Wikipedia

USSNew York(BB-34)

For other ships with the same name, seeUSS New York.

USSNew York(BB-34)was aUnited States Navybattleship,thelead shipof herclass.Named forNew York State,she was designed as the first ship to carry the14-inch (356 mm)/45-caliber gun.

New Yorkshortly after entering service in 1915
History
United States
NameNew York
NamesakeState of New York
Awarded1 May 1911
BuilderBrooklyn Navy Yard
Laid down11 September 1911
Launched30 October 1912
Commissioned15 May 1914
Decommissioned29 August 1946
Stricken13 July 1948
IdentificationHull symbol:BB-34
Honors and
awards		3 ×battle star(WW II)
FateSunk as a target ship, 1948
General characteristics[1]
Class and typeNew York-classbattleship
Displacement
Length
Beam95 ft 2.5 in (29 m)
Draft
  • 28 ft 6 in (8.7 m) (mean)
  • 29 ft 7 in (9 m) (max)
Installed power
Propulsion
Speed21knots(39km/h;24mph)
Range7,060nmi(13,075km;8,125mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph)
Complement1,042 officers and men
Armament
Armor
General characteristics (1925–1926 refit)
Displacement
  • 27,000 long tons (27,433 t) (standard)
  • 32,000 long tons (32,514 t) (full load)
Draft31 ft 6 in (9.60 m) (max)
Installed power6 × Bureau Expresswater-tube boilers
Armament
Aircraft carried3 ×floatplanes
Aviation facilities1 ×catapult
General characteristics (1942 refit)
Armament

Entering service in 1914, she was part of the U.S. Navy force which was sent to reinforce theBritish Grand Fleetin theNorth Seanear the end ofWorld War I.During that time, she was involved in at least two incidents withGerman U-boats,and is believed to have been the only US ship to have sunk one in the war, during an accidental collision in October 1918. Following the war, she was sent on a series of training exercises and cruises in both the Atlantic and the Pacific, and saw several overhauls to increase her armament, aircraft handling and armor.

She entered theNeutrality Patrolat the beginning ofWorld War II,and served as a convoy escort for ships toIcelandandGreat Britainin the early phase of the war. She saw her first combat against coastal artillery duringOperation TorcharoundCasablancainNorth Africa,and later became a training ship. Late in the war, she moved to thePacific,and provided naval gunfire support for theinvasion of Iwo Jimaand later theinvasion of Okinawa.Returning toPearl Harborfor repairs until the end of the war, she was classified obsolete and was chosen to take part in theOperation Crossroadsnuclear weapon testsatBikini Atollin 1946. She survived both explosions, and the effects ofradiationon the ship were studied for two years. She was eventually sunk as a target in 1948. She received threebattle starsfor her service.

Design and construction

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Main article:New York-class battleship

New Yorkwas the first of two plannedNew York-classbattleships,though construction on her began after her sister,Texas.She was ordered infiscal year1911 as the first class of battleship in theUnited States Navyto carry the 14-inch/45-calibergun.[2][3]

Day after keel ceremony, 12 September 1911

She had astandard displacementof 27,000long tons(27,000t) and afull-load displacementof 28,367 long tons (28,822 t). She was 573ft(175m) inlength overall,565 ft (172 m)at the waterline,and had abeamof 95 ft 6 in (29.11 m) and adraftof 28 ft 6 in (8.69 m).[1]

She was powered by 14Babcock & Wilcoxboilers driving two dual-actingvertical triple expansionreciprocating steam engines, with 28,000shp(21,000kW), with a maximum speed of 21kn(39km/h;24mph). She had arangeof 7,060nautical miles(13,080km;8,120mi) at 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph).[1]

Armor onNew Yorkconsisted of abeltfrom 10 to 12 in (250 to 300 mm) thick. Her lowercasematehad between 9 and 11 in (230 and 280 mm) of armor, and her upper casemate had 6 in (150 mm) of armor. Deck armor was 2 in (51 mm) thick, and turret armor was 14 in (360 mm) on the face, 4 in (100 mm) on the top, 2 inches on the sides, and 8 in (200 mm) on the rear. Armor on herbarbetteswas between 10 and 12 inches. Her conning tower was protected by 12 inches of armor, with 4 inches of armor on its top.[1]

Her armament consisted of ten 14-inch/45-caliber guns which could be elevated to 15 degrees, and arrayed in five double mounts designated, from bow to stern, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The class was the last to feature a turret mounted amidships.[4][5]As built, she also carried twenty-one5-inch (127 mm)/51-caliber guns,primarily for defense againstdestroyersandtorpedo boats.The 5-inch guns were poor in accuracy in rough seas due to the open casemates mounted in the hull, so the 5-inch armament was reduced to 16 guns in 1918 by removal of the least useful positions near the ends of the ship.[6]The ship was not designed withanti-aircraft(AA) defense in mind, but two3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber AA gunswere added in 1918.[4][7]She also had four 21-inch (533 mm)torpedo tubes,1 each on the port side bow and stern and starboard bow and stern, for theBliss-Leavitt Mark 3 torpedo.The torpedo rooms held 12torpedoestotal, plus 12naval defense mines.[8]Her crew consisted of 1,042 officers and enlisted men.[1]

New Yorkwas laid down on 11 September 1911, inNew York Navy YardinBrooklyn.[9]TheNew Yorkclass was constructed under new labor laws that limited the working hours of her construction crews. It was also stipulated that each ship cost less than $6,000,000, excluding cost of armor and armament.[10]She was launched on 30 October 1912, andcommissionedon 15 May 1914.[1]The fifth ship to be named forNew York State,she was sponsored by Elsie Calder, the daughter of New York politicianWilliam M. Calder.[9][11]The fourthNew York,anarmored cruiser,was renamedRochester,to free the name for this battleship,[12]and was laterscuttledinSubic Bayin 1941. However, the wreck site for that ship, which has become a popularrecreational dive site,is still commonly referred to as USSNew York.[13]

Service history

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Under the command of CaptainThomas S. Rodgers,[9]New Yorkheaded straight forVeracruzfollowing its commissioning.[1]She was designatedflagshipforRear AdmiralFrank Friday Fletcherin July 1914, commanding the fleet occupying and blockading Veracruz to prevent arms shipments from arriving there to support the government ofVictoriano Huerta.TheUnited States occupation of Veracruzultimately ended andNew Yorkresumed hershakedown cruisealong theEast Coast of the United States.[11]She also undertook several goodwill duties, and in December 1915 she held a high-profile Christmas party and dinner for several hundred orphans from New York City, at the suggestion of her crew. It later became a tradition on the ship to help the underprivileged when possible, earning it the nickname "Christmas Ship." Following this duty, she undertook a number of training exercises off the Atlantic coast.[14]

World War I

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New YorkinHampton Roads, Virginia,December 1916

Following the United States' entry intoWorld War I,New York,under the command of CaptainEdward L. Beach, Sr.,became flagship ofBattleship Division 9(BatDiv 9), commanded by Rear AdmiralHugh Rodman.[15]She was sent to reinforce theBritish Grand Fleetin theNorth Sea,arriving atScapa Flowon 7 December 1917. The ships of the U.S. fleet were assigned to the6th Battle Squadronin the Grand Fleet, the American ships joined inblockadeandescort.[16]In December 1917,New Yorkand the other U.S. battleships took part in several gunnery exercises.New Yorkscored the highest score of the ships for her main battery, with an accuracy of 93.3 percent.[17]Ultimately theNew Yorkwas the best performer in these exercises, the only ship rated as "excellent" while many of her sisters received mediocre performance reviews.[18]

She did not fire any shots in anger during the war, but does get credit for sinking an enemy vessel. During one of her escort missions, the convoy she was escorting came under two different attacks by German U-boats.[14]On the evening of 14 October 1918, asNew Yorkled a group of battleships into thePentland Firth,she was rocked by a violent underwater collision on her starboard side, followed shortly after by another to the stern that broke off two blades on one of herpropellers,reducing the ship to one engine and a speed of 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h). It was immediately clear to the men on board that she had struck an underwater object, but the depth of the channel meant it could not have been ashipwreck.Commanders concluded thatNew Yorkmust have accidentally collided with a submerged U-boat.[19]They agreed that the submarine had rammed its bow into the ship's side, then been struck moments later by the ship's propeller.[20]In their opinion, the damage would have been fatal to the German craft.[21]This strange—and accidental—encounter marked the only time in all of Battleship Division Nine's service with the Grand Fleet that one of its ships sank a German vessel.[22]Postwar examination of German records revealed that the submarine lost may have beenUB-113orUB-123,[22]however, neither of these seem possible, asUB-113had been sunk by a Frenchgunboatin theGulf of Gasconyweeks prior, andUB-123sank in theNorth Sea Mine Barragefive daysaftertheNew Yorksuffered the collision.[citation needed]

Badly damaged by the loss of a propeller, the ship sailed toRosythunder heavy escort for repairs on 15 October. At 01:00 the next morning, a U-boat launched three torpedoes at the damaged vessel, all of which passed ahead of her.[21]Unlike in previous cases, sufficient evidence existed to suppose that this torpedo attack was not a false alarm—a number of officers and men aboardNew Yorkclearly saw the wakes of the torpedoes in the fullmoonlight,and a submarine was spotted in the immediate vicinity by a patrol shortly after the attack.[22][Note 1]Ironically, the battleship's wounded condition is possibly what saved her: although standard procedure was to steam at 16 kn (18 mph; 30 km/h),New Yorkcould make only 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h) on her one operable propeller. Due to this, historian Jerry Jones believes that the U-boat captain misjudged the ship's speed. With no further damage, however, the battleship arrived safely at adrydockin Rosyth. As she was lifted clear of the water, a large dent commensurate with a submarine bow was found in her hull.[22]

New York(left) andHMSIron Dukein Scapa Flow, possibly during the surrender of the German fleet, November 1918

New Yorkwas also frequently host to foreign dignitaries, including KingGeorge Vof the United Kingdom and the futureEdward VIII,as well as then-princeHirohitoof theEmpire of Japan.[16]The ship was of great interest to other European powers, as it was in many cases a first chance to see an Americandreadnoughtup close.[14]She was on hand for the surrender of the GermanHigh Seas Fleeton 21 November 1918 in theFirth of Forth,several days after the signing of theArmistice,after which she returned to the United States briefly.[24]She then served as an escort forGeorge Washington,carrying PresidentWoodrow Wilson,on his trip from the United States toBrest, Franceen route to theVersailles Peace Conference.[24]

Interwar period

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Arriving back in the United States in 1919, she began to undertake training and patrol duties, including at one point to theCaribbeanwith a number of other U.S. ships.[24]During this year, she also saw a refit inNorfolk Navy Yardwhere five 5-inch guns were removed and three additional 3-inch/50 caliber AA guns were added, bringing the total to five.[25]The secondary battery was reduced to sixteen 5-inch/51 caliber guns.[26]In late 1919, she sailed to thePacific Oceanand joined the newly formedUnited States Pacific Fleet.[16]She continued to conduct training and patrol duties in the Pacific until the mid-1930s when she was transferred again to theAtlantic,and began operating out of theNorth Atlantic,with the exception of several occasional trips to theWest Coast of the United States.[24]

New Yorkon maneuvers withOklahomaandNevada,1932. The carrierLangleycan be seen in the background.

In 1926New Yorkwas considered obsolete compared with other battleships in service, so she steamed to Norfolk Navy Yard for a complete refit. While several other battleships in service, includingUtahandFloridawere converted to training ships or scrapped,New YorkandTexaswere chosen to be overhauled to increase their speed, armor, armament, and propulsion systems as allowed by theWashington Naval Treatyof 1922.[24]An additional 3,000 long tons (3,000 t) were added to her for defense against aerial targets and submarines. The number of 3-inch AA guns was increased to 8, and six of the 5-inch guns were relocated to new casemates on the main deck. The torpedo tubes were removed at this time. Her 14 Babcock & Wilcoxcoal-firedboilerswere replaced with six Bureau Express oil-fired boilers and the twin funnels were trunked into one, aft of the forward superstructure. Tripods were fitted in place of lattice masts, and atop the forward tripod a control tower was installed. A tower was built amidships that contained additional fire control to backup the system on the foremast. A newaircraft catapultwas installed atop turret Number 3, and cranes were installed on either side of the funnel for boat and aircraft handling. Additional deck protection was added, and her beam was widened to 106 ft (32 m). She was fitted withanti-torpedo bulges.However, these bulges made maneuvering harder at low speeds, she rolled badly, and her gunfire accuracy was reduced in rough seas.[25]On 4 September 1928, she left for short-range battle drills withArizona,and from 7 to 10 November the ships traveled toSan Franciscotogether withPennsylvania.[27]On 3 April 1929 she undertook anti-aircraft practice withArizona,and then the two ships andPennsylvaniasteamed forCuba,where they stayed until steaming forHampton Roadson 1 May.[28]

She remained with the Pacific Fleet training as part of the series ofFleet Problemsuntil 1939.

Fleet Problem I. 18-22 February 1923.New Yorkparticipated in Fleet Problem I. However, she patriated as an ersatz aircraft carrier, representing aLangley-type of aircraft carrier, with 15 planes embarked. During the Fleet Problems ships were tasked to represent either different types of ships and /or multiple ships. She was assigned to the ‘Black’ force. This was the force tasked to attack the Panama Canal, which it was deemed to be successful.

Fleet Problem II. 2- 15 January 1924. The problem was to test if the US Fleet could voyage across the Pacific to engage Japan.

Fleet Problem III. 4-18 January 1924. TheNew Yorkwas assigned to the Blue force. The Blue force was always designated to represent the United States’ Navy. This force was tasked to transit the Panama canal from the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean Seas. WhileNew Yorkwas transiting the canal, an intelligence officer from the opposing Black force was able to surreptitiously board the ship, enter turret number three and place his sea bag (which represented a bomb) in the turret’s magazine and thereby destroying the ship and rendering the canal inoperative.

Fleet Problem XIV. 10-17 February 1933. New York participated as part of the Blue force engaged the aircraft carrier escorts for the Black aircraft carriers. Two heavy cruisers were judged to be considerably damaged. However, the carrierSaratogawas able to escape without simulated damaged from her guns.New York,herself was judged to have suffered 34% damage.

Fleet Problem XVI. 29 April,- 10 June 1935.New Yorkalong with battleshipOklahoma(BB-37) represented 3 battleships each and was assigned to the Black force. They were charged to defend Midway Island. A fight between the two forces battleships was engaged and Black was judged he winner, 2 of the ‘enemy’ battleships being judged as sunk.

Fleet Problem XX. 20-27 February 1939. The ship was engaged in a traditional battleship on battleship tactical simulated battle. The ship was judged to have been sunk through dive bomber and submarine attack. The battleship then participated in a simulated invasion of Puerto Rico.

TheUSS New Yorktook no further part in fleet exercises as she was deployed to the Atlantic as part of Franklin Roosevelt’s Neutrality patrols.

That year she was selected to carry now-Admiral Rodman, the President's personal representative for thecoronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth,andNew Yorktook part in theGrand Naval Reviewof 20 May 1937 as sole U.S. Navy representative.[29]In 1937, eight1.1-inch (28 mm)/75 caliberAA guns in two quadruple mounts were added to improve the light AA armament.New Yorkwas fitted withXAF radarin February 1938, including the first United Statesduplexerso a single antenna could both send and receive.[30]This made her the second ship to be outfitted with radar after the destroyerLeary.The tests conducted onNew Yorkled to similar radars being installed on theBrooklyn-classandSt. Louis-classcruisersas well as newer battleshipWest Virginia.For several years, she served primarily as a training ship for midshipmen and newly enlisted sailors.[29]

In September 1939,New Yorkjoined theNeutrality Patrol,safeguarding sea lanes in the North Atlantic, and served as flagship with the Atlantic Squadron, later redesignated the United States Atlantic Fleet, for the next 27 months.[31]In July 1941, she protected a convoy of U.S. troops moving togarrison Iceland.[29]She was in the midst of a refit on 7 December 1941, when theImperial Japanese Navyattacked Pearl Harbor,sinking many of the battleships in the U.S. Pacific Fleet and bringing the United States intoWorld War II.[32]

World War II

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With the outbreak of war,New York's overhaul was sped up and completed four weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. She returned to duty escorting cargo and troop ships to Iceland andScotland.She continued on patrol duty for the next year.[32]In her first series of escorts, she left Norfolk 15 February, arrived in New York 16 February, Nova Scotia 21 February, and Iceland 2 March, returning to Norfolk on 27 March. She left there on her second patrol 24 April and arrived at New York the next day, Nova Scotia 2 May,Newfoundland5 May, and Iceland 10 May, returning to New York on 20 May. The next day she left for a third escort, arriving again at Nova Scotia on 2 June and Scotland on 10 June, returning to Norfolk on 30 June.[33][34]Following these three escort missions, she put in for overhaul in Norfolk. The secondary battery was reduced to six 5-inch (127 mm) guns and the anti-aircraft armament was increased to ten 3-inch/50 caliber guns, 2440 mm (1.6 in) Bofors gunsin quadruple mounts, and 4220 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon cannons.[26]She departed Norfolk on 12 August and arrived the next day at New York. From there, she escorted a convoy toNova Scotiawhere she remained until 22 August, then departed for Scotland where she was from 31 August to 5 September. She returned to Norfolk on 15 September.[35]

New Yorkoff North Africa just after thebattle at Casablanca

New Yorksaw her first major action duringOperation Torch,theAlliedinvasion ofNorth Africain November 1942. She left Norfolk on 23 October in order to join the Allied fleet.[35]Attached to the Southern Attack Group, on 8 November,New Yorkand the cruiserPhiladelphia,screened by six destroyers, attacked Safi harbor in Morocco, supporting landings by theU.S. 9th Infantry Division's 47th Infantry Regiment,and defended the transportsColeandBernadouwhich came under attack by 130-millimeter (5.1 in)shore batteriesat Point De La Tour.[32]New Yorkfired several salvoes with her 14-inch (360 mm) guns, with one of them striking the base of the battery and ricocheting into a bunker, destroying the range finder and killing the battery commander and neutralizing the battery.[34]Other shore batteries were destroyed byPhiladelphia's guns and aircraft fromescort carrierSantee.New Yorkremained on station until the port was secure, then steamed north to support the Center Group offFedhalaandCasablanca,specifically to deal with the threat of theVichy FrenchbattleshipJean Bart,but by the time she arrived, that battleship had been disabled byMassachusettsand other Vichy French ships had been driven off byBrooklynandAugusta.New Yorkremained on off the coast of North Africa until the beaches were secure, then retired on 14 November.[36]She had expended a total of sixty 14-inch (360 mm) rounds.[37]She returned to Norfolk on 23 November.[35][34]

New Yorknext returned to convoy patrol.[38]She escorted two convoys to Casablanca from the United States during late 1942, leaving Norfolk on 24 November and in New York from 25 November to 12 December, Casablanca from 24 to 29 December, and back in Norfolk on 12 January 1943. She left Norfolk on the second escort on 26 February, in New York from 27 February to 5 March, in Casablanca from 18 to 25 March, and back to New York from 5 April to 1 May.[35]In 1943 she was selected for a refit to become a main battery and escort training center.[36]She arrived inPortland, Maineon 2 May, where she remained until 27 July.[35]During her fourth and final refit in early 1943 her anti-aircraft battery was increased to ten 3-inch/50 caliber guns, forty 40 mm and thirty-six 20 mm guns. Improved fire control was added as well, and this ultimately increased her displacement to 29,340 long tons (29,810 t) standard and 34,000 long tons (35,000 t) full-load.[25]She returned to Norfolk on 2 August 1943.[35]She was used to train crews from the US Navy,US Coast Guard,and Allied navies on the 14-inch/45 caliber gun, the 3-inch/50 caliber gun, and the 20 mm and 40 mm guns, primarily because many newer ships used these weapons. Between July 1943 and June 1944 about 11,000 enlisted men and 750 officers trained on her in this capacity.[36]However, the duty lowered morale among the crew and a large number of requests for transfer were put in.[35]Following this duty, she was sent to theUS Naval Academyand undertook three consecutive midshipmen cruises ferrying a total of 1,800midshipmenfrom Annapolis toTrinidad[39]between June and August 1944.[40]

Pacific theater

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New Yorkfiring her 14-inch main guns onIwo Jimaon 16 February 1945

Selected to return to action in thePacific Theater[41]in late 1944, she transited thePanama Canalon 27 November, and arrived inLong Beach, Californiaon 9 December, breaking down at least once along the way and losing an observation plane in bad weather.[40]She conducted refresher training offSouthern Californiain December 1944 and January 1945.New Yorkdeparted 12 January and rendezvoused withIdaho,Tennessee,Nevada,Texas,andArkansas,forming a support force for theinvasion of Iwo Jima.New Yorklost a blade off her port screw just before the invasion began[39]and briefly put in for temporary repairs atEniwetokfrom 5 to 7 February. She returned to the group, which was nearSaipan,on 11 February. Together, they arrived at Iwo Jima on 16 February and began the pre-invasion bombardment.[40]During the three days of shore bombardment that followed,New Yorkexpended 6,417 rounds, including 1,037 14-inch rounds. One of her salvoes struck the primary ammunition dump on the island, causing "the most spectacular secondary explosion in the campaign."[39]She retired from the area on 19 February and arrived atUlithion 21 February.[40]

After a permanent repair to her port propeller atManusfrom 28 February to 19 March, she rejoinedTask Force 54at Ulithi on 22 March[42]in preparation for theinvasion of Okinawa.Joined byMaryland,Colorado,andWest Virginia,the fleet of battleships began its bombardment ofOkinawaon 27 March.[41]Providing shore bombardment, and laternaval artillery supportfor ground forces,New Yorkwas on station for 76 consecutive days, during which she expended 4,159 rounds of 14-inch ammunition and 7,001 rounds of 5-inch ammunition.[39][26]She was subjected to akamikazeattack on 14 April which destroyed one spotting plane on its catapult, but the Japanese aircraft crashed 50 yd (46 m) from the ship andNew Yorkreceived only superficial damage, suffering two men injured.[37]She was detached on 11 June, her gun barrels having been worn out by fire, and proceeded to Pearl Harbor to have her guns relined in preparation forthe invasion of mainland Japan.[43]She stopped byLeyteon 14 June and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 1 July.[42]She was in the harbor on 15 August, the end of the war.[43]

During World War II,New Yorkspent 1,088 days with the Atlantic Fleet from December 1941 to November 1944, and 276 days with the Pacific Fleet.[37]She expended a total of 53,094 rounds of all types totaling 3,548.9 short tons (3,219.5 t), traveled 123,867 mi (199,345 km), spent 414 days underway, and consumed 22,367,996 US gal (84,672,080 L; 18,625,253 imp gal) of fuel oil.[44]

Post-war

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The Baker shot of Operation Crossroads, Bikini Atoll, 25 July 1946.New Yorkcan be seen just to the right of the explosion column.
New Yorkcapsizes after serving as a target ship off Hawaii, 8 July 1948.

Following the end of the war,New Yorkentered theOperation Magic Carpetfleet, leaving Pearl Harbor on 2 September and arriving atSan Pedroon 9 September with a load of veterans embarked. She then proceeded to New York City to take part inNavy Daycelebrations.[42]

Selected as a test ship forOperation Crossroads,she was used in nuclear bomb tests atBikini Atollin July 1946 with about 70 other ships, surviving both the Able and Baker tests. Following these tests, she was towed to Pearl Harbor to study the effects of the bomb blasts on her. On 6 July 1948, she was towed out to sea and used as target practice, and was sunk by several naval aircraft and ships.[43]

Her stern plate is displayed onboard her successor,USSNew York(LPD-21).

Honors and awards

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^Jones notes in his dissertation that German records do not contain any report of a torpedo attack upon a battleship on 16 October 1918. He states that the attack may have come from one of the U-boats that were sunk in the area around that time, however.[23]

Citations

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  1. ^abcdefgGardiner & Gray 1985,p. 115.
  2. ^Gardiner & Gray 1985,p. 114.
  3. ^Banks 2002,p. 27.
  4. ^abBonner 1996,p. 28.
  5. ^Friedman 2008,p. 299.
  6. ^Bonner 1996,p. 115.
  7. ^Friedman 2008,p. 304.
  8. ^Friedman 1985,p. 436.
  9. ^abcDANFS 1970,p. 552.
  10. ^Bonner 1996,p. 27.
  11. ^abBonner 1996,p. 116.
  12. ^Davis 2010,p. 125.
  13. ^Davis 2010,p. 30.
  14. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 31.
  15. ^Bonner 1996,p. 117.
  16. ^abcBonner 1996,p. 118.
  17. ^Besch 2001,p. 197.
  18. ^Besch 2001,p. 198.
  19. ^Jones 1995,p. 66.
  20. ^Rodman 1927,p. 271.
  21. ^abRodman 1927,p. 272.
  22. ^abcdJones 1995,p. 67.
  23. ^Jones 1995,p. 139.
  24. ^abcdeBanks 2002,p. 32.
  25. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 33.
  26. ^abcBreyer 1973,p. 205.
  27. ^Stillwell 1991,p. 313.
  28. ^Stillwell 1991,p. 314.
  29. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 34.
  30. ^Macintyre 1967,p. 73.
  31. ^Bonner 1996,p. 119.
  32. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 35.
  33. ^Banks 2002,p. 42.
  34. ^abcBonner 1996,p. 120.
  35. ^abcdefgBanks 2002,p. 43.
  36. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 36.
  37. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 40.
  38. ^Bonner 1996,p. 121.
  39. ^abcdBanks 2002,p. 37.
  40. ^abcdBanks 2002,p. 44.
  41. ^abBonner 1996,p. 122.
  42. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 45.
  43. ^abcBanks 2002,p. 38.
  44. ^Banks 2002,p. 41.
  45. ^"Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual [Rev. 1953], Pt. 4 - Campaign and Service Medals".history.navy.mil.Naval History and Heritage Command. 1953. p. 43.Retrieved14 February2024.
  46. ^"Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual [Rev. 1953], Pt. 4 - Campaign and Service Medals".history.navy.mil.Naval History and Heritage Command. 1953. p. 54.Retrieved14 February2024.
  47. ^"Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual [Rev. 1953], Pt. 4 - Campaign and Service Medals".history.navy.mil.Naval History and Heritage Command. 1953. p. 58.Retrieved14 February2024.
  48. ^ab>"Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual [Rev. 1953], Pt. 4 - Campaign and Service Medals".history.navy.mil.Naval History and Heritage Command. 1953. p. 115.Retrieved14 February2024.
  49. ^"Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual [Rev. 1953], Pt. 4 - Campaign and Service Medals".history.navy.mil.Naval History and Heritage Command. 1953. p. 161.Retrieved14 February2024.

Sources

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