Typha/ˈtaɪfə/is agenusof about 30speciesofmonocotyledonousflowering plantsin the familyTyphaceae.These plants have a variety of common names, inBritish Englishasbulrush[4]or (mainly historically)reedmace,[5]inAmerican Englishascattail,[6]orpunks,inAustraliaascumbungiorbulrush,inCanadaasbulrushorcattail,and inNew Zealandasreed,cattail,bulrushorraupo.Other taxa of plants may be known asbulrush,including somesedgesinScirpusand related genera.
| Typha | |
|---|---|
| |
| Typha latifolia | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Clade: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Typhaceae |
| Genus: | Typha L. |
| Synonyms[1] | |
| |
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 106 kJ (25 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
5.14 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 0.22 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 4.5 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.00 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1.18 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 92.65 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[2]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[3] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The genus is largely distributed in theNorthern Hemisphere,where it is found in a variety ofwetlandhabitats.
Therhizomesare edible, though at least some species are known to accumulate toxins and so must first undergo treatment before being eaten.[7]Evidence of preservedstarchgrains ongrinding stonessuggests they were already eaten in Europe 30,000 years ago.[8]
Description
editTyphaare aquatic or semi-aquatic, rhizomatous, herbaceousperennial plants.[9]: 925 The leaves areglabrous(hairless), linear, alternate and mostly basal on a simple, jointless stem that bears the flowering spikes. The plants aremonoecious,withunisexualflowers that develop in denseracemes.The numerous male flowers form a narrow spike at the top of the vertical stem. Each male (staminate) flower is reduced to a pair ofstamensand hairs, and withers once thepollenis shed. Large numbers of tiny female flowers form a dense,sausage-shaped spike on the stem below the male spike. In larger species this can be up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long and 1 to 4 centimetres (0.4 to 2 in) thick. The seeds are minute, 0.2 millimetres (0.008 in) long, and attached to fine hairs. When ripe, the heads disintegrate into a cottony fluff from which the seedsdisperse by wind.
Fruits ofTyphahave been found as long ago as 69 mya in modern Central Europe.[10]
General ecology
edit
Typhaare often among the first wetland plants to colonize areas of newly exposed wet mud, with their abundant wind-dispersed seeds. Buried seeds can survive in the soil for long periods of time.[11]Theygerminatebest with sunlight and fluctuating temperatures, which is typical of many wetland plants that regenerate on mud flats.[12]The plants also spread byrhizomes,forming large, interconnected stands.
Typhaare considered to be dominant competitors in wetlands in many areas, and they often exclude other plants with their dense canopy.[13]In the bays of theGreat Lakes,for example, they are among the most abundant wetland plants. Different species of cattails are adapted to different water depths.[14]
Well-developedaerenchymamake the plants tolerant of submersion. Even the dead stalks are capable of transmitting oxygen to the rooting zone.
AlthoughTyphaare native wetland plants, they can be aggressive in their competition with other native species.[15]They have been problematic in many regions in North America, from the Great Lakes to theEverglades.[13]Native sedges are displaced and wet meadows shrink, likely as a response to altered hydrology of the wetlands and increased nutrient levels. Anintroducedor hybrid species may be contributing to the problem.[16]Controlis difficult. The most successful strategy appears to be mowing or burning to remove the aerenchymous stalks, followed by prolonged flooding.[17]It may be more important to prevent invasion by preserving water level fluctuations, including periods of drought, and to maintain infertile conditions.[13]
Typhaare frequently eaten by wetland mammals such asmuskrats,which also use them to construct feeding platforms and dens, thereby also providing nesting and resting places for waterfowl.[18]
Accepted species and natural hybrids
editThe following species and hybrids are currently accepted:[19]
- Typha albida– (Afghanistan)
- Typha alekseevii– (Caucasus)
- Typha angustifolia– lesser bulrush, narrow leaf cattail (America), orjambu(India)
- Typha × argoviensis– (Germany and Switzerland)
- Typha austro-orientalis– (European Russia)
- Typha azerbaijanensis– (Iran)
- Typha × bavarica– (Germany)
- Typha capensis– (tropical and southern Africa)
- Typha caspica– (Azerbaijan)
- Typha changbaiensis– (northeastern China)
- Typha davidiana– (China)
- Typha domingensis– bulrush, southern cattail (America), narrow-leaved cumbungi[20](Australia)
- Typha elephantina– (from Algeria to southern China)
- Typha × gezei– (France)
- Typha × glauca(T. angustifolia×T. latifolia) – hybrid cattail, white cattail (asterile hybrid)[21]
- Typha grossheimii– (Central Asia)
- Typha incana– (central Russia)
- Typha joannis– (Mongolia,Amur Oblast)
- Typha kalatensis– (Iran)
- Typha latifolia– bulrush, common cattail – (very widespread)
- Typha laxmannii– Laxman's bulrush – (southern Europe and much of Asia)
- Typha lugdunensis– (western Europe, southwest Asia, China)
- Typha minima– dwarf bulrush – (Europe, Asia)
- Typha orientalis– (East Asia), raupō[22](New Zealand), broad-leaved cumbungi[23](Australia)
- Typha pallida– (Central Asia, China)
- Typha × provincialis– (France)
- Typha przewalskii– (China, Russian Far East)
- Typha shuttleworthii– (Europe, Iran, Turkey)
- Typha sistanica– (Iran)
- Typha × smirnovii– (European Russia)
- Typha subulata– (Argentina, Uruguay)
- Typha × suwensis– (Japan)
- Typha tichomirovii– (European Russia)
- Typha turcomanica– (Turkmenistan)
- Typha tzvelevii– (Primorye)
- Typha valentinii– (Azerbaijan)
- Typha varsobica– (Tajikistan)
The most widespread species isTypha latifolia,which is distributed across the entire temperate northern hemisphere. It has also been introduced to Australia.T. angustifoliais nearly as widespread, but does not extend as far north; it may be introduced andinvasiveinNorth America.T. domingensishas a more southernAmericandistribution, and it occurs in Australia.T. orientalisis widespread in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.T. laxmannii,T. minima,andT. shuttleworthiiare largely restricted toAsiaand southernEurope.
Uses
editCulinary
editMany parts of theTyphaplant are edible to humans. Before the plant flowers, the tender inside of theshootscan be squeezed out and eaten raw or cooked.[24]The starchyrhizomesare nutritious with a protein content comparable to that of maize or rice.[25]They can be processed into aflourwith 266kcalper 100 grams,[8]and are most often harvested from late autumn to early spring. They are fibrous, and the starch must be scraped or sucked from the tough fibers.[26]Baby shoots emerging from the rhizomes, which are sometimes subterranean, can be picked and eaten raw. Also underground is acarbohydratelump which can be peeled and eaten raw or cooked like apotato.[27]The plant is one championed by survival experts because various parts can be eaten throughout the year. Plants growing in polluted water can accumulateleadandpesticideresidues in their rhizomes, and these should not be eaten.[26]
The rind of young stems can be peeled off, and the tender white heart inside can be eaten raw or boiled and eaten likeasparagus.[28]This food has been popular among theCossacksin Russia, and has been called "Cossack asparagus".[29]The leaf bases can be eaten raw or cooked, especially in late spring when they are young and tender. In early summer the sheath can be removed from the developing green flower spike, which can then be boiled and eaten likecorn on the cob.[30]In mid-summer when the male flowers are mature, thepollencan be collected and used as a flour supplement or thickener.[31]
Agriculture
editThe seeds have a highlinoleic acidcontent and can be used to feed cattle and chickens.[32] They can also be found in African countries like Ghana.
Harvesting cattail removes nutrients from the wetland that would otherwise return via the decomposition of decaying plant matter.[33]Floating mats of cattails remove nutrients fromeutrophied bodies of freshwater.[34]
Building material
editFor local native tribes aroundLake TiticacainPeruandBolivia,Typhawere among the most important plants and every part of the plant had multiple uses. For example, they were used to constructraftsand other boats.[25]
During World War II, the United States Navy used the down ofTyphaas a substitute forkapokinlife vestsand aviation jackets. Tests showed that even after 100 hours of submersion, the buoyancy was still effective.[35]
Typhaare used asthermal insulationin buildings[36]as an organic alternative to conventional insulating materials such asglass woolorstone wool.
Paper
editTyphastems and leaves can be used to makepaper.It is strong with a heavy texture and it is hard to bleach, so it is not suitable for industrial production of graphical paper. In 1853, considerable amounts of cattail paper were produced inNew York,due to a shortage of raw materials.[37]In 1948, French scientists tested methods for annual harvesting of the leaves. Because of the high cost, these methods were abandoned and no further research was done.[25]TodayTyphais used to make decorative paper.[38][39]
Fiber
editFibers up to 4 meters long can be obtained from the stems when they are treated mechanically or chemically withsodium hydroxide.The stem fibers resemblejuteand can be used to produce raw textiles. The leaf fibers can be used as an alternative tocottonandlinenin clothing. The yield of leaf fiber is 30 to 40 percent andTypha glaucacan produce 7 to 10 tons per hectare annually.[25]
Biofuel
editTyphacan be used as a source of starch to produceethanol.Because of their high productivity in northern latitudes,Typhaare considered to be abioenergy crop.[40]
Other
editThe seed hairs were used by someindigenous peoples of the Americas[which?]astinderfor starting fires. Some tribes also usedTyphadown to linemoccasins,and for bedding, diapers, baby powder, andcradleboards.One Native American word forTyphameant "fruit for papoose's bed".[citation needed]Typhadown is still used in some areas to stuff clothing items and pillows.Typhacan be dipped in wax or fat and then lit as a candle, the stem serving as a wick. Without the use of wax or fat it will smolder slowly, somewhat likeincense,and may repel insects.[citation needed]
The flower stalks can be made intochopsticks.The leaves can be treated to weave into baskets, mats, or sandals.[27]The rushes are harvested and the leaves often dried for later use in chair seats. Re-wetted, the leaves are twisted and wrapped around the chair rungs to form a densely woven seat that is then stuffed (usually with the left over rush).
Small-scale experiments have indicated thatTyphaare able to removearsenicfrom drinking water.[41][42] The boiled rootstocks have been used as adiureticfor increasing urination, or mashed to make a jelly-like paste for sores, boils, wounds, burns, scabs, and smallpox pustules.[43]
Cattail pollen is used as a banker source of food for predatory insects and mites (such asAmblyseius swirskii) in greenhouses.[44]
The cattail, or, as it is commonly referred to in the American Midwest, the sausage tail, has been the subject of multiple artist renditions, gaining popularity in the mid-twentieth century. The term, sausage tail, derives from the similarity that cattails have with sausages, a name given to the plant by the Midwest Polish community who had noticed a striking similarity between the plant and a common Polish dish,kiełbasa.
References
edit- ^"World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew".kew.org.
- ^United States Food and Drug Administration(2024)."Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels".FDA.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-03-27.Retrieved2024-03-28.
- ^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.).Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium.The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US).ISBN978-0-309-48834-1.PMID30844154.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-05-09.Retrieved2024-06-21.
- ^Streeter D, Hart-Davies C, Hardcastle A, Cole F, Harper L. 2009.Collins Flower Guide.Harper CollinsISBN9-78-000718389-0
- ^Clegg, J. (1986).Observer's Book of Pond Life.Frederick Warne, London. 460 p.
- ^NRCS."Typha".PLANTS Database.United States Department of Agriculture(USDA).Retrieved12 December2015.
- ^State of Victoria (Agriculture Victoria)."Cumbungi".Victorian Resources Online.Agriculture Victoria. Archived fromthe originalon 24 March 2022.Retrieved4 February2023.
- ^abRevedin, A.; et al. (2010)."Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing".Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.107(44): 18815–18819.Bibcode:2010PNAS..10718815R.doi:10.1073/pnas.1006993107.PMC2973873.PMID20956317.
- ^Stace, C. A.(2010).New Flora of the British Isles(Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521707725.
- ^Bremer, Kåre (2000-04-04)."Early Cretaceous lineages of monocot flowering plants".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.97(9): 4707–4711.Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.4707B.doi:10.1073/pnas.080421597.ISSN0027-8424.PMC18297.PMID10759567.
- ^van der Valk, A. G., and Davis, C. B. (1976). The seed banks of prairie glacial marshes.Canadian Journal of Botany54, 1832–8.
- ^Shipley, B., et al. (1989). Regeneration and establishment strategies of emergent macrophytes.Journal of Ecology77, 1093–1110.
- ^abcKeddy, P. A. (2010).Wetland Ecology: Principals and Conservation.Cambridge University Press. p. 497.ISBN978-0-521-51940-3.
- ^Grace, J. B. and Wetzel, R. G. (1981). Habitat partitioning and competitive displacement in cattails (Typha): experimental field studies.The American Naturalist118: 463–74.
- ^Oudhia, P. (1999). Allelopathic TEMPeffects of Typha angustata on germination and seedling vigour of winter maize and rice.Agric. Sci. Digest19(4): 285-286.
- ^Boers, A. M., et al. (2007).Typha×glaucadominance and extended hydroperiod constrain restoration of wetland diversity.Ecological Engineering29, 232–44.
- ^Kaminski, R. M., et al. (1985). Control of cattail and bulrush by cutting and flooding. In:Coastal Wetlands,eds. H. H. Prince and F. M. D’Itri, pp. 253–62. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
- ^Global Invasive Species Database: "Uses"- Retrieved 2017-03-20
- ^"Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, genusTypha".Retrieved18 September2014.
- ^Briggs, B.G. (2020)."Typha domingensis".Flora of Australia.Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.Retrieved28 March2021.
- ^Selbo, S. M.; Snow, A. A. (2004)."The potential for hybridization betweenTypha angustifoliaandTypha latifoliain a constructed wetland "(PDF).Aquatic Botany.78(4): 361–369.Bibcode:2004AqBot..78..361S.doi:10.1016/j.aquabot.2004.01.003.
- ^Johnson, Peter."Wetlands - Reeds, rushes, sedges and low growers".Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.Retrieved28 March2021.
- ^Briggs, B.G. (2020)."Typha orientalis".Flora of Australia.Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.Retrieved28 March2021.
- ^Nyerges, Christopher (2016).Foraging Wild Edible Plants of North America: More than 150 Delicious Recipes Using Nature's Edibles.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 38.ISBN978-1-4930-1499-6.
- ^abcdMorton, J. F. (January–March 1975). "Cattails (Typhaspp.) – Weed Problem or Potential Crop? ".Economic Botany.29(1): 7–29.doi:10.1007/bf02861252.S2CID20072085.
- ^abGore, A. B. (2007).Environmental Research at the Leading Edge.New York:Nova Science Publishers, Inc.p. 106.
- ^abNyerges, Christopher (2016).Foraging Wild Edible Plants of North America: More than 150 Delicious Recipes Using Nature's Edibles.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 40.ISBN978-1-4930-1499-6.
- ^Angier, Bradford(1974).Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants.Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 50.ISBN0-8117-0616-8.OCLC799792.
- ^Marsh, L. C. (1959). "The Cattail Story".The Garden Journal.5:114–129.
- ^Elias, T. S.; Dykeman, P. A. (2009) [1982].Edible Wild Plants.New York, NY: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 69–70.ISBN978-1-4027-6715-9.
- ^Raupo or Bulrush (Typha orientalis).Tai Awatea. Accessed 15 December 2011.
- ^Reed, E.; Marsh, L. C. (1955). "The Cattail Potential".Chemurgic Digest.3.14:9, 18.
- ^Cicek, N.; Lambert, S.; Venema, H.D.; Snelgrove, K.R.; Bibeau, E.L.; Grosshans, R. (June 2006). "Nutrient removal and bio-energy production from Netley-Libau Marsh at Lake Winnipeg through annual biomass harvesting".Biomass and Bioenergy.30(6): 529–536.Bibcode:2006BmBe...30..529C.doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.12.009.ISSN0961-9534.
- ^"The Floating Bioplatforms of IISD-ELA".IISD Experimental Lakes Area.2015-10-01.Retrieved2020-06-22.
- ^Miller, D. T. (1999).Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest, Including Recipes, Harmful Plants, Natural Dyes, and Textile Fibers: A Practical Guide.Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 147.ISBN978-0-292-78164-1.
- ^Dieye, Younouss; Sambou, Vincent; Faye, Mactar; Thiam, Ababacar; Adj, Mamadou; Azilinon, Dorothe (2017-01-01). "Thermo-mechanical characterization of a building material based on Typha Australis".Journal of Building Engineering.9:142–146.doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2016.12.007.ISSN2352-7102.
- ^Making Aquatic Weeds Useful: Some Perspectives for Developing Countries.Ottawa: National Research Council.: Books for Business. 1976. p. 101.ISBN978-0-89499-180-6.
- ^Jahan, M. Sarwar; Islam, M. Khalidul; Chowdhury, D.A. Nasima; Moeiz, S.M. Iqbal; Arman, U. (October 2007). "Pulping and papermaking properties of pati (Typha)".Industrial Crops and Products.26(3): 259–264.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2007.03.014.
- ^Bidin, Nordiah; Zakaria, Muta Harah; Bujang, Japar Sidik; Abdul Aziz, Nur Aznadia (2015)."Suitability of Aquatic Plant Fibers for Handmade Papermaking".International Journal of Polymer Science.2015:1–9.doi:10.1155/2015/165868.ISSN1687-9422.
- ^Dubbe, D.R.; Garver, E.G.; Pratt, D.C. (1988). "Production of cattail (Typhaspp.) biomass in Minnesota, USA ".Biomass.17(2): 79–104.doi:10.1016/0144-4565(88)90073-X.
- ^Jackson, Jeremiah (April 2007). "Removing Arsenic Sustainably".Civil Engineering:45–55.
- ^Jackson, Jeremiah (December 18–20, 2006). "Treatment of Arsenic Contaminated Water Using Aquatic Macrophytes".An International Perspective on Environment and Water Resources.American Society of Civil Engineers, Environment and Water Resources. New Delhi, India.
- ^Maiden, J. H. (1889).Useful Native Plants of Australia (incl. Tasmania).Sydney: Technological Mus. New South Wales.
- ^Heidi Wollaeger (January 20, 2015)."Applying pollen over a crop as an alternative food source for predatory mites".Michigan State University.
External links
edit