President of the United States

For a list of the officeholders, seeList of presidents of the United States.For other uses, seePresident of the United States (disambiguation).

Thepresident of the United States(POTUS)is thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States of America.The president directs theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.

President of the United States
Presidential seal
Presidential flag
Incumbent Joe Biden since January 20, 2021
Executive branch of the U.S. government Executive Office of the President
Style	Mr. President(informal) The Honorable(formal) His Excellency(diplomatic)
Type	Head of state Head of government Commander-in-chief
Abbreviation	POTUS
Member of	Cabinet Domestic Policy Council National Economic Council National Security Council
Residence	White House
Seat	Washington, D.C.
Appointer	Electoral Collegeor via succession
Term length	Four years,renewable once
Constituting instrument	Constitution of the United States
Formation	March 4, 1789(1789-03-04)
First holder	George Washington
Salary	$400,000 per year
Website	whitehouse.gov

The power of the presidency has grown substantiallysince the first president,George Washington,took office in 1789.While presidential power has ebbed and flowed over time, the presidency has played an increasingly significant role in American political life since the beginning of the 20th century, carrying over into the 21st century with notable expansions during the presidencies ofFranklin D. RooseveltandGeorge W. Bush.In modern times, the president is one of the world's most powerful political figures and the leader of the world's only remainingsuperpower.As the leader of the nation with thelargest economy by nominal GDP,the president possesses significant domestic and internationalhardandsoft power.For much of the 20th century, especially during theCold War,the U.S. president was often called "the leader of the free world".

Article II of the Constitutionestablishes the executive branch of the federal government and vests executive power in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law and the responsibility to appoint federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory, and judicial officers. Based on constitutional provisions empowering the president to appoint and receive ambassadors and conclude treaties with foreign powers, and on subsequent laws enacted by Congress, the modern presidency has primary responsibility for conducting U.S. foreign policy. The role includes responsibility for directing the world'smost expensive military,which has thesecond-largest nuclear arsenal.

The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation and domestic policymaking. As part of the system ofseparation of powers,Article I, Section7of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign orvetofederal legislation. Since modern presidents are typically viewed as leaders of their political parties, major policymaking is significantly shaped by the outcome of presidential elections, with presidents taking an active role in promoting their policy priorities to members of Congress who are often electorally dependent on the president.In recent decades, presidents have also made increasing use ofexecutive orders,agency regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic policy.

The president iselected indirectlythrough theElectoral Collegeto a four-year term, along with thevice president.Under theTwenty-second Amendment,ratified in 1951, no person who has been elected to two presidential terms may be elected to a third. In addition, nine vice presidents have become president by virtue of apresident's intra-term deathorresignation.In all,45 individualshave served 46 presidencies spanning 58 four-year terms.Joe Bidenis the 46th and current president, havingassumed officeon January 20, 2021.President-electDonald Trumpis scheduled to beinaugurated asthe 47th president on January 20, 2025.

History and development

Origins

During theAmerican Revolutionary War,theThirteen Colonies,represented by theSecond Continental CongressinPhiladelphia,declared themselves to be independentsovereign statesand no longer underBritishrule. The affirmation was made in theDeclaration of Independence,which was written predominantly byThomas Jeffersonand adopted unanimously on July 4, 1776, by the Second Continental Congress.Recognizing the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against theBritish,the Continental Congress simultaneously began the process of drafting a constitution that would bind thestatestogether. There were long debates on a number of issues, including representation and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central government.Congress finished work on theArticles of Confederationto establish aperpetual unionbetween the states in November 1777 and sent it to the states forratification.

Under the Articles, whichtook effecton March 1, 1781, theCongress of the Confederationwas a central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens.This institutional design reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system ofCrownandParliamentought to have functioned with respect to the royaldominion:a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire.The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerlyroyal prerogatives(e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of Congress elected apresident of the United States in Congress Assembledto preside over its deliberation as a neutraldiscussion moderator.Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later office of president of the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much influence.

In 1783, theTreaty of Parissecured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs.By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed theirhard currencypouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, theirMediterraneancommerce preyed upon byNorth Africanpirates,and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest.Civil and political unrest loomed. Events such as theNewburgh ConspiracyandShays' Rebelliondemonstrated that the Articles of Confederation were not working.

Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes betweenVirginiaand Maryland at theMount Vernon Conferencein 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 inAnnapolis, Maryland,with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When theconventionfailed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states,Alexander Hamiltonof New York led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring inPhiladelphia.Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak untilJames MadisonandEdmund Randolphsucceeded in securingGeorge Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.

When theConstitutional Conventionconvened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Islanddid not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature.New Yorkoffered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter.It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in theU.S. Constitutionemerged.

1789–1933

George Washington,the first president of the United States

As the nation's first president,George Washingtonestablished many norms that would come to define the office.His decision to retire after two terms helped address fears that the nation would devolve into monarchy,and established a precedent that would not be broken until 1940 and would eventually be made permanent by theTwenty-Second Amendment.By the end of his presidency, political parties had developed,withJohn AdamsdefeatingThomas Jeffersonin 1796, the first truly contested presidential election.After Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, he and his fellow VirginiansJames MadisonandJames Monroewould each serve two terms, eventually dominating the nation's politics during theEra of Good Feelingsuntil Adams' sonJohn Quincy Adamswon election in 1824 after theDemocratic-Republican Partysplit.

The election ofAndrew Jacksonin 1828 was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years.Jacksonian democracysought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor,Martin Van Buren,became unpopular after thePanic of 1837,and the death ofWilliam Henry Harrisonand subsequent poor relations betweenJohn Tylerand Congress led to further weakening of the office.Including Van Buren, in the 24 years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms.The Senate played an important role during this period, with theGreat TriumvirateofHenry Clay,Daniel Webster,andJohn C. Calhounplaying key roles in shaping national policy in the 1830s and 1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in the 1850s.

Abraham Lincoln's leadership during theCivil Warhas led historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest presidents.The circumstances of the war and Republican domination of Congress made the office very powerful,and Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's assassination, his successorAndrew Johnsonlost all political supportand was nearly removed from office,with Congress remaining powerful during the two-term presidency of Civil War generalUlysses S. Grant.After the end ofReconstruction,Grover Clevelandwould eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war, running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900,William McKinleybecame the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872.

After McKinley'sassassinationbyLeon Czolgoszin 1901,Theodore Rooseveltbecame a dominant figure in American politics.Historians believe Roosevelt permanently changed the political system by strengthening the presidency,with some key accomplishments including breaking up trusts, conservationism, labor reforms, making personal character as important as the issues, and hand-picking his successor,William Howard Taft.The following decade,Woodrow Wilsonled the nation to victory duringWorld War I,although Wilson's proposal for theLeague of Nationswas rejected by the Senate.Warren Harding,while popular in office, would see his legacy tarnished by scandals, especiallyTeapot Dome,andHerbert Hooverquickly became very unpopular after failing to alleviate theGreat Depression.

Imperial presidency

Main article:Imperial presidency

PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltdelivers aradio addressin 1933

The ascendancy ofFranklin D. Rooseveltin 1933 led further toward what historians now describe as theImperial presidency.Backed by enormous Democratic majorities in Congress and public support for major change, Roosevelt'sNew Dealdramatically increased the size and scope of the federal government, including more executive agencies.The traditionally small presidential staff was greatly expanded, with theExecutive Office of the Presidentbeing created in 1939, none of whom require Senate confirmation.Roosevelt's unprecedented re-election to a third and fourth term, the victory of the United States inWorld War II,and the nation's growing economy all helped established the office as a position of global leadership.His successors,Harry TrumanandDwight D. Eisenhower,each served two terms as theCold Warled the presidency to be viewed as the "leader of the free world",whileJohn F. Kennedywas a youthful and popular leader who benefited from the rise of television in the 1960s.

AfterLyndon B. Johnsonlost popular support due to theVietnam WarandRichard Nixon's presidency collapsed in theWatergate scandal,Congress enacted a series of reforms intended to reassert itself.These included theWar Powers Resolution,enacted over Nixon's veto in 1973,and theCongressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974that sought to strengthen congressional fiscal powers.By 1976,Gerald Fordconceded that "the historic pendulum" had swung toward Congress, raising the possibility of a "disruptive" erosion of his ability to govern.Ford failed to win election to a full term and his successor,Jimmy Carter,failed to win re-election.Ronald Reagan,who had been an actor before beginning his political career, used his talent as a communicator to help reshape the American agenda away from New Deal policies toward more conservative ideology.

With the Cold War ending and the United States becoming the world's undisputed leading power,Bill Clinton,George W. Bush,andBarack Obamaeach served two terms as president. Meanwhile, Congress and the nation gradually became more politically polarized, especially following the1994 mid-term electionsthat saw Republicans control the House for the first time in 40 years, and the rise of routinefilibustersin the Senate in recent decades.Recent presidents have thus increasingly focused onexecutive orders,agency regulations, and judicial appointments to implement major policies, at the expense of legislation and congressional power.Presidential elections in the 21st century have reflected this continuing polarization, with no candidate except Obama in 2008 winning by more than five percent of the popular vote and two, George W. Bush andDonald Trump,winning in the Electoral College while losing the popular vote.

Critics of presidency's evolution

The nation'sFounding Fathersexpected theCongress,which was the first branch of government described in theConstitution,to be the dominant branch of government; however, they did not expect a strong executive department.However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful,unchecked, unbalanced,and "monarchist" in nature.In 2008 professorDana D. Nelsonexpressed belief that presidents over the previous thirty years worked towards "undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies".She criticized proponents of theunitary executive theoryfor expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers—such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements—that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress".Bill Wilson,board member ofAmericans for Limited Government,opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule".

Legislative powers

Article I, Section1of the Constitution vests alllawmaking powerin Congress's hands, andArticle 1, Section 6, Clause2prevents the president (and all other executive branch officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Nevertheless, the modern presidency exerts significant power over legislation, both due to constitutional provisions and historical developments over time.

Signing and vetoing bills

PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonsigns the1964 Civil Rights Actat theWhite Houseon July 2, 1964, asMartin Luther King Jr.and others look on.

The president's most significant legislative power derives from thePresentment Clause,which gives the president the power to veto anybillpassed byCongress.While Congress can override a presidential veto, it requires atwo-thirds voteof both houses, which is usually very difficult to achieve except for widely supported bipartisan legislation. The framers of the Constitution feared that Congress would seek to increase its power and enable a "tyranny of the majority", so giving the indirectly elected president a veto was viewed as an important check on the legislative power. While George Washington believed the veto should only be used in cases where a bill was unconstitutional, it is now routinely used in cases where presidents have policy disagreements with a bill. The veto – or threat of a veto – has thus evolved to make the modern presidency a central part of the American legislative process.

Specifically, under the Presentment Clause, once a bill has been presented by Congress, the president has three options:

1. Sign the legislation within ten days, excluding Sundays, the billbecomes law.
2. Vetothe legislation within the above timeframe and return it to the house of Congress from which it originated, expressing any objections, the bill does not become law, unless both houses of Congress vote to override the veto by atwo-thirds vote.
3. Take no action on the legislation within the above timeframe—the bill becomes law, as if the president had signed it, unless Congress is adjourned at the time, in which case it does not become law, which is known as apocket veto.

In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with theLine Item Veto Act.The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. InClinton v. City of New York,524U.S.417(1998), theU.S. Supreme Courtruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.

Setting the agenda

PresidentDonald Trumpdelivers his2018 State of the Union AddressbeforeCongress.

For most of American history, candidates for president have sought election on the basis of a promised legislative agenda.Article II, Section 3, Clause 2requires the president to recommend such measures to Congress which the president deems "necessary and expedient". This is done through the constitutionally-basedState of the Unionaddress, which usually outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year, and through other formal and informal communications with Congress.

The president can be involved in crafting legislation by suggesting, requesting, or even insisting that Congress enact laws that the president believes are needed. Additionally, the president can attempt to shape legislation during the legislative process by exerting influence on individual members of Congress.Presidents possess this power because the Constitution is silent about who can write legislation, but the power is limited because only members of Congress can introduce legislation.

The president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.

Promulgating regulations

Many laws enacted by Congress do not address every possible detail, and either explicitly or implicitly delegate powers of implementation to an appropriate federal agency. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array ofagenciesthat can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress.

In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of 'czars'—each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House".Presidents have been criticized for makingsigning statementswhen signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it.This practice has been criticized by theAmerican Bar Associationas unconstitutional.Conservative commentatorGeorge Willwrote of an "increasingly swollen executive branch" and "the eclipse of Congress".

Convening and adjourning Congress

To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered byArticle II, Section3of the Constitution to call aspecial sessionof one or both houses of Congress. SinceJohn Adamsfirst did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27 occasions.Harry S. Trumanwas the most recent to do so in July 1948, known as theTurnip Day Session.In addition, prior to ratification of theTwentieth Amendmentin 1933, which brought forward the date on which Congress convenes from December to January, newlyinauguratedpresidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. In practice, the power has fallen into disuse in the modern era as Congress now formally remains in session year-round, convening pro forma sessions every three days even when ostensibly in recess. Correspondingly, the president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House and Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this power.

Executive powers

Main article:Powers of the president of the United States

Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed.

Nixon v. General Services Administration,433U.S.425(1977)(Rehnquist, J.,dissenting)

The president is head of the executive branch of the federal government and isconstitutionally obligatedto "take care that the laws be faithfully executed".The executive branch has over four million employees, including the military.

Administrative powers

Presidents makepolitical appointments.An incoming president may make up to 4,000 upon taking office, 1200 of which must beconfirmed by the U.S. Senate.Ambassadors,members of theCabinet,and variousofficers,are among the positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation.

The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove executive officials at will.However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers bystatute.

To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into theExecutive Office of the President of the United States.Within the Executive Office, the president's innermost layer of aides, and their assistants, are located in theWhite House Office.

The president also possesses the power to manage operations of the federal government by issuing varioustypes of directives,such aspresidential proclamationandexecutive orders.When the president is lawfully exercising one of the constitutionally conferred presidential responsibilities, the scope of this power is broad.Even so, these directives are subject tojudicial reviewby U.S. federal courts, which can find them to be unconstitutional. Congress can overturn an executive order through legislation.

Foreign affairs

PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushand Soviet PresidentMikhail Gorbachevsign the1990 Chemical Weapons Accordat theWhite House.

Article II, Section 3, Clause 4requires the president to "receive Ambassadors." This clause, known as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy,and to provide support for the president's exclusive authority to grantrecognitionto a foreign government.The Constitution also empowers the president to appoint United States ambassadors, and to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements between the United States and other countries. Such agreements, upon receiving the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate (by atwo-thirds majorityvote), become binding with the force of federal law.

While foreign affairs has always been a significant element of presidential responsibilities, advances in technology since the Constitution's adoption have increased presidential power. Where formerly ambassadors were vested with significant power to independently negotiate on behalf of the United States, presidents now routinely meet directly with leaders of foreign countries.

Commander-in-chief

Abraham Lincoln,the 16th president who successfully preserved theUnionduring theAmerican Civil War,withUnion ArmygeneralGeorge B. McClellanand soldiers atAntietamon October 3, 1862

One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role ascommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military;Alexander Hamiltonexplained this inFederalist No. 69:

The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces... while that [the power] of theBritish kingextends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which... would appertain to the legislature.[Emphasis in the original.]

In the modern era, pursuant to theWar Powers Resolution,Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual.Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war,but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, includingTheodore Roosevelt's military move intoPanamain 1903,theKorean War,theVietnam War,and the invasions ofGrenadain 1983andPanamain 1989.

The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly.George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly establishedmilitary subordination under civilian authority.In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell theWhiskey Rebellion,a conflict inWestern Pennsylvaniainvolving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historianJoseph Ellis,this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", thoughJames Madisonbriefly took control of artillery units indefense of Washington, D.C.,during theWar of 1812.Abraham Lincolnwas deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during theAmerican Civil War,1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such asUlysses S. Grant.

The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to theDepartment of Defenseand is normally exercised through thesecretary of defense.Thechairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staffand theCombatant Commandsassist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).

Juridical powers and privileges

Further information:List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States

PresidentJoe Bidenwith hisSupreme Courtappointee JusticeKetanji Brown Jacksonand (in background) Vice PresidentKamala Harrisfollowing Brown Jackson's 2022United States Senateconfirmation

The president has the power to nominatefederal judges,including members of theUnited States courts of appealsand theSupreme Court of the United States.However, these nominations requireSenate confirmationbefore they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges toU.S. district courts,presidents often respect the long-standing tradition ofsenatorial courtesy.Presidents may also grantpardonsandreprieves.Gerald FordpardonedRichard Nixona month after taking office. Presidents often grant pardons shortly before leaving office, like whenBill ClintonpardonedPatty Hearston his last day in office; this is oftencontroversial.

Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first isexecutive privilege,which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to seeChief JusticeJohn Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation withGreat Britain.While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. WhenNixontried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during theWatergate scandal,the Supreme Court ruled inUnited States v. Nixon,418U.S.683(1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding theLewinsky scandal,the Supreme Court ruled inClinton v. Jones,520U.S.681(1997), that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established thelegal precedentthat executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.

Thestate secrets privilegeallows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents fromdiscoveryin legal proceedings if such release would harmnational security.Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century whenThomas Jeffersonrefused to release military documents in thetreasontrial ofAaron Burrand again inTotten v. United States92U.S.105(1876), when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy.However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court untilUnited States v. Reynolds345U.S.1(1953), where it was held to be acommon lawevidentiaryprivilege.Before theSeptember 11 attacks,use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency.Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in theNinth Circuit's ruling inMohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc.Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.

The degree to which the president personally hasabsolute immunityfrom court cases is contested and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions.Nixon v. Fitzgerald(1982) dismissed a civil lawsuit against by-then former president Richard Nixon based on his official actions.Clinton v. Jones(1997) decided that a president has no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before becoming president and ruled that a sexual harassment suit could proceed without delay, even against a sitting president. The 2019Mueller reporton Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election detailed evidence of possibleobstruction of justice,but investigators declined to referDonald Trumpfor prosecution based on aUnited States Department of Justicepolicy against indicting an incumbent president. The report noted that impeachment by Congress was available as a remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal courts regarding access to personal tax returns in a criminal case brought against Donald Trump by theNew York County District Attorneyalleging violations of New York state law.

Leadership roles

Head of state

Ashead of state,the president represents the United States government to its own people and represents the nation to the rest of the world. For example, during a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts aState Arrival Ceremonyheld on theSouth Lawn,a custom begun byJohn F. Kennedyin 1961.This is followed by astate dinnergiven by the president which is held in theState Dining Roomlater in the evening.

PresidentWoodrow Wilsonthrows out the ceremonial first ball onOpening Dayin 1916

PresidentBill Clintonreviews honor guards atBuckingham Palaceduring a 1995 state visit to the UK

As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal ceremonial duties. For example,William Howard Taftstarted the tradition of throwing out theceremonial first pitchin 1910 atGriffith Stadium,Washington, D.C., on theWashington Senators'sOpening Day.Every president since Taft, except forJimmy Carter,threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, theAll-Star Game,or theWorld Series,usually with much fanfare.Every president sinceTheodore Roosevelthas served as honorary president of theBoy Scouts of America.

Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays.Rutherford B. Hayesbegan in 1878 the first White Houseegg rollingfor local children.Beginning in 1947, during theHarry S. Trumanadministration, everyThanksgivingthe president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annualNational Thanksgiving Turkey Presentationheld at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized byGeorge H. W. Bush,the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.

Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents sinceJames Buchanantraditionally give advice to their successor during thepresidential transition.Ronald Reaganand his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office onInauguration Dayfor the incoming president.

The modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administrationpublic relationsofficials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as "propagandized leadership" which has a "mesmerizing power surrounding the office".Administration public relations managers staged carefully craftedphoto-opsof smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras.One critic wrote the image ofJohn F. Kennedywas described as carefully framed "in rich detail" which "drew on the power of myth" regarding the incident ofPT 109and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions.As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to "drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees".

Head of party

The president is typically considered to be the head of their political party. Since the entire House of Representatives and at least one-third of the Senate is elected simultaneously with the president, candidates from a political party inevitably have their electoral success intertwined with the performance of the party's presidential candidate. Thecoattail effect,or lack thereof, will also often impact a party's candidates at state and local levels of government as well. However, there are often tensions between a president and others in the party, with presidents who lose significant support from their party's caucus in Congress generally viewed to be weaker and less effective.

Global leader

With the rise of the United States as asuperpowerin the 20th century, and the United States having the world's largest economy into the 21st century, the president is typically viewed as a global leader, and at times the world's most powerful political figure. The position of the United States as the leading member ofNATO,and the country's strong relationships with other wealthy or democratic nations like those comprising theEuropean Union,have led to the moniker that the president is the "leader of the free world".

Selection process

Eligibility

Article II, Section 1, Clause 5of the Constitution sets three qualifications for holding the presidency. To serve as president, one must:

• be anatural-born citizen of the United States;
• be at least 35 years old;
• be aresident in the United Statesfor at least 14 years.

A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:

• UnderArticle I, Section 3, Clause 7,having been impeached, convicted and disqualified from holding further public office, although there is some legal debate as to whether the disqualification clause also includes the presidential office: the only previous persons disqualified under this clause were three federal judges.
• UnderSection 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment,no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, is eligible to hold any office. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.There is, again, some debate as to whether the clause as written allows disqualification from the presidential position, or whether it would first require litigation outside of Congress, although there is precedent for use of this amendment outside of the original intended purpose of excludingConfederatesfrom public office after the Civil War.
• Under theTwenty-second Amendment,no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once.

Campaigns and nomination

Main articles:United States presidential primaryandUnited States presidential nominating convention

See also:United States presidential debates

PresidentJimmy Carter(left) debates Republican nomineeRonald Reaganon October 28, 1980, during the1980 U.S. presidential campaign.

The modern presidential campaign begins before theprimary elections,which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before theirnational nominating conventions,where the most successful candidate is made the party's presidential nominee. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice isrubber-stampedby the convention. The most common previous profession of presidents is lawyer.

Nominees participate innationally televised debates,and while the debates are usually restricted to theDemocraticandRepublicannominees,third partycandidates may be invited, such asRoss Perotin the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winningswing statesthrough frequent visits andmass mediaadvertising drives.

Election

Main article:United States presidential election

See also:United States Electoral College

Map of theUnited Statesshowing the number of electoral votes allocated following the2020 censusto eachstateand theDistrict of Columbiafor the 2024 and 2028 presidential elections. 270 electoral votes are required for a majority out of 538 votes possible.

The president is elected indirectly by the voters of each state and theDistrict of Columbiathrough the Electoral College, a body of electors formed every four years for the sole purpose of electing the president and vice president to concurrent four-year terms. As prescribed by Article II, Section 1, Clause 2, each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the size of its total delegation in both houses of Congress. Additionally, theTwenty-third Amendmentprovides that the District of Columbia is entitled to the number it would have if it were a state, but in no case more than that of the least populous state.Currently, all states and the District of Columbia select their electors based on a popular election.In all but two states, the party whose presidential–vice presidentialticketreceives apluralityof popular votes in the state has its entireslateof elector nominees chosen as the state's electors.MaineandNebraskadeviate from thiswinner-take-allpractice, awarding two electors to the statewide winner and one to the winner in eachcongressional district.

On the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, the electors convene in their respective state capitals (and in Washington, D.C.) to vote for president and, on a separate ballot, for vice president. They typically vote for the candidates of thepartythat nominated them. While there is no constitutional mandate or federal law requiring them to do so, the District of Columbia and 32 states have laws requiring that their electors vote for the candidates to whom they arepledged.The constitutionality of these laws was upheld inChiafalo v. Washington(2020).Following the vote, each state then sends a certified record of their electoral votes to Congress. The votes of the electors are opened and counted during a joint session of Congress, held in the first week of January. If a candidate has received anabsolute majorityof electoral votes for president (currently 270 of 538), that person is declared the winner. Otherwise, theHouse of Representativesmust meet to elect a president using acontingent electionprocedure in which representatives, voting by state delegation, with each state casting a single vote, choose between the topthreeelectoral vote-getters for president. To win the presidency, a candidate must receive the votes of an absolute majority of states (currently 26 of 50).

There have been two contingent presidential elections in the nation's history. A 73–73 electoral vote tie betweenThomas Jeffersonand fellow Democratic-RepublicanAaron Burrin theelection of 1800necessitated the first. Conducted under the original procedure established byArticle II, Section 1, Clause3of the Constitution, which stipulates that if two or three persons received a majority vote and an equal vote, the House of Representatives would choose one of them for president; therunner-upwould become vice president.On February 17, 1801, Jefferson was elected president on the 36th ballot, and Burr elected vice president. Afterward, the system was overhauled through theTwelfth Amendmentin time to be used in the1804 election.A quarter-century later, the choice for president again devolved to the House when no candidate won an absolute majority of electoral votes (131 of 261) in theelection of 1824.Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House was required to choose a president from among the top three electoral vote recipients:Andrew Jackson,John Quincy Adams,andWilliam H. Crawford.Held February 9, 1825, this second and most recent contingent election resulted in John Quincy Adams being elected president on the first ballot.

Inauguration

Main article:United States presidential inauguration

Pursuant to theTwentieth Amendment,the four-year term of office for both the president and the vice president begins at noon on January 20, in the year following the preceding presidential election.The first presidential and vice presidential terms to begin on this date, known asInauguration Day,were thesecond termsof PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltand Vice PresidentJohn Nance Garnerin 1937.Previously, Inauguration Day was on March 4. As a result of the date change, the first term (1933–37) of both men had been shortened by 43 days.

Before executing the powers of the office, a president is required torecitethepresidential Oath of Office,found inArticle II, Section 1, Clause8 of the Constitution.This is the only component in the inauguration ceremony mandated by the Constitution:

I do solemnly swear (oraffirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.

Presidents have traditionally placed one hand upon aBiblewhile taking the oath, and have added "So help me God" to the end of the oath.Although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by thechief justice of the United States.

Incumbency

Term limit

PresidentWilliam McKinleyand his vice presidential running mate, New York GovernorTheodore Roosevelt,c. 1900

Franklin D. Rooseveltwon a record fourpresidential electionsin1932,1936,1940,and1944prior to the implementation of the22nd amendmentin 1951, which instituted a two-term limit.

When the first president,George Washington,announced in hisFarewell Addressthat he was not running for a third term, he established a "two terms then out" precedent. Precedent became tradition afterThomas Jeffersonpublicly embraced the principle a decade later during his second term, as did his two immediate successors,James MadisonandJames Monroe.In spite of the strong two-term tradition,Ulysses S. Grantsought nomination at the1880 Republican National Conventionfor a non-consecutive third term, but was unsuccessful.

In 1940, after leading the nation through theGreat Depressionand focused on supporting U.S.allied nationsat war with theAxis powers,Franklin Roosevelt was elected to a third term, breaking the long-standing precedent. Four years later, with the U.S. engaged inWorld War II,he was re-elected again despite his declining physical health; he died 82 days into his fourth term on April 12, 1945.

In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt's presidency, theTwenty-second Amendmentwasadoptedin 1951. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than two years (24 months) of another president's four-year term.Harry S. Truman,the president at the time it was submitted to the states by the Congress, was exempted from its limitations. Without the exemption, he would not have been eligible to run for a second full term in 1952 (which he briefly sought), as he had served nearly all of Franklin Roosevelt's unexpired 1945–1949 term and had been elected to a full four-year term beginning in 1949.

Vacancies and succession

UnderSection1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment,ratified in 1967, the vice president becomes president upon theremoval from office,death, or resignation of the president. Deaths have occurred a number of times, resignation has occurred only once, and removal from office has never occurred.

Before the ratification of the Twenty-fifth amendment (which clarified the matter of succession),Article II, Section 1, Clause 6,stated only that the vice president assumes the "powers and duties" of the presidency in the event of a president's removal, death, resignation, or inability.Under this clause, there was ambiguity about whether the vice president would actually become president in the event of a vacancy, or simplyactas president,potentially resulting in aspecial election.Upon the death of PresidentWilliam Henry Harrisonin 1841, Vice PresidentJohn Tylerdeclared that he had succeeded to the office itself, refusing to accept any papers addressed to the "Acting President", and Congress ultimately accepted it.

In the event of a double vacancy, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 also authorizes Congress to declare who shall become acting president in the "Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the president and vice president".ThePresidential Succession Actof 1947 (codified as3 U.S.C.§ 19) provides that if both the president and vice president have left office or are both otherwise unavailable to serve during their terms of office, thepresidential line of successionfollows the order of: speaker of the House, then, if necessary, the president pro tempore of the Senate, and then if necessary, the eligible heads offederal executive departmentswho form the president'scabinet.The cabinet currently has 15 members, of which the secretary of state is first in line; the other Cabinet secretaries follow in the order in which their department (or the department of which their department is the successor) was created. Those individuals who are constitutionally ineligible to be elected to the presidency are also disqualified from assuming the powers and duties of the presidency through succession. No statutory successor has yet been called upon to act as president.

Declarations of inability

Main article:Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

Under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may temporarily transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomesacting president,by transmitting to thespeaker of the Houseand thepresidentpro temporeof the Senatea statement that he is unable to discharge his duties. The president resumes his or her powers upon transmitting a second declaration stating that he is again able. The mechanism has been used byRonald Reagan(once),George W. Bush(twice), andJoe Biden(once), each in anticipation of surgery.

The Twenty-fifth Amendment also provides that the vice president, together with a majority of certain members of theCabinet,may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration, to the speaker of the House and the presidentpro temporeof the Senate, to the effect that the president is unable to discharge his or her powers and duties. If the president then declares that no such inability exist, he or she resumes the presidential powers unless the vice president and Cabinet make a second declaration of presidential inability, in which case Congress decides the question.

Removal

Main articles:List of efforts to impeach presidents of the United States,Federal impeachment in the United States,andFederal impeachment trial in the United States

Article II, Section 4of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials, including the president, from office for "treason,bribery,or otherhigh crimes and misdemeanors".Article I, Section 2, Clause5authorizes the House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury"with the power to impeach said officials by a majority vote.Article I, Section 3, Clause6authorizes the Senate to serve as acourtwith the power to remove impeached officials from office, by a two-thirds vote to convict.

Three presidents have been impeached by the House of Representatives: Andrew Johnson in1868,Bill Clinton in1998,and Donald Trump in2019and2021;none have been convicted by the Senate. Additionally, theHouse Judiciary Committeeconducted an impeachment inquiry against Richard Nixon in1973–74and reported three articles of impeachment to the House of Representatives for final action; however, he resigned from office before the House voted on them.

Circumvention of authority

Controversial measures have sometimes been taken short of removal to deal with perceived recklessness on the part of the president, or with a long-term disability. In some cases, staff have intentionally failed to deliver messages to or from the president, typically to avoid executing or promoting the president to write certain orders. This has ranged fromRichard Nixon's Chief of Staff not transmitting orders to the Cabinet due to the president's heavy drinking, to staff removing memos fromDonald Trump's desk.Decades before the Twenty-fifth Amendment, in 1919, President Woodrow Wilson had astroke that left him partly incapacitated.First ladyEdith Wilsonkept this condition a secret from the public for a while, and controversiallybecame the sole gatekeeperfor access to the president (aside from his doctor), assisting him with paperwork and deciding which information was "important" enough to share with him.

Compensation

Presidential pay history
Year established	Salary	Salary in 2023 USD
1789	$25,000	$639,362
1873	$50,000	$1,271,667
1909	$75,000	$2,543,333
1949	$100,000	$1,280,559
1969	$200,000	$1,661,706
2001	$400,000	$688,292
Sources:

Since 2001, the president's annual salary has been $400,000, along with a $50,000 expense allowance; a $100,000 nontaxable travel account; and a $19,000 entertainmentaccount. The president's salary is set by Congress, and underArticle II, Section 1, Clause7of the Constitution, any increase or reduction in presidential salary cannot take effect before the next presidential term of office.

Residence

For the official residences in which President Washington resided, seePresidency of George Washington § Residences.For the private residences of the various U.S. presidents, seeList of residences of presidents of the United States.

TheExecutive Residenceof theWhite HouseinWashington, D.C.is theofficial residenceof the president. The site was selected by George Washington, and the cornerstone was laid in 1792. Every president since John Adams (in 1800) has lived there. At various times in U.S. history, it has been known as the "President's Palace", the "President's House", and the "Executive Mansion". Theodore Roosevelt officially gave the White House its current name in 1901.The federal government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family, and guest dry cleaning and food.

Camp David,officially titled Naval Support Facility Thurmont, a mountain-based military camp inFrederick County, Maryland,is the president's country residence. A place of solitude and tranquility, the site has been used extensively to host foreign dignitaries since the 1940s.

President's Guest House,located next to theEisenhower Executive Office Buildingat the White House Complex andLafayette Park,serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed. Four interconnected, 19th-century houses—Blair House, Lee House, and 700 and 704 Jackson Place—with a combined floor space exceeding 70,000 square feet (6,500 m²) constitute the property.

• Presidential residences
• 
  White House,the official residence
• 
  Camp DavidinFrederick County, Maryland,the official retreat
• 
  Blair House,the official guest house

Travel

Main article:Transportation of the president of the United States

The primary means of long-distance air travel for the president is one of two identicalBoeing VC-25aircraft, which are extensively modifiedBoeing 747airliners and are referred to asAir Force Onewhile the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the president is aboard is designated as "Air Force One" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes, while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. The president also has access to smaller Air Force aircraft, most notably theBoeing C-32,which are used when the president must travel to airports that cannot support a jumbo jet. Any civilian aircraft the president is aboard is designatedExecutive Onefor the flight.

For short-distance air travel, the president has access to a fleet ofU.S. Marine Corpshelicopters of varying models, designatedMarine Onewhen the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the president is actually aboard to any would-be threats.

For ground travel, the president uses thepresidential state car,which is an armoredlimousinedesigned to look like aCadillacsedan, but built on a truckchassis.TheU.S. Secret Serviceoperates and maintains the fleet of several limousines. The president also has access totwo armored motorcoaches,which are primarily used fortouring trips.

• Presidential transportation
• 
  The presidential limousine,dubbed "The Beast"
• 
  The presidential plane, calledAir Force Onewhen the president is on board
• 
  The presidential helicopter, known asMarine Onewhen the president is aboard

Protection

Main article:United States Secret Service

PresidentRonald Reaganwaves following hisinaugurationas the nation's 40th president on January 20, 1981.

TheU.S. Secret Serviceis charged with protecting the president and thefirst family.As part of their protection, presidents,first ladies,their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assignedSecret Service codenames.The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinelyencrypted;today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.

Post-presidency

From left to right: PresidentsGeorge H. W. Bush,Barack Obama,George W. Bush,Bill Clinton,andJimmy Carterin theOval Officeon January 7, 2009; Obama took office thirteen days later.

Activities

Some former presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples includeWilliam Howard Taft's tenure aschief justice of the United StatesandHerbert Hoover's work on government reorganization afterWorld War II.Grover Cleveland,whose bid for reelection failed in1888,was elected president again four years later in1892,andDonald Trump,whose bid for reelection failed in2020,was elected president again four years later in2024.Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House:John Quincy Adamswas elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for 17 years, andAndrew Johnsonreturned to the Senate in 1875, though he died soon after. Some ex-presidents were very active, especially in international affairs, most notably Theodore Roosevelt;Herbert Hoover;Richard Nixon;and Jimmy Carter.

Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events.Richard Nixonmade multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman.Jimmy Carterhas become a globalhuman rightscampaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of theNobel Peace Prize.Bill Clintonhas also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two Americanjournalists,Laura LingandEuna Lee,fromNorth Korea.During his presidency,George W. Bushcalled on former PresidentsBushandClintonto assist with humanitarian efforts after the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.President Obama followed suit by asking PresidentsClintonandBushto lead efforts to aid Haiti after anearthquakedevastated that country in 2010.

Clinton has been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wifeHillaryon her2008and2016presidential bids and President Obama on his2012 reelection campaign.Obama has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, having worked with his former vice presidentJoe Bidenon his2020 election campaign.

Pension and other benefits

TheFormer Presidents Act(FPA), enacted in 1958, grants lifetime benefits to former presidents and their widows, including a monthly pension, medical care in military facilities, health insurance, and Secret Service protection; also provided is funding for a certain number of staff and for office expenses. The act has been amended several times to provide increases in presidential pensions and in the allowances for office staff. The FPA excludes any president who was removed from office byimpeachment.

According to a 2008 report by theCongressional Research Service:

Chief executives leaving office prior to 1958 often entered retirement pursuing various occupations and received no federal assistance. When industrialist Andrew Carnegie announced a plan in 1912 to offer $25,000 annual pensions to former Presidents, many Members of Congress deemed it inappropriate that such a pension would be provided by a private corporation executive. That same year, legislation was first introduced to create presidential pensions, but it was not enacted. In 1955, such legislation was considered by Congress because of former President Harry S. Truman's financial limitations in hiring an office staff

The pension has increased numerous times with congressional approval. Retired presidents receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 per year in 2012.Former presidents who served in Congress may also collectcongressional pensions.The act also provides former presidents with travel funds andfrankingprivileges.

Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death.In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting Secret Service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office.On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection for him,George W. Bush,and all subsequent presidents.Afirst spousewho remarries is no longer eligible for Secret Service protection.

Presidential libraries

Main article:Presidential library system

From left to right: PresidentsBarack Obama,George W. Bush,Bill Clinton,George H. W. Bush,andJimmy Carterat the dedication of theGeorge W. Bush Presidential Library and MuseuminDallasin 2013

Every president sinceHerbert Hooverhas created arepositoryknown as apresidential libraryfor preserving and making available his papers, records, and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by theNational Archives and Records Administration(NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources.There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, including:

• TheAbraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum,which is run by the State ofIllinois;
• TheGeorge W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum,which is run bySouthern Methodist University;
• TheGeorge H. W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum,which is run byTexas A&M University;and
• TheLyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum,which is run by theUniversity of Texas at Austin.

Several former presidents have overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries. Some even made arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries contain the graves of the president they document:

• TheHarry S. Truman Presidential Library and MuseuminIndependence, Missouri;
• TheDwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood HomeinAbilene, Kansas;
• TheRichard Nixon Presidential Library and MuseuminYorba Linda, California;and
• TheRonald Reagan Presidential Library and MuseuminSimi Valley, California.

These gravesites are open to the general public.

Political affiliation

Political partieshave dominatedAmerican politicsfor most of the nation's history. Though theFounding Fathersgenerally spurned political parties as divisive and disruptive, and their rise had not been anticipated when the U.S. Constitution was drafted in 1787, organized political parties developed in the U.S. in the mid-1790s nonetheless. They evolved frompolitical factions,which began to appear almost immediately after the Federal government came into existence. Those who supported theWashington administrationwere referred to as "pro-administration" and would eventually form theFederalist Party,while those in opposition largely joined the emergingDemocratic-Republican Party.

Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be affiliated with a political party.Since Washington, every U.S. president has been affiliated with a political party at the time of assuming office.

The number of presidents per political party by their affiliation at the time they were first sworn into office ( Alpha betical, by last name) are:

Party		#	Name(s)
	Republican	19	Chester A. Arthur,George H. W. Bush,George W. Bush,Calvin Coolidge,Dwight D. Eisenhower,Gerald Ford,James A. Garfield,Ulysses S. Grant,Warren G. Harding,Benjamin Harrison,Rutherford B. Hayes,Herbert Hoover,Abraham Lincoln,William McKinley,Richard Nixon,Ronald Reagan,Theodore Roosevelt,William Howard Taft,andDonald Trump
	Democratic	15	Joe Biden(incumbent),James Buchanan,Jimmy Carter,Grover Cleveland,Bill Clinton,Andrew Jackson,Lyndon B. Johnson,John F. Kennedy,Barack Obama,Franklin Pierce,James K. Polk,Franklin D. Roosevelt,Harry S. Truman,Martin Van Buren,andWoodrow Wilson
	Democratic-Republican	4	John Quincy Adams,Thomas Jefferson,James Madison,andJames Monroe
	Whig	4	Millard Fillmore,William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,andJohn Tyler
	Federalist	1	John Adams
	National Union	1	Andrew Johnson
	No party	1	George Washington

Timeline of presidents

See also:List of presidents of the United States

The followingtimelinedepicts the progression of the presidents and their political affiliation at the time of assuming office.

See also

• Outline of American politics

Further reading

• Edwards, George C. and Thomas G. Howell (eds.). 2009.The Oxford Handbook of the American Presidency.Oxford University Press.
• Kernell, Samuel; Jacobson, Gary C. (1987)."Congress and the Presidency as News in the Nineteenth Century"(PDF).Journal of Politics.49(4): 1016–1035.doi:10.2307/2130782.JSTOR2130782.S2CID154834781.
• Howell, William G. 2023.The American Presidency: An Institutional Approach to Executive Politics.Princeton University Press.
• Sigelman, Lee; Bullock, David (1991)."Candidates, issues, horse races, and hoopla: Presidential campaign coverage, 1888–1988"(PDF).American Politics Quarterly.19(1): 5–32.doi:10.1177/1532673x9101900101.S2CID154283367.
• Tebbel, John William,and Sarah Miles Watts.The Press and the Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan(Oxford University Press, 1985).online review
• Waterman, Richard W., and Robert Wright.The Image-Is-Everything Presidency: Dilemmas in American Leadership(Routledge, 2018).
• Presidential Studies Quarterly,published by Wiley, is an academic journal on the presidency.

External links

• White House homepage
• United States Presidents Collection. General Collection,Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University