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United States Department of Defense

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"DoD" redirects here. For other uses, seeDOD.

TheUnited States Department of Defense(DoD,[2]USDOD,orDOD) is anexecutive branch departmentof thefederal government of the United Statescharged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the U.S. government directly related tonational securityand theUnited States Armed Forces.As of November 2022, the U.S. Department of Defense is the second largest employer in the world after India (and potentially China, if including the Central Military Commission),[3]with over 1.4 million active-duty service personnel, including soldiers, marines, sailors, airmen, and guardians. The Department of Defense also maintains over 778,000National Guardand reservists, and over 747,000 civilians, bringing the total to over 2.91 million employees.[4]Headquartered atthe PentagoninArlington County, Virginia,just outsideWashington, D.C.,the Department of Defense's stated mission is "to provide the military forces needed to deter war and ensure our nation's security".[5][6]

United States Department of Defense
Seal of the Department of Defense
Logo for the Department of Defense

An aerial view of the Pentagon
Agency overview
FormedSeptember 18, 1947;
77 years ago(1947-09-18)(as National Military Establishment)
Preceding agencies
TypeExecutive Department
JurisdictionU.S. federal government
HeadquartersThe Pentagon
Arlington County, Virginia,U.S.
38°52′16″N77°3′21″W/ 38.87111°N 77.05583°W/38.87111; -77.05583
Employees
  • 747,809 (civilian)[1]
  • 1,344,330 (active duty military)
  • 778,096 (National Guard and reserve)
  • 2,870,235 total (June 2022)
Annual budget$842 billion FY2024
Agency executives
Child agencies
Websitedefense.gov

The Department of Defense is headed by thesecretary of defense,a cabinet-level head who reports directly to thepresident of the United States,the latter of which is also thecommander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.Beneath the Department of Defense are three subordinate military departments: theDepartment of the Army,theDepartment of the Navy,and theDepartment of the Air Force.In addition, fournational intelligence servicesare subordinate to the Department of Defense: the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the National Security Agency (NSA), the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), and the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). OtherDefense agenciesinclude the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA), the Missile Defense Agency (MDA), the Defense Health Agency (DHA), Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), the Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency (DCSA), the Space Development Agency (SDA) and the Pentagon Force Protection Agency (PFPA), all of which are subordinate to the secretary of defense. Additionally, the Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA) is responsible for administering contracts for the Department of Defense. Military operations are managed by eleven regional or functionalunified combatant commands.The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including theEisenhower School(ES) and theNational War College(NWC).

History

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Further information:History of the United States military
See also:National Security Act of 1947

Faced with rising tensions between theThirteen Coloniesand theBritish government,one of the first actions taken by theFirst Continental Congressin September 1774 was to recommend that the colonies begin defensive military preparations. In mid-June 1775, after the outbreak of theRevolutionary War,theSecond Continental Congress,recognizing the necessity of having a national army that could move about and fight beyond the boundaries of any particular colony, organized theContinental Armyon June 14, 1775.[7][8]This momentous event is commemorated in the U.S. annually asFlag Day.Later that year, Congress would charter theContinental Navyon October 13,[9]and theContinental Marineson November 10.

War Department and Navy Department

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Main articles:United States Department of WarandUnited States Department of the Navy

Upon the seating of the1st U.S. Congresson March 4, 1789, legislation to create a military defense force stagnated as they focused on other concerns relevant to setting up the new government. PresidentGeorge Washingtonwent to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military twice during this time. Finally, on the last day of the session, September 29, 1789, Congress created theWar Department.[10][11]The War Department handled naval affairs until Congress created theNavy Departmentin 1798. The secretaries of each department reported directly to the president as cabinet-level advisors until 1949, when all military departments became subordinate to the Secretary of Defense.

National Military Establishment

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President Trumansigns the National Security Act Amendment of 1949.

After the end ofWorld War II,PresidentHarry Trumanproposed the creation of a unified department of national defense. In a special message to theCongresson December 19, 1945, the president cited wasteful military spending and interdepartmental conflicts. Deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive.[12]On July 26, 1947, Truman signed theNational Security Act of 1947,which set up a unified military command known as the National Military Establishment and created theCentral Intelligence Agency,theNational Security Council,National Security Resources Board,United States Air Force,and theJoint Chiefs of Staff.The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a singlesecretary of defense.[13][14][15]The National Military Establishment formally began operations on September 18, the day after theSenateconfirmedJames V. Forrestalas the first secretary of defense.[14]The National Military Establishment was renamed the "Department of Defense" on August 10, 1949, and absorbed the three cabinet-level military departments, in an amendment to the original 1947 law.[16]The renaming is alleged to be due to the Establishment's abbreviation, NME, being pronounced "enemy".[17]

Under theDepartment of Defense Reorganization Actof 1958 (Pub. L.85–599), channels of authority within the department were streamlined while still maintaining the ordinary jurisdiction of the Military Departments to organize, train, and equip their associated forces. The Act clarified the overall decision-making authority of the secretary of defense concerning these subordinate Military Departments. It more clearly defined the operationalchain of commandover U.S. military forces (created by the military departments) as running from the President to the Secretary of Defense, the service chief of the Unified Combatant Commander(s), and then to the unified combatant commander(s).[18]Also provided in this legislation was a centralized research authority, theAdvanced Research Projects Agency,eventually known asDARPA.The act was written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration and was signed into law on August 6, 1958.

Organizational structure

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Main article:Organizational structure of the United States Department of Defense
See also:List of Department of Defense agencies
Organization of the Department of Defense following the creation of the United States Space Force
A December 2013 Department of Defense organizational chart

TheSecretary of Defense,appointed by the president with the advice and consent of theSenate,is by federal law (10 U.S.C.§ 113) the head of the Department of Defense, "the principal assistant to the President in all matters relating to Department of Defense", and has "authority, direction, and control over the Department of Defense". Because theConstitutionvests all military authority inCongressand the president, the statutory authority of the secretary of defense is derived from their constitutional authority. Since it is impractical for either Congress or the president to participate in every piece of Department of Defense affairs, the secretary of defense and the secretary's subordinate officials generally exercise military authority.

The Department of Defense is composed of the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and the Joint Staff (JS), Office of the Inspector General (DODIG), theCombatant Commands,the Military Departments (Department of the Army(DA),Department of the Navy(DON) &Department of the Air Force(DAF)), theDefense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities,theNational Guard Bureau(NGB), and such other offices, agencies, activities, organizations, and commands established or designated by law, or by the president or by the secretary of defense. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the organizational relationships within the department and is the foundational issuance for delineating the major functions of the department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesin December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987.[19][20]

Office of the Secretary of Defense

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Main article:Office of the Secretary of Defense
A 2008 Office of the Secretary of Defense organizational chart

TheOffice of the Secretary of Defense(OSD) is the secretary and their deputies, including predominantly civilian staff. OSD is the principal staff element of the Secretary of Defense in the exercise of policy development, planning, resource management, fiscal and program evaluation and oversight, and interface and exchange with otherU.S. federal governmentdepartments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, through formal and informal processes. OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies, Department of Defense Field Activities, and specializedCross Functional Teams.

Defense agencies

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See also:Combat support agency

OSD is a parent agency of the following defense agencies:

National intelligence agencies

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Several defense agencies are members of theUnited States Intelligence Community.These are national-level intelligence services that operate under the Department of Defense jurisdiction but simultaneously fall under the authorities of theOffice of the Director of National Intelligence.They fulfill the requirements of national policymakers and war planners, serve asCombat Support Agencies,and also assist and deploy alongside non-Department of Defense intelligence or law enforcement services such as theCentral Intelligence Agencyand theFederal Bureau of Investigation.The military services each have their intelligence elements that are distinct from but subject to coordination by national intelligence agencies under the Department of Defense. Department of Defense manages the nation's coordinating authorities and assets in disciplines ofsignals intelligence,geospatial intelligence,andmeasurement and signature intelligence,and also builds, launches, and operates the Intelligence Community's satellite assets. Department of Defense also has its ownhuman intelligenceservice,which contributes to the CIA's human intelligence efforts while also focusing on military human intelligence priorities. These agencies are directly overseen by theUnder Secretary of Defense for Intelligence and Security.

Joint Chiefs of Staff

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Main article:Joint Chiefs of Staff
Joint Chiefs of Staffand Joint Staff organizational chart

TheJoint Chiefs of Staff(JCS) is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the Department of Defense who advise the secretary of defense, theHomeland Security Council,theNational Security Counciland the president on military matters. The composition of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is defined by statute and consists of thechairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(CJCS),vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(VCJCS), senior enlisted advisor to the chairman (SEAC), the Military Service chiefs from theArmy,Marine Corps,Navy,Air Force,andSpace Force,in addition to the chief ofNational Guard Bureau,all appointed by the president followingU.S. Senateconfirmation.[21]Each of the individual Military Service Chiefs, outside their Joint Chiefs of Staff obligations, works directly for the secretary of the military department concerned: theSecretary of the Army,Secretary of the Navy,andSecretary of the Air Force.[22][23][24][25]

Following theGoldwater–Nichols Actin 1986, theJoint Chiefs of Staffno longer maintained operational command authority individually or collectively. The act designated the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) as the "principal military adviser to the President, the National Security Council, the Homeland Security Council, and the Secretary of Defense".[26]The remaining Joint Chiefs of Staff may only have their advice relayed to the President, National Security Council, theHomeland Security Council,or the Secretary of Defense after submitting it to the CJCS. By law, the chairman has to present that advice whenever he is presenting his own.[27]The chain of command goes from thepresidentto thesecretary of defenseto thecommanders of the Combatant Commands.[28]Goldwater–Nichols also created the office of vice-chairman, and the chairman is now designated as theprincipal military adviserto the secretary of defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and to the president.[29]

The Joint Staff (JS) is a headquarters staff at thePentagonmade up of personnel from all five services that assist the chairman and vice chairman in discharging their duties. It is managed by theDirector of the Joint Staff(DJS) who is alieutenant generalorvice admiral.[30][31]

Military departments and services

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There are three military departments within the Department of Defense:

  1. theDepartment of the Army,within which theUnited States Armyis organized.
  2. theDepartment of the Navy,within which theUnited States Navyand theUnited States Marine Corpsare organized.
  3. theDepartment of the Air Force,within which theUnited States Air ForceandUnited States Space Forceare organized.

The Military Departments are each headed by their secretary (i.e.,Secretary of the Army,Secretary of the NavyandSecretary of the Air Force), appointed by the president, with the advice and consent of theSenate.They have the legal authority underTitle 10 of the United States Codeto conduct all the affairs of their respective departments within which the military services are organized.[32]The secretaries of the Military Departments are (by law) subordinate to thesecretary of defenseand (by SecDef delegation) to thedeputy secretary of defense.

Secretaries of military departments, in turn, normally exercise authority over their forces by delegation through their respective service chiefs (i.e.,Chief of Staff of the Army,Commandant of the Marine Corps,Chief of Naval Operations,Chief of Staff of the Air Force,andChief of Space Operations) over forces not assigned to aCombatant Command.[33]

Secretaries of Military Departments and service chiefs do not possess operational command authority over U.S. troops (this power was stripped from them in theDefense Reorganization Act of 1958), and instead, Military Departments are tasked solely with "the training, provision of equipment, and administration of troops."[33]

Unified Combatant Commands

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Main article:Unified combatant command
U.S. Department of Defense combatant command areas of responsibility

Aunified combatant commandis a military command composed of personnel/equipment from at least two Military Departments, which has a broad/continuing mission.[34][35]

These military departments are responsible for equipping and training troops to fight, while the Unified Combatant Commands are responsible for military forces' actual operational command.[35]Almost all operational U.S. forces are under the authority of a Unified Command.[33]The Unified Commands are governed by aUnified Command Plan—a frequently updated document (produced by the DoD), which lays out the Command's mission, geographical/functional responsibilities, and force structure.[35]

During military operations, the chain of command runs from the president to thesecretary of defenseto thecombatant commandersof the Combatant Commands.[33]

As of 2019,the United States has eleven Combatant Commands, organized either on a geographical basis (known as "area of responsibility",AOR) or on a global, functional basis:[36]

Budget

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Main article:Military budget of the United States
Defense spending as a percent ofgross domestic productfrom 1792 to 2017
Total United States Defense outlays from 1962 to 2024 in $millions (2019 to 2024 are estimated)

Department of Defense spending in 2017 was 3.15% of GDP and accounted for about 38% of the budgetedglobal military spending– more than the next 7 largest militaries combined.[37]By 2019, the 27th secretary of defense had begun a line-by-line review of the defense budget; in 2020 the secretary identified items amounting to $5.7 billion, out of a $106 billion subtotal (the so-called "fourth estate" agencies such as missile defense, and defense intelligence, amounting to 16% of the defense budget),[38][39]He will re-deploy to the modernization of hypersonics, artificial intelligence, and missile defense.[38]Beyond 2021 the 27th secretary of defense is projecting the need for yearly budget increases of 3 to 5 percent to modernize.[40]

The Department of Defense accounts for the majority of federal discretionary spending. In FY 2017, the Department of Defense budgeted spending accounted for 15% of the U.S. federal budget, and 49% of federaldiscretionary spending,which represents funds not accounted for by pre-existing obligations. However, this does not include many military-related items that are outside the Department of Defense budget, such as nuclear weapons research, maintenance, cleanup, and production, which is in the Department of Energy budget, Veterans Affairs, the Treasury Department's payments in pensions to military retirees and widows and their families, interest on debt incurred in past wars, or State Department financing of foreign arms sales and militarily-related development assistance. Neither does it include defense spending that is not military, such as the Department of Homeland Security, counter-terrorism spending by the FBI, and intelligence-gathering spending by the NSA.

In the2010 United States federal budget,the Department of Defense was allocated a base budget of $533.7 billion, with a further $75.5 billion adjustment in respect of 2009, and $130 billion for overseas contingencies.[41]The subsequent 2010 Department of Defense Financial Report shows the total budgetary resources forfiscal year2010 were $1.2 trillion.[42]Of these resources, $1.1 trillion were obligated and $994 billion were disbursed, with the remaining resources relating to multi-year modernization projects requiring additional time to procure.[42]After over a decade ofnon-compliance,Congresshas established a deadline ofFiscal year2017 for the Department of Defense to achieveaudit readiness.[43]

In 2015 the allocation for the Department of Defense was $585 billion,[44]thehighest level of budgetary resourcesamong all federal agencies, and this amounts to more than one-half of the annual federal expenditures in the United States federal budgetdiscretionary budget.[45]

On September 28, 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpsigned the Department of Defense and Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education Appropriations Act, 2019, and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2019 (H.R.6157) into law.[46]On September 30, 2018, the FY2018 Budget expired and the FY2019 budget came into effect.

FY2019

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The FY2019 Budget for the Department of Defense is approximately $686,074,048,000[47](Including Base + Overseas Contingency Operations + Emergency Funds) in discretionary spending and $8,992,000,000 in mandatory spending totaling $695,066,000,000

Undersecretary of Defense (Comptroller)David L. Norquistsaid in a hearing regarding the FY 2019 budget: "The overall number you often hear is $716 billion. That is the amount of funding for national defense, the accounting code is 050 and includes more than simply the Department of Defense. It includes, for example, the Department of Energy and others. That large a number, if you back out the $30 billion for non-defense agencies, you get to $686 billion. That is the funding for the Department of Defense, split between $617 billion in base and $69 billion inoverseas contingency".[48]

The Department of Defense budget encompasses the majority of the National Defense Budget of approximately $716.0 billion in discretionary spending and $10.8 billion in mandatory spending for a $726.8 billion total. Of the total, $708.1 billion falls under the jurisdiction of theHouse Committee on Armed ServicesandSenate Armed Services Committeeand is subject to authorization by the annualNational Defense Authorization Act(NDAA). The remaining $7.9 billion falls under the jurisdiction of other congressional committees.[49]

The Department of Defense is unique because it is one of the few federal entities where the majority of its funding falls into the discretionary category. The majority of the entire federal budget is mandatory, and much of the discretionary funding in the budget consists of DoD dollars.

Budget overview

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DoD Base + OCO + Emergency budget by appropriation title[50]
Title FY 2019 ($ in thousands)*
Military Personnel $152,883,052
Operation and Maintenance $283,544,068
Procurement $144,340,905
RDT&E $92,364,681
Revolving and Management Funds $1,557,305
Defense Bill $674,690,011
Military Construction $9,801,405
Family Housing $1,582,632
Military Construction Bill $11,384,037
Total $686,074,048

* Numbers may not add due to rounding

FY2024

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As of 10 March 2023 thefiscal year2024 (FY2024) presidential budget request was $842billion.[a]In January 2023 Treasury SecretaryJanet Yellenannounced the US government would hit its $31.4trilliondebt ceilingon 19 January 2023;[53]the date on which the US government would no longer be able to useextraordinary measuressuch as issuance ofTreasury securitiesis estimated to be in June 2023.[54]On 3 June 2023, the debt ceiling was suspended until 2025.[55]The $886billionNational Defense Authorization Actis facing reconciliation of theHouseandSenatebills after passing both houses 27 July 2023; the conferees have to be chosen, next.[56][57][58]As of September 2023, aContinuing resolutionis needed to prevent aGovernment shutdown.[59][60][61]A shutdown was avoided on 30 September for 45 days (until 17 November 2023),[62][63][64][65]with passage of the NDAA on 14 December 2023.[66]The Senate will next undertake negotiations on supplemental spending for 2024.[67][68]A government shutdown was averted on 23 March 2024 with the signing of a $1.2 trillion bill to cover FY2024.[69][70]

Criticism of finances

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A 2013Reutersinvestigation concluded thatDefense Finance & Accounting Service,the Department of Defense's primary financial management arm, implements monthly "unsubstantiated change actions" —illegal, inaccurate "plugs" —that forcibly make DoD's books match Treasury's books.[71]Reutersreported thatthe Pentagonwas the only federal agency that had not released annual audits as required by a 1992 law. According to Reuters, the Pentagon "annually reports to Congress that its books are in such disarray that an audit is impossible".[72][73]

In 2015, a Pentagon consulting firm performed an audit on the Department of Defense's budget. It found that there was $125 billion in wasteful spending that could be saved over the next five years without layoffs or reduction in military personnel. In 2016,The Washington Postuncovered that rather than taking the advice of the auditing firm, senior defense officials suppressed and hid the report from the public to avoid political scrutiny.[74]In June 2016, theOffice of the Inspector Generalreleased a report stating that the Army made $6.5 trillion in wrongful adjustments to its accounting entries in 2015.[75]The Department of Defense failed its fifth audit in 2022, and could not account for more than 60% of its $3.5 trillion in assets.[76]

In the latestCenter for Effective Governmentanalysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the mostFreedom of Information Actrequests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the DoD earned 61 out of a possible 100 points, a D− grade. While it had improved from a failing grade in 2013, it still had low scores in processing requests (55%) and disclosure rules (42%).[77]

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The organization and functions of the Department of Defense are inTitle 10 of the United States Code.

Other significant legislation related to the Department of Defense includes:

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^The Senate agreed to the debt ceiling arrangement for 2023–2025 on 2 June 2023.[51][52]

References

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  2. ^"Manual for Written Material"(PDF).Department of Defense. p. 9. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on August 29, 2004.RetrievedDecember 10,2014.
  3. ^"The World's Biggest Employers".Statista.November 11, 2022.Archivedfrom the original on April 8, 2024.RetrievedAugust 19,2024.
  4. ^"DoD Personnel, Workforce Reports & Publications".dmdc.osd.mil.Archivedfrom the original on November 3, 2022.RetrievedOctober 30,2022.
  5. ^"U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE > Our Story".defense.gov.Archived fromthe originalon October 7, 2018.RetrievedOctober 17,2018.
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  7. ^Millett, Allan R.; Maslowski, Peter; Feis, William B. (2012) [1984]. "The American Revolution, 1763–1783".For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States from 1607 to 2012(3rd ed.). The Free Press (a division of Simon & Schuster).ISBN978-1451623536.
  8. ^Maass, John R. (June 14, 2012)."June 14th: The Birthday of the U.S. Army".U.S. Army Center of Military History. Archived fromthe originalon October 1, 2018.RetrievedJune 19,2014.
  9. ^Naval History and Heritage Command."Navy Birthday Information – October 13, 1775".Archived fromthe originalon January 1, 2015.RetrievedJune 19,2014.
  10. ^"Congress Officially Created the U.S. Military: September 29, 1789".Library of Congress.Archivedfrom the original on October 3, 2014.RetrievedJune 20,2014.
  11. ^Joe Carmel, ed. (n.d.) [Original Statute 1789]."Statutes at Large, Session I, Charter XXV"(PDF).Legisworks.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on May 25, 2017.RetrievedJanuary 28,2018.An Act to recognize and adapt to the Constitution of the United States the establishment of the Troops raised under the Resolves of the United States in Congress assembled, and for other purposes therein mentioned.
  12. ^Hogan, Michael J. (2000).A cross of iron: Harry S. Truman and the origins of the national security state, 1945–1954.Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38.ISBN978-0-521-79537-1.
  13. ^Polmar, Norman (2005).The Naval Institute guide to the ships and aircraft of the U.S. fleet.Naval Institute Press. p. 17.ISBN978-1-59114-685-8.
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  17. ^"National Archives NextGen Catalog".catalog.archives.gov.Archivedfrom the original on November 13, 2022.RetrievedNovember 30,2022.
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  21. ^[1]10 USC 151. Joint Chiefs of Staff: composition; functions
  22. ^10 U.S.C.§ 3033ArchivedMarch 12, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  23. ^10 U.S.C.§ 5033ArchivedMarch 12, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  24. ^10 U.S.C.§ 5043ArchivedMarch 12, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  25. ^10 U.S.C.§ 8033ArchivedMarch 12, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  26. ^"10 U.S. Code § 151(b)(1) – Joint Chiefs of Staff: composition; functions".LII / Legal Information Institute.RetrievedJuly 20,2023.
  27. ^"10 U.S. Code § 151 – Joint Chiefs of Staff: composition; functions".LII / Legal Information Institute.RetrievedJuly 20,2023.
  28. ^10 U.S.C.§ 162(b)ArchivedMay 29, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  29. ^10 U.S.C§ 151(b)ArchivedMarch 12, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  30. ^10 U.S.C§ 155ArchivedMarch 12, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  31. ^Polmar, Norman (2005)."Defense organization".The Naval Institute guide to the ships and aircraft of the U.S. fleet.Naval Institute Press.ISBN978-1-59114-685-8.
  32. ^10 U.S.C.§ 3013,10 U.S.C.§ 5013and10 U.S.C.§ 8013
  33. ^abcdPolmar, Norman (2005)."Defense Organization".The Naval Institute guide to the ships and aircraft of the U.S. fleet.Naval Institute Press. p.20.ISBN978-1-59114-685-8.
  34. ^Watson, Cynthia A. (2010).Combatant Commands: Origins, Structure, and Engagements.ABC-CLIO. p. 3.ISBN978-0-313-35432-8.
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  58. ^Harris, Bryant (June 23, 2023)."Senate defense bill pushes for spending over debt ceiling cap".Defense News.RetrievedAugust 17,2023.
  59. ^Bryant Harris(13 Sep 2023) Freedom Caucus derails Pentagon spending bill, foreshadowing shutdown30 Sep 2023 is looming date for shutdown.
  60. ^Reuters(21 Sep 2023) Shutdown looms as US House Republicans again block own spending bill
  61. ^Reuters(21 Sep 2023) US government shutdown: What closes, what stays open?SeeGovernment shutdowns in the United States
  62. ^Alexandra Hutzler and Nadine El-Bawab(30 Sep 2023) Government shutdown live updates: House passes 45-day stopgap spending bill
  63. ^Clare Foran, Haley Talbot, Morgan Rimmer, Annie Grayer, Lauren Fox and Melanie Zanona, CNN(30 Sep 2023) Congress passes stopgap bill to avert shutdown ahead of midnight deadline
  64. ^Rebecca Kheel(15 Nov 2023) Congress Has Plan to Avert Shutdown, But It's About to Make Pentagon Budgeting Even More Complicated
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