; Mouchet, Maud; Pellens, Roseli (August 12, 2019)."Distribution and relative age of endemism across islands worldwide".Scientific Reports.9(1): 11693.Bibcode:2019NatSR...911693V.doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47951-6.ISSN2045-2322.PMC6690940.PMID31406123.
  22. ^Harrison, Susan; Noss, Reed (January 7, 2017)."Endemism hotspots are linked to stable climatic refugia".Annals of Botany.119(2): 207–214.doi:10.1093/aob/mcw248.ISSN0305-7364.PMC5321063.PMID28064195.
  23. ^Kier, Gerold; Kreft, Holger; Lee, Tien Ming; Jetz, Walter; Ibisch, Pierre L.; Nowicki, Christoph; Mutke, Jens; Barthlott, Wilhelm (June 9, 2009)."A global assessment of endemism and species richness across island and mainland regions".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.106(23): 9322–9327.Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9322K.doi:10.1073/pnas.0810306106.ISSN0027-8424.PMC2685248.PMID19470638.
  24. ^Gerlach, Justin (2004)."The bats of Silhouette Island, Seychelles"(PDF).Phelsuma.12:78–90 – via Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.
  25. ^abcdde Queiroz, Alan (February 2005)."The resurrection of oceanic dispersal in historical biogeography"(PDF).Elsevier.20(2) – via Elesevier Science Direct.
  26. ^abcd"Intensifying hurricanes are helping invasive species spread across the U.S."Animals.October 27, 2020.RetrievedJuly 11,2024.
  27. ^"How rafts helped primates rule the world".bbc.May 18, 2021.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  28. ^Censky, Ellen J.; Hodge, Karim; Dudley, Judy (1998)."Over-water dispersal of lizards due to hurricanes".Nature.395(6702): 556.Bibcode:1998Natur.395..556C.doi:10.1038/26886.ISSN1476-4687.
  29. ^abcLovette, Irby (December 20, 2018)."Why Evolution Goes Wild on Islands: The Science of Adaptive Radiation".All About Birds.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  30. ^Sato, Akie (March 1, 2001)."On the Origin of Darwin's Finches".Molecular Biology and Evolution.18(3): 299–311.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003806.PMID11230531.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  31. ^abTyson, Peter (November 1, 2000)."Gigantism & Dwarfism on Islands".pbs.org.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  32. ^MacPherson, Rick (February 6, 2017)."Darwin's Islands".American Scientist.RetrievedJuly 11,2024.
  33. ^abMagazine, Smithsonian; Helmuth, Laura."Evolution World Tour: Galápagos Islands, Ecuador".Smithsonian Magazine.RetrievedJuly 14,2024.
  34. ^Stix, Gary (January 1, 2009)."Darwin's Living Legacy--Evolutionary Theory 150 Years Later".Scientific American.RetrievedJuly 14,2024.
  35. ^abcdefghiKeegan, William F.; Diamond, Jared M. (January 1, 1987), Schiffer, Michael B. (ed.),"2 - Colonization of Islands by Humans: A Biogeographical Perspective",Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory,San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 49–92,doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-003110-8.50005-0,ISBN978-0-12-003110-8,retrievedJuly 3,2024
  36. ^Chambers, Geoffrey K. (2013). "Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians".Encyclopedia of Life Sciences.doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2.ISBN978-0470016176.
  37. ^abc"Polynesia's Genius Navigators".pbs.org.February 15, 2000.RetrievedJune 28,2024.
  38. ^abGatty, Harold (1943).The Raft Book(2nd ed.). New York City: George Grady Press. pp. 10, 48, 54–56.
  39. ^Lewis, David (May 1, 1994).We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific(Second ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 8.ISBN978-0-8248-1582-0.
  40. ^"Pacific voyaging and discovery".New Zealand History.Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2, 2023.RetrievedJune 26,2024.
  41. ^abcdefCornwall, Warren (February 8, 2024)."A thousand years of solitude".Science.383(6683): 580–584.Bibcode:2024Sci...383..580C.doi:10.1126/science.ado5092.PMID38330134.RetrievedJune 29,2024.
  42. ^Bird, Michael I.; Condie, Scott A.; O’Connor, Sue; O’Grady, Damien; Reepmeyer, Christian; Ulm, Sean; Zega, Mojca; Saltré, Frédérik; Bradshaw, Corey J. A. (June 17, 2019)."Early human settlement of Sahul was not an accident".Scientific Reports.9(1): 8220.Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.8220B.doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42946-9.ISSN2045-2322.PMC6579762.PMID31209234.
  43. ^abcdeMa, Guoqing (October 16, 2020)."Islands and the world from an anthropological perspective".International Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology.4(1): 12.doi:10.1186/s41257-020-00038-x.ISSN2366-1003.
  44. ^Dewailly, Eric (2008)."Fish consumption and health in French Polynesia"(PDF).Asia Pac J Clin Nutr.17(1): 86–93.PMID18364332.
  45. ^ab"Polynesian culture - Kinship, Social Hierarchy | Britannica".britannica.May 8, 2024.RetrievedJuly 5,2024.
  46. ^abTiare Tuuhia, Hakai (November 10, 2023)."How an Ancient Practice Aids Marine Conservation".Smithsonian Magazine.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  47. ^Haden, Roger (August 10, 2009).Food Culture in the Pacific Islands.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 59–67.ISBN978-0-313-34493-0.
  48. ^"The island fruit that caused a mutiny".bbc.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  49. ^Fairbairn, Te'o I.J. (1991).The Pacific Islands: Politics, Economics, and International Relations.University of Hawaii Press. pp. 1–11.ISBN0-86638-140-6.
  50. ^ab"Historical Background: Colonization of Pacific Islands".Geriatrics.March 18, 2014.RetrievedJuly 8,2024.
  51. ^"Australia and Oceania: Human Geography".education.nationalgeographic.org.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  52. ^Ragone, Diane; Lorence, David H.; Flynn, Timothy (2001)."History of Plant Introductions to Pohnpei, Micronesia and the Role of the Pohnpei Agriculture Station".Economic Botany.55(2): 290–324.Bibcode:2001EcBot..55..290R.doi:10.1007/BF02864566.ISSN0013-0001.JSTOR4256429.
  53. ^Herman, Doug (August 15, 2017)."A Brief, 500-Year History of Guam".Smithsonian Magazine.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  54. ^abFairbairn, Te'O IJ (1991)."Pacific Islands: politics, economics, and international relations".scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu.pp. 15, 42.RetrievedJuly 8,2024.
  55. ^abBrown, Keith G.; Cave, Jenny (January 1, 2010). G. Brown, Keith; Cave, Jenny (eds.)."Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue".International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research.4(2): 87–95.doi:10.1108/17506181011045163.ISSN1750-6182.
  56. ^abcdIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ed. (2023),"Small Islands",Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 2043–2122,doi:10.1017/9781009325844.017,ISBN978-1-009-32583-7,retrievedJuly 9,2024
  57. ^Spatz DR; Zilliacus KM; Holmes ND; Butchart SHM; Genovesi P; Ceballos G; Tershy BR; Croll DA (2017), "Globally threatened vertebrates on islands with invasive species",Science Advances,25(3): e1603080,doi:10.1126/sciadv.1603080,PMC5656423,PMID29075662
  58. ^abPrete, Giovanni (January 29, 2024)."Tuvalu: Why Is the Small Island Nation Sinking?".Earth.Org.RetrievedJuly 9,2024.
  59. ^abcdeFisher, Richard; Hirschfeld, Javier (January 6, 2022)."Why we are in 'the age of artificial islands'".bbc.RetrievedJuly 11,2024.
  60. ^abFang, Huacan; Duan, Menglan (2014). "3.7.3 The Artificial Island".Offshore operation facilities: equipment and procedures.Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier, GPP.ISBN978-0-12-396977-4.
  61. ^abMirasola, Christopher (July 15, 2015)."What Makes an Island? Land Reclamation and the South China Sea Arbitration".Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative.RetrievedJuly 11,2024.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Island&oldid=1259677040#Tropical_islands"