Thehistory of video gamesbegan in the 1950s and 1960s ascomputer scientistsbegan designing simple games andsimulationsonminicomputersandmainframes.Spacewar!was developed byMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) student hobbyists in 1962 as one of the first suchgames on a video display.The first consumer video game hardware was released in the early 1970s. The firsthome video game consolewas theMagnavox Odyssey,and the firstarcade video gameswereComputer SpaceandPong.After its home console conversions, numerous companies sprang up to capturePong's success in both the arcade and the home bycloningthe game, causing a series of boom and bust cycles due to oversaturation and lack of innovation.
By the mid-1970s, low-cost programmablemicroprocessorsreplaced the discretetransistor–transistor logiccircuitry of early hardware, and the firstROM cartridge-based home consoles arrived, including theAtari Video Computer System(VCS). Coupled with rapid growth in thegolden age of arcade video games,includingSpace InvadersandPac-Man,the home console market also flourished. The1983 video game crashin the United States was characterized by a flood of too many games, often of poor or cloned qualities, and the sector saw competition from inexpensivepersonal computersand new types of games being developed for them. The crash prompted Japan's video game industry to take leadership of the market, which had only suffered minor impacts from the crash.Nintendoreleased itsNintendo Entertainment Systemin the United States in 1985, helping to rebound the failing video games sector. The latter part of the 1980s and early 1990s included video games driven by improvements and standardization in personal computers and theconsole warcompetition between Nintendo andSegaas they fought for market share in the United States. The first majorhandheld video game consolesappeared in the 1990s, led by Nintendo'sGame Boyplatform.
In the early 1990s, advancements in microprocessor technology gave rise to real-time3D polygonal graphic renderingin game consoles, as well as in PCs by way ofgraphics cards.Optical media viaCD-ROMsbegan to be incorporated into personal computers and consoles, includingSony'sfledglingPlayStationconsole line, pushing Sega out of the console hardware market while diminishing Nintendo's role. By the late 1990s, theInternetalso gained widespread consumer use, and video games began incorporating online elements.Microsoftentered the console hardware market in the early 2000s with itsXboxline, fearing that Sony's PlayStation positioned as a game console and entertainment device, would displace personal computers. While Sony and Microsoft continued to develop hardware for comparable top-end console features, Nintendo opted to focus on innovative gameplay. Nintendo developed theWiiwith motion-sensing controls, which helped to draw in non-traditional players and helped to resecure Nintendo's position in the industry; Nintendo followed this same model in the release of theNintendo Switch.
From the 2000s and into the 2010s, the industry has seen a shift of demographics asmobile gamingonsmartphonesandtabletsdisplaced handheld consoles, andcasual gamingbecame an increasingly larger sector of the market, as well as a growth in the number of players from China and other areas not traditionally tied to the industry. To take advantage of these shifts, traditional revenue models were supplanted with ongoing revenue stream models such asfree-to-play,freemium,and subscription-based games. Astriple-Avideo game production became more costly and risk-averse, opportunities for more experimental and innovativeindependent game developmentgrew over the 2000s and 2010s, aided by the popularity of mobile and casual gaming and the ease ofdigital distribution.Hardware and software technology continues to drive improvement in video games, with support forhigh-definition videoat high framerates and forvirtualandaugmented reality-based games.
Early history (1948–1970)
As early as 1950, computer scientists were using electronic machines to construct relatively simple game systems, such asBertie the Brainin 1950 to playtic tac toe,orNimrodin 1951 for playingNim.These systems used either electronic light displays and mainly as demonstration systems at large exhibitions to showcase the power of computers at the time.[1][2]Another early demonstration wasTennis for Two,a game created byWilliam HiginbothamatBrookhaven National Laboratoryin 1958 for three-day exhibition, using ananalog computerand anoscilloscopefor a display.[3]
Spacewar!is considered one of the first recognized video games that enjoyed wider distribution behind a single exhibition system. Developed in 1961 for thePDP-1mainframe computer at MIT, it allowed two players to simulate a space combat fight on the PDP-1's relatively simplistic monitor. The game'ssource codewas shared with other institutions with a PDP-1 across the country as the MIT students themselves moved about, allowing the game to gain popularity.[4]
1970s
Mainframe computer games
In the 1960s, a number of computer games were created for mainframe andminicomputersystems, but these failed to achieve wide distribution due to the continuing scarcity of computer resources, a lack of sufficiently trained programmers interested in crafting entertainment products, and the difficulty in transferring programs between computers in different geographic areas. By the end of the 1970s, however, the situation had changed drastically. TheBASICandChigh-levelprogramming languageswere widely adopted during the decade, which were more accessible than earlier more technical languages such asFORTRANandCOBOL,opening up computer game creation to a larger base of users. With the advent oftime-sharing,which allowed the resources of a single mainframe to be parceled out among multiple users connected to the machine by terminals, computer access was no longer limited to a handful of individuals at an institution, creating more opportunities for students to create their own games. Furthermore, the widespread adoption of thePDP-10,released byDigital Equipment Corporation(DEC) in 1966, and the portableUNIXoperating system,developed atBell Labsin 1971 and released generally in 1973, created common programming environments across the country that reduced the difficulty of sharing programs between institutions. Finally, the founding of the first magazines dedicated to computing likeCreative Computing(1974), the publication of the earliest program compilation books like101 BASIC Computer Games(1973), and the spread of wide-area networks such as theARPANETallowed programs to be shared more easily across great distances. As a result, many of the mainframe games created by college students in the 1970s influenced subsequent developments in the video game industry in ways that,Spacewar!aside, the games of the 1960s did not.
In the arcade and on home consoles, fast-paced action andreal-timegameplay were the norm in genres likeracingandtarget shooting.On the mainframe, however, such games were generally not possible due both to the lack of adequate displays (many computer terminals continued to rely onteletypesrather than monitors well into the 1970s and even most CRT terminals could only render character-based graphics) and insufficient processing power and memory to update game elements in real time. While 1970s mainframes were more powerful than arcade and console hardware of the period, the need to parcel out computing resources to dozens of simultaneous users via time-sharing significantly hampered their abilities. Thus, programmers of mainframe games focused on strategy and puzzle-solving mechanics over pure action. Notable games of the period include the tactical combat gameStar Trek(1971) byMike Mayfield,thehide-and-seekgameHunt the Wumpus(1972) byGregory Yob,and the strategic war gameEmpire(1977) byWalter Bright.Perhaps the most significant game of the period wasColossal Cave Adventure(or simplyAdventure), created in 1976 byWill Crowtherby combining his passion for caving with concepts from the newly released tabletop role-playing game (RPG)Dungeons & Dragons(D&D). Expanded byDon Woodsin 1977 with an emphasis on the high fantasy ofJ.R.R. Tolkien,Adventureestablished a new genre based around exploration and inventory-based puzzle solving that made the transition to personal computers in the late 1970s.
While most games were created on hardware of limited graphic ability, one computer able to host more impressive games was thePLATO systemdeveloped at theUniversity of Illinois.Intended as an educational computer, the system connected hundreds of users all over the United States via remote terminals that featured high-qualityplasma displaysand allowed users to interact with each other in real time. This allowed the system to host an impressive array of graphical and/or multiplayer games, including some of the earliest known computer RPGs, which were primarily derived, likeAdventure,fromD&D,but unlike that game placed a greater emphasis on combat and character progression than puzzle solving. Starting with top-downdungeon crawlslikeThe Dungeon(1975) andThe Game of Dungeons(1975), more commonly referred to today by their filenames,pedit5anddnd,PLATO RPGs soon transitioned to a first-person perspective with games likeMoria(1975),Oubliette(1977), andAvatar(1979), which often allowed multiple players to join forces to battle monsters and complete quests together. LikeAdventure,these games ultimately inspired some of the earliest personal computer games.
The first arcade video games and home consoles
The modern video game industry grew out of the concurrent development of the firstarcade video gameand the firsthome video game consolein the early 1970s in the United States.
The arcade video game industry grew out of the pre-existingarcade gameindustry, which was previously dominated byelectro-mechanical games(EM games). Following the arrival ofSega's EM gamePeriscope(1966), the arcade industry was experiencing a "technological renaissance" driven by "audio-visual" EM novelty games, establishing the arcades as a healthy environment for the introduction of commercial video games in the early 1970s.[5]In the late 1960s, a college studentNolan Bushnellhad a part-time job at an arcade where he became familiar with EM games, watching customers play and helping to maintain the machinery while learning how it worked and developing his understanding of how the game business operates.[6]
In 1966, while working atSanders Associates,Ralph Baercame up with an idea for an entertainment device that could be hooked up to a television monitor. Presenting this to his superiors at Sanders and getting their approval, he, along with William Harrison and William Rusch, refined Baer's concept into the "Brown Box" prototype of ahome video game consolethat could play a simple table tennis game. The three patented the technology, and Sanders, not in the commercialization business, sold licenses to the patents toMagnavoxto commercialize. With Baer's help, Magnavox developed theMagnavox Odyssey,the first commercial home console, in 1972.
Concurrently, Nolan Bushnell andTed Dabneyhad the idea of making a coin-operated system to runSpacewar!By 1971, the two had developedComputer SpacewithNutting Associates,the first arcade video game.[7]Bushnell and Dabney struck out on their own and formedAtari.Bushnell, inspired by thetable tennisgame on the Odyssey, hiredAllan Alcornto develop an arcade version of the game, this time using discretetransistor–transistor logic(TTL) electronic circuitry. Atari'sPongwas released in late 1972 and is considered the first successful arcade video game. It ignited the growth of the arcade game industry in the United States from both established coin-operated game manufacturers likeWilliams,Chicago Coin, and theMidwaysubsidiary ofBally Manufacturing,and new startups such as Ramtek andAllied Leisure.Many of these werePongclones using ball-and-paddle controls, and led to saturation of the market in 1974, forcing arcade game makers to try to innovate new games in 1975. Many of the newer companies created in the wake ofPongfailed to innovate on their own and shut down, and by the end of 1975, the arcade market had fallen by about 50% based on new game sale revenues.[8]Further, Magnavox took Atari and several other of these arcade game makers to court over violations of Baer's patents. Bushnell settled the suit for Atari, gaining perpetual rights for the patents for Atari as part of the settlement.[9]Others failed to settle, and Magnavox won around$100 millionin damages from these patent infringement suits before the patents expired in 1990.[10]
Arcade video games caught on quickly in Japan due to partnerships between American and Japanese corporations that kept the Japan companies abreast of technology developments within the United States. TheNakamura Amusement Machine Manufacturing Company(Namco) partnered with Atari to importPonginto Japan in late 1973. Within the year,TaitoandSegareleasedPongclones in Japan by mid-1973. Japanese companies began developing novel games and exporting or licensing them through partners in 1974.[11]Among these included Taito'sGun Fight(originallyWestern Gunin its Japanese release), which was licensed to Midway. Midway's version, released in 1975, was the first arcade video game to use amicroprocessorrather than discrete TTL components.[12]This innovation drastically reduced the complexity and time to design of arcade games and the number of physical components required to achieve more advanced gameplay.[13]
The dedicated console market
The Magnavox Odyssey never caught on with the public, due largely to the limited functionality of its primitive discrete electronic component technology.[8]By mid-1975,large-scale integration(LSI) microchips had become inexpensive enough to be incorporated into a consumer product.[8]In 1975, Magnavox reduced the part count of the Odyssey using a three-chip set created by Texas Instruments and released two new systems that only played ball-and-paddle games, theMagnavox Odyssey 100andMagnavox Odyssey 200.Atari, meanwhile, entered the consumer market that same year with the single-chip HomePongsystem. The next year,General Instrumentreleased a "Pong-on-a-chip" LSI and made it available at a low price to any interested company. Toy companyColecoIndustries used this chip to create the million-sellingTelstarconsole model series (1976–77).
These initial home video game consoles were popular, leading to a large influx of companies releasingPongand othervideo game clonesto satisfy consumer demand. While there were only seven companies that were releasing home consoles in 1975, there were at least 82 by 1977, with more than 160 different models that year alone that were easily documented. A large number of these consoles were created in East Asia, and it is estimated that over 500Pong-type home console models were made during this period.[8]As with the prior paddle-and-ball saturation in the arcade game field by 1975 due to consumer weariness, dedicated console sales dropped sharply in 1978, disrupted by the introduction of programmable systems andHandheld electronic games.[8]
Just as dedicated consoles were waning in popularity in the West, they briefly surged in popularity in Japan. TheseTV geemuwere often based on licensed designs from the American companies, manufactured by television manufacturers such asToshibaandSharp.Notably,Nintendoentered the video game market during this period alongside its current traditional and electronic toy product lines, producing the series ofColor TV-Gameconsoles in partnership withMitsubishi.[11]
Growth of video game arcades and the golden age
After the ball-and-paddle market saturation in 1975, game developers began looking for new ideas for games, buoyed by the ability to use programmable microprocessors rather than analog components. Taito designerTomohiro Nishikado,who had developedGun Fightpreviously, was inspired by Atari'sBreakoutto create a shooting-based game,Space Invaders,first released in Japan in 1978.[14]Space Invadersintroduced or popularized several important concepts in arcade video games, including play regulated bylivesinstead of a timer or set score, gainingextra livesthrough accumulating points, and the tracking of thehigh scoreachieved on the machine. It was also the first game to confront the player with waves of targets that shot back at the player and the first to include background music during game play, albeit a simple four-note loop.[15]Space Invaderswas an immediate success in Japan, with some arcades created solely forSpace Invadersmachines.[14]While not quite as popular in the United States,Space Invadersbecame a hit as Midway, serving as the North American manufacturer, moved over 60,000 cabinets in 1979.[16]
Space Invadersled off what is considered to be the golden age of arcade games which lasted from 1978 to 1982. Several influential and best-selling arcade games were released during this period from Atari, Namco, Taito, Williams, and Nintendo, includingAsteroids(1979),Galaxian(1979),Defender(1980),Missile Command(1980),Tempest(1981), andGalaga(1981).Pac-Man,released in 1980, became apopular cultureicon, and a new wave of games appeared that focused on identifiable characters and alternate mechanics such as navigating a maze or traversing a series of platforms. Aside fromPac-Manand its sequel,Ms. Pac-Man(1982), the most popular games in this vein during the golden age wereDonkey Kong(1981) andQ*bert(1982).[14]Games likePac-Man,Donkey KongandQ*bertalso introduced the concept of narratives and characters to video games, which led companies to adopt these later as mascots for marketing purposes.[17][18]
According to trade publicationVending Times,revenues generated by coin-operated video games on location in the United States jumped from $308 million in 1978 to $968 million in 1979 to $2.8 billion in 1980. AsPac Manignited an even larger video game craze and attracted more female players to arcades, revenues jumped again to $4.9 billion in 1981. According to trade publicationPlay Meter,by July 1982, total coin-op collections peaked at $8.9 billion, of which $7.7 billion came from video games.[19]Dedicatedvideo game arcadesgrew during the golden age, with the number of arcades (locations with at least ten arcade games) more than doubling between July 1981 and July 1983 from over 10,000 to just over 25,000.[14][19]These figures made arcade games the most popular entertainment medium in the country, far surpassing both pop music (at $4 billion in sales per year) and Hollywood films ($3 billion).[19]
Introduction of cartridge-based home consoles
Development costs of dedicated game hardware for arcade and home consoles based on discrete component circuitry andapplication-specific integrated circuits(ASICs) with only limited consumer lifespans drove engineers to find alternatives. Microprocessors had dropped far enough in price by 1975 to make these a viable option for developing programmable consoles that could load in game software from a form of swappable media.[20]
TheFairchild Channel FbyFairchild Camera and Instrumentwas released in 1976. It is the first home console to use programmableROM cartridges- allowing players to swap games - as well as being the first home console to use a microprocessor which reads instructions from the ROM cartridge. Atari and Magnavox followed suit in 1977 and 1978, respectively, with the release of theAtari Video Computer System(VCS, later known as the Atari 2600) and theMagnavox Odyssey 2,both systems also introducing the use of cartridges. As to complete the Atari VCS quickly, Bushnell sold Atari toWarner Communications$28 million,providing the necessary cash infusion to complete the system's design by the end of 1977.[13]The initial market for these new consoles were initially modest as consumers were still wary after the saturation of dedicated home consoles.[21]However, there was still newfound interest in video games, and new players were drawn to the market, such asMattel Electronicswith theIntellivision.[8]In contrast to the dedicated homePongconsoles, programmable cartridge-based consoles had a higher barrier of entry with the costs ofresearch & developmentand large-scale production, and fewer manufacturers entered the market during this period.[8]
This new line of consoles had its breakthrough moment when Atari obtained a license from Taito to create the Atari VCS version of the arcade hitSpace Invaders,which was released in 1980.Space Invadersquadrupled sales of the Atari VCS, making it the first "killer app"in the video game industry, and the first video game to sell over one million copies and eventually sold over 2.5 million by 1981.[22][23]Atari's consumer sales almost doubled from $119 million to nearly $204 million in 1980 and then exploded to over $841 million in 1981, while sales across the entire video game industry in the United States rose from $185.7 million in 1979 to just over $1 billion in 1981. Through a combination of conversions of its own arcade games likeMissile CommandandAsteroidsand licensed conversions likeDefender,Atari took a commanding lead in the industry, with an estimated 65% market share of the worldwide industry by dollar volume by 1981. Mattel settled into second place with roughly 15%-20% of the market, while Magnavox ran a distant third, and Fairchild exited the market entirely in 1979.[8]
Another critical development during this period was the emergence of third-party developers. Atari management did not appreciate the special talent required to design and program a game and treated them like typical software engineers of the period, who were not generally credited for their work or given royalties; this led toWarren Robinettsecretly programming his name in one of the earliestEaster eggsinto his gameAdventure.[24][25]Atari's policies drove four of the company's programmers, David Crane, Larry Kaplan, Alan Miller, and Bob Whitehead, to resign and form their own companyActivisionin 1979, using their knowledge of developing for the Atari VCS to make and publish their own games. Atari sued to stop Activision's activities, but the companies settled out of court, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their game sales as a license fee to Atari.[26]Another group of Atari and Mattel developers left and formedImagicin 1981, following Activision's model.[27]
Atari's dominance of the market was challenged by Coleco'sColecoVisionin 1982. AsSpace Invadershad done for the Atari VCS, Coleco developed a licensed version of Nintendo's arcade hitDonkey Kongas a bundled game with the system. While the Colecovision only had 17% of the hardware market in 1982 compared to the Atari VCS' share of 58%, it outsold Atari's newer console, theAtari 5200.[28][8]
A few games from this period have been considered milestones in the history of video games, and some of the earliest in popular genres. Robinett'sAdventurewas inspired from the text adventureColossal Cave Adventure,and is considered the one of the first graphic adventure andaction-adventure games,[29][30]and first cartridge fantasy-themed game.[31]Activision'sPitfall!,beside being one of the more successful third-party games, also established the foundation of side-scrollingplatform games.[32]Utopiafor the Intellivision was the firstcity-building gameand considered one of the firstreal-time strategy games.[33][34]
Early hobbyist computer games
The fruit of retail development in early video games appeared mainly in video arcades and home consoles, but at the same time, there was a growing market inhome computers.Such home computers were initially a hobbyist activity, withminicomputerssuch as theAltair 8800and theIMSAI 8080released in the early 1970s. Groups like theHomebrew Computer Clubin Menlo Park, California envisioned how to create new hardware and software from these minicomputer systems that could eventually reach the home market.[35]Affordable home computers began appearing in the late 1970s with the arrival of the "1977 Trinity": theCommodore PET,theApple II,and theTRS-80.[36]Most shipped with a variety of pre-made games as well as theBASIC programming language,allowing their owners to program simple games.[37]
Hobbyistgroups for the new computers soon formed andPC gamesoftware followed. Soon many of these games—at first clones of mainframe classics such asStar Trek,and then later ports or clones of popular arcade games such asSpace Invaders,Frogger,[38]Pac-Man(seePac-Manclones)[39]andDonkey Kong[40]—were being distributed through a variety of channels, such as printing the game'ssource codein books (such as David Ahl'sBASIC Computer Games), magazines (Electronic GamesandCreative Computing), and newsletters, which allowed users totype in the code for themselves.[41][42][43]
Whereas hobbyist programming in the United States was seen as a pastime while more players flocked to video game consoles, such "bedroom coders" in theUnited Kingdomand other parts of Europe looked for ways to profit from their work.[44][45]Programmers distributed their works through the physical mailing and selling of floppy disks, cassette tapes, andROMcartridges.[45]Possibly the first computer game to be sold commercially wasMicrochessin 1976 byPeter R. Jennings,who also started possibly the first computer game publishing company,Microware.[46]Soon a smallcottage industrywas formed, with amateur programmers selling disks in plastic bags put on the shelves of local shops or sent through the mail.[45]
Mainframe and minicomputer games were still largely developed by students and others during this period using the more powerful languages afforded on these systems. A team ofMITstudents,Tim Anderson,Marc Blank,Bruce Daniels,andDave Lebling,were inspired byColossal Cave Adventureto create the text adventure gameZorkacross 1977 and 1979, and later formedInfocomto republish it commercially in 1980.[47]The first graphical adventure games fromSierra On-Linesuch asMystery House,using simple graphics alongside text, also emerged around the same time.Rogue,the namesake of theroguelikegenre, was developed in 1980 byGlenn Wichmanand Michael Toy who wanted a way to randomize the gameplay ofColossal Cave Adventure.[48]
First handheld LED/VFD/LCD games
Handheld electronic games, using all computerized components but typically usingLEDorVFDlights for display, first emerged in the early 1970s.LCDdisplays became inexpensive for consumer products by the mid-1970s and replaced LED and VFD in such games, due to their lower power usage and smaller size. Most of these games were limited to a single game due to the simplicity of the display. Companies likeMattel Electronics,Coleco,Entex Industries,Bandai,andTomymade numerous electronics games over the 1970s and early 1980s.[49]
Coupled with inexpensive microprocessors, handheld electronic games paved the way for the earliest handheld video game systems by the late 1970s. In 1979,Milton Bradley Companyreleased the first handheld system using interchangeable cartridges,Microvision,which used a built-inLCDmatrix screen. While the handheld received modest success in its first year of production, the lack of games, screen size and video game crash of 1983 brought about the system's quick demise.[50]
In 1980, Nintendo released the first of itsGame & Watchline,handheld electronic gamesusing LCD screens.[51]Game & Watch spurred dozens of other game and toy companies to make their own portable games, many of which were copies of Game & Watch games or adaptations of popular arcade games.Tiger Electronicsborrowed this concept of videogaming with cheap, affordable handhelds and still produces games on this model to the present day.
1980s
The video games industry experienced its first major growing pains in the early 1980s; the lure of the market brought many companies with little experience to try to capitalize on video games, and contributors towards the industry's crash in 1983, decimating the North American market. In the wake of the crash, Japanese companies became the leaders in the industry, and as the industry began to recover, the first majorpublishing housesappeared, maturing the industry to prevent a similar crash in the future.
Video game crash of 1983
Activision's success as a third-party developer for the Atari VCS and other home consoles inspired other third-party development firms to emerge in the early 1980s; by 1983, at least 100 different companies claimed to be developing software for the Atari VCS.[8]This had been projected to led to a glut in sales, with only 10% of games producing 75% of sales for 1983 based on 1982 estimates.[52]Further, there were questions on the quality of these games. While some of these firms hired experts in game design and programming to build quality games, most were staffed by novice programmers backed by venture capitalists without experience in the area. As a result, the Atari VCS market became watered down with large quantities of poor quality games. These games did not sell well, and retailers discounted their prices to try to get rid of their inventory. This further impacted sales of high-quality games, since consumers would be drawn to purchase bargain-bin priced games over quality games marked at a regular price.[53]
At the end of 1983, several factors, including a market flooded with poor-quality games and loss of publishing control, the lack of consumer confidence in market leader Atari due to the poor performance of several high-profile games, and home computers emerging as a new and more advanced platform for games at nearly the same cost as video game consoles, caused the North American video game industry to experience a severe downturn.[28]The 1983 crash bankrupted several North American companies that produced consoles and games from late 1983 to early 1984. The$3 billionU.S. market in 1983 dropped to$100 millionby 1985,[54]while the global video game market estimated at$42 billionin 1982 fell to$14 billionby 1985.[55]Warner Communications sold off Atari toJack Tramielin 1984,[56]while Magnavox and Coleco exited the industry.
The crash had some minor effects on Japanese companies with American partners impacted by the crash, but as most of the Japanese companies involved in video games at this point have long histories, they were able to weather the short-term effects. The crash set the stage for Japan to emerge as the leader in the video game industry for the next several years, particularly with Nintendo's introduction of the rebranded Famicom, theNintendo Entertainment System,back into the U.S. and other Western regions in 1985, maintaining strict publishing control to avoid the same factors that led to the 1983 crash.[57]
The rise of computer games
Second wave of home computers
Following the success of theApple IIandCommodore PETin the late 1970s, a series of cheaper and incompatible home computers emerged in the early 1980s. This second batch included theVIC-20andCommodore 64;SinclairZX80,ZX81andZX Spectrum;NEC PC-8000,PC-6001,PC-88andPC-98;Sharp X1andX68000;Fujitsu FM Towns,andAtari 8-bit computers,BBC Micro,Acorn Electron,Amstrad CPC,andMSXseries. Many of these systems found favor in regional markets.
These new systems helped catalyze both the home computer and game markets, by raising awareness of computing and gaming through their competing advertising campaigns. This was most notable in the United Kingdom where theBBCencouraged computer education and backed the development of the BBC Micro with Acorn.[58]Between the BBC Micro, the ZX Spectrum, and the Commodore 64, a new wave of "bedroom coders" emerged in the United Kingdom and started selling their own software for these platforms, alongside those developed by small professional teams.[59][60][61][62]Small publishing and distribution companies such asAcornsoftandMastertronicwere established to help these individuals and teams to create and sell copies of their games.Ubisoftstarted out as such a distributor in France in the mid-1980s before they branched out into video game development and publishing.[63]In Japan, systems like the MSX and the NEC PC line were popular, and several development houses emerged developing arcade clones and new games for these platforms. These companies includedHAL Laboratory,Square,andEnix,which all later became some of the first third-party developers for the Nintendo Famicom after its release in 1983.[11]
Games from this period include the firstUltimabyRichard Garriottand the firstWizardryfromSir-Tech,both fundamental role-playing games on the personal computer. The space trading and combat simulation gameElitebyDavid BrabenandIan Bellintroduced a number of new graphics and gameplay features, and is considered one of the firstopen worldandsandbox games.[64]Early installments in a number of long-running franchises such asCastlevania,Metal Gear,Bubble Bobble,Gradius,as well as ports of console games andvisual novelsappeared on Japanese platforms like the PC88, X68000, and MSX.
Games dominated home computers' software libraries. A 1984 compendium of reviews of Atari 8-bit software used 198 pages for games compared to 167 for all others.[65]By that year the computer game market took over from the console market following the crash of that year; computers offered equal ability and, since their simple design allowed games to take complete command of the hardware after power-on, they were nearly as simple to start playing with as consoles.[citation needed]
Later in the 1980s the next wave of personal computers emerged, with theAmigaandAtari STin 1985. Both computers had more advanced graphics and sound capabilities than the prior generation of computers, and made for key platforms for video game development, particularly in the United Kingdom. The bedroom coders had since formed development teams and started producing games for these systems professionally. These includedBullfrog Productions,founded byPeter Molyneux,with the release ofPopulous(the first suchgod game),DMA DesignwithLemmings,PsygnosiswithShadow of the Beast,andTeam17withWorms.[66]
IBM PC compatible
While the second wave of home computer systems flourished in the early 1980s, they remained as closed hardware systems from each other; while programs written in BASIC or other simple languages could be easily copied over, more advanced programs would require porting to meet the hardware requirements of the target system. Separately,IBMreleased the first of itsIBM Personal Computers(IBM PC) in 1981, shipping with theMS-DOSoperating system. The IBM PC was designed with anopen architectureto allow new components to be added to it, but IBM intended to maintain control on manufacturing with the proprietaryBIOSdeveloped for the system.[67]As IBM struggled to meet demand for its PC, other computer manufacturers such asCompaqworked toreverse engineerthe BIOS and createdIBM PC compatiblecomputers by 1983.[68][69][70][71][72][73]By 1987, IBM PC compatible computers dominated the home and business computer market.[74]
From a video games standpoint, the IBM PC compatible invigorated further game development. A software developer could write to meet IBM PC compatible specifications and not worry about which make or model was being used. While the initial IBM PC supported only monochromatic text games, game developers nevertheless ported mainframe and other simple text games to the PC, such as Infocom withZork.IBM introduced video display controllers such as theColor Graphics Adapter(CGA) (1981), theEnhanced Graphics Adapter(EGA) (1984) and theVideo Graphics Array(VGA) (1987) that expanded the computer's ability to display color graphics, though even with the VGA, these still lagged behind those of the Amiga. The first dedicatedsound cardsfor IBM PC compatibles were released starting in 1987, which provided digital sound conversion input and output far exceeding the computer's internal speakers, and withCreative Labs'Sound Blasterin 1989, the ability to plug in a game controller or similar device.
In 2008,Sid Meierlisted the IBM PC as one of the three most important innovations in the history of video games.[75]The advancement in graphic and sound capabilities of the IBM PC compatible led to several influential games from this period. Numerous games that were already made for the earlier home computers were later ported to IBM PC compatible system to take advantage of the larger consumer base, including theWizardryandUltimaseries, with future installments released for the IBM PC.Sierra On-Line's first graphical adventure games launched with theKing's Questseries. The firstSimCitygame byMaxiswas released in 1989.[76]
The AppleMacintoshalso arrived at this time. In contrast to the IBM PC, Apple maintained a more closed system on the Macintosh, creating a system based around agraphical user interface(GUI)-driven operating system. As a result, it did not have the same market share as the IBM PC compatible, but still had a respectable software library including video games, typically ports from other systems.[67]
The first majorvideo game publishersarose during the 1980s, primarily supporting personal computer games on both IBM PC compatible games and the popular earlier systems along with some console games. Among the major publishers formed at this time includedElectronic Arts,[77]andBroderbund,while Sierra On-Line expanded its own publishing capabilities for other developers.[78]Activision, still recovering from the financial impacts of the 1983 video game crash, expanded out to include other software properties for the office, rebranding itself as Mediagenic until 1990.[26]
Early online games
Dial-upbulletin board systemswere popular in the 1980s, and sometimes used for online gaming. The earliest such systems were in the late 1970s and early 1980s and had a crude plain-text interface. Later systems made use of terminal-control codes (the so-calledANSI art,which included the use of IBM-PC-specific characters not part of anAmerican National Standards Institute(ANSI) standard) to get apseudo-graphicalinterface. Some BBSs offered access to various games which were playable through such an interface, ranging from text adventures to gambling games likeblackjack(generally played for "points" rather than real money). On some multiuser BBSs (where more than one person could be online at once), there were games allowing users to interact with one another.
SuperSet SoftwarecreatedSnipes,a text-mode networked computer game in 1983 to test a newIBM Personal Computer–based computer network and demonstrate its abilities.Snipesis officially credited as being the original inspiration forNetWare.It is believed to be the first network game ever written for a commercial personal computer and is recognized alongside 1974 gameMaze War(a networked multiplayer maze game for several research machines) andSpasim(a 3D multiplayer space simulation for time sharedmainframes) as the precursor to multiplayer games such as 1987'sMIDI Maze,andDoomin 1993. In 1995, iDoom (laterKali.net) was created for games that only allowed local network play to connect over the internet. Other services such asKahn,TEN,Mplayer,andHeat.netsoon followed. These services ultimately became obsolete when game producers began including their own online software such asBattle.net,WONand laterSteam.
The first user interfaces were plain-text—similar to BBSs—but they operated on large mainframe computers, permitting larger numbers of users to be online at once. By the end of the decade, inline services had fully graphical environments using software specific to each personal computer platform. Popular text-based services includedCompuServe,The Source,andGEnie,while platform-specific graphical services includedPlayNETandQuantum Linkfor theCommodore 64,AppleLinkfor theApple IIandMacintosh,andPC Linkfor theIBM PC—all of which were run by the company which eventually becameAmerica Online—and a competing service,Prodigy.Interactive games were a feature of these services, though until 1987 they used text-based displays, not graphics.
Meanwhile, schools and other institutions gained access toARPANET,the precursor to the moderninternet,in the mid-1980s. While the ARPANET connections were intended for research purposes, students explored ways to use this connectivity for video games.Multi-User Dungeon(MUD) originally was developed by Roy Trubshaw andRichard Bartleat theUniversity of Essexin 1978 as a multiplayer game but limited to the school's mainframe system, but was adapted to use ARPANET when the school gained access to it in 1981, making it the first internet-connected game, and the first suchMUDand an early title ofmassively multiplayer online games.[79]
The home console recovery
8-bit consoles
While the 1983 video game crash devastated the United States market, the Japanese video game sector remained unscathed. That year, Nintendo introduced theFamicom(short for Family Computer), while newcomerSegaused its arcade game background to design theSG-1000.The Famicom quickly became a commercial success in Japan, with 2.5 million consoles sold by the start of 1985. Nintendo wanted to introduce the system into the weak United States market but recognized the market was still struggling from the 1983 crash and video games still had a negative perception there.[80]Working with itsNintendo of Americadivision, Nintendo rebranded the Famicom as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), giving it the appearance of avideo cassette recorderrather than a toy-like device, and launched the system in the United States in 1985 with accessories likeR.O.B.(Robotic Operating Buddy) to make the system appear more sophisticated than prior home consoles.[81]The NES revitalized the U.S. video game market, and by 1989, the U.S. market has resurged to$5 billion.Over 35 million NES systems were sold in the U.S. through its lifetime, with nearly 62 million units sold globally.[82]
Besides revitalizing the U.S. market, the Famicom/NES console had a number of other long-standing impacts on the video game industry. Nintendo used therazor and blades modelto sell the console at near manufacturing cost while profiting from sales of games.[8]Because games sales were critical to Nintendo, it initially controlled all game production, but at requests from companies like Namco andHudson Soft,Nintendo allowed for third-party developers to create games for the consoles, but strictly controlled the manufacturing process, limited these companies to five games year, and required a 30% licensing fee per game sale, a figure that has been used throughout console development to the present.[83]Nintendo's control of Famicom games led to a bootleg market of unauthorized games from Asian countries. When the NES launched, Nintendo took the lessons it learned from its own bootleg problems with the Famicom, and from the oversaturation of the U.S. market that led to the 1983 crash, and created the10NESlockout system for NES games that required a special chip to be present in cartridges to be usable on NES systems. The 10NES helped to curb, though did not eliminate, the bootleg market for NES games. Nintendo of America also created the "Nintendo Seal of Approval" to mark games officially licensed by Nintendo and dissuade consumers from purchasing unlicensed third-party games, a symptom of the 1983 crash.[84][57]Within the United States, Nintendo of America set up a special telephone help line to provide players with help with more difficult games and launchedNintendo Powermagazine to provide tips and tricks as well as news on upcoming Nintendo games.[85]
Sega's SG-1000 did not fare as well against the Famicom in Japan, but the company continued to refine it, releasingSega Mark III(also known as the Master System) in 1985. Whereas Nintendo had more success in Japan and the United States, Sega's Mark III sold well in Europe, Oceania, and Brazil.[86][87][88]
Numerous fundamental video game franchises got their start during the Famicom/NES and Mark III/Master System period, mostly out of Japanese development companies. WhileMariohad already appeared inDonkey Kongand the Game & Watch and arcade gameMario Bros.,Super Mario Bros.,debuting in 1985, established Mario as Nintendo'smascotas well as the first of theSuper Mariofranchise.[11]Sega also introduced its first mascot characters, the Opa-Opa ship fromFantasy Zonein 1986 and later replaced byAlex KiddviaAlex Kidd in Miracle Worldin 1986, though neither gained the popular recognition that Mario had obtained.[89]Other key Nintendo franchises were born out of the gamesThe Legend of ZeldaandMetroid,both released in 1986. The formulative center of turn-basedcomputer role-playing gameswere launched withDragon Quest(1986) fromChunsoftandEnix,Final Fantasy(1987) fromSquare,andPhantasy Star(1987) from Sega.Capcom'sMega Man(1987), andKonami'sCastlevania(1986) andMetal Gear(1987) also have ongoing franchises, withMetal Gearalso considered to be the first mainstreamstealth game.[90]
With Nintendo's dominance, Japan became the epicenter of the video game market, as many of the former American manufacturers had exited the market by the end of the 1980s.[91]At the same time, software developers from the home computer side recognized the strength of the consoles, and companies likeEpyx,Electronic Arts,andLucasArtsbegan devoting their attention to developing console games[92]By 1989 the market for cartridge-based console games was more than $2 billion, while that for disk-based computer games was less than $300 million.[93]
16-bit consoles
NEC released its PC Engine in 1987 in Japan, rebranded as theTurboGrafx-16in North America. While the CPU was still an 8-bit system, the TurboGrafx-16 used a 16-bit graphics adapter, and NEC chose to heavily rely on marketing the system as a "16 bit" system to differentiate it from the 8-bit NES. This ploy led to the use of processor bit size as a key factor in marketing video game consoles over the next decade, a period known as the "bit wars".[94]
Sega released its next console, theMega Drivein Japan in 1988, and rebranded as the Sega Genesis for its North American launch in 1989. Sega wanted to challenge the NES's dominance in the United States with the Genesis, and the initial campaign focused on the 16-bit power of the Genesis over the NES as well as a new line of sports games developed for the console. Failing to make a significant dent in NES' dominance, Sega hiredTom Kalinsketo president of Sega of America to run a new campaign. Among Kalinske's changes was a significant price reduction in the console, and the bundling of Sega's newest gameSonic the Hedgehog,featuring Sega's newest mascotof the same name,with the console. Kalinske's changes gave Genesis the edge over the NES by 1991 and led off the start of aconsole warbetween Sega and Nintendo. Nintendo's 16-bit console, theSuper Nintendo Entertainment System(SNES) struggled on its initial launch in the United States due to the strength of the Genesis. This console war between Sega and Nintendo lasted until 1994 whenSony Computer Entertainmentdisrupted both companies with the release of thePlayStation.[95]
Among other aspects of the console war between Sega and Nintendo, this period brought a revolution insports video games.While these games had existed since the first arcade and console games, their limited graphics required gameplay to be highly simplified. When Sega of America first introduced the Genesis to the United States, it had gotten naming rights from high-profile people in the various sports, such asPat Riley BasketballandJoe Montana Football,but the games still lacked any complexity. Electronic Arts, underTrip Hawkins,were keen to make a more realistic football game for the Genesis which had the computation capabilities for this, but did not want to pay the high licensing fees that Sega were asking for developing on the Genesis. They were able to secure naming rights forJohn Maddenand reverse engineer the Genesis as to be able to produceJohn Madden Football,one of the first major successful sports games.[96]Electronic Arts subsequently focused heavily on sports games, expanding into other sports like basketball, hockey and golf.[77]
SNK'sNeo-Geowas the most costly console by a wide margin when released in 1990. The Neo-Geo used similar hardware as SNK's arcade machines, giving its games a quality better than other 16-bit consoles, but the system was commercially non-viable. The Neo-Geo was notably the first home console with support formemory cards,allowing players to save their progress in a game, not only at home but also shared with compatible Neo-Geo arcade games.[97]
1990s
This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(January 2014) |
The 1990s were a decade of markedinnovationin video games. It was a decade of transition fromraster graphicsto3D graphicsand gave rise to several genres of video games includingfirst-person shooter,real-time strategy,andMMO.Handheld games become more popular throughout the decade, thanks in part to the release of theGame Boyin 1989.[98]Arcade games experienced a resurgence in the early-to-mid-1990s, followed by a decline in the late 1990s ashome consolesbecame more common.
As arcade games declined, however, the home video game industry matured into a more mainstream form of entertainment in the 1990s, but their video games also became more and morecontroversialbecause of their violent nature, especially in games ofMortal Kombat,Night Trap,andDoom,leading to the formation of theInteractive Digital Software Associationand their rating games by signing them theirESRBratings since 1994.[99]Major developments of the 1990s include the popularizing of3D computer graphicsusing polygons (initially in arcades, followed by home consoles and computers), and the start of a larger consolidation of publishers, higher budget games, increased size of production teams, and collaborations with both the music and motion picture industries. Examples of this includeMark Hamill's involvement withWing Commander III,the introduction ofQSoundwitharcade system boardssuch asCapcom'sCP System II,and the high production budgets of games such asSquaresoft'sFinal Fantasy VIIandSega'sShenmue.
Transition to optical media
By end of the 1980s, console games were distributed on ROM cartridges, while PC games shipped onfloppy disks,formats that had limitations in storage capacity.Optical media,and specifically theCD-ROM,had been first introduced in the mid-1980s for music distribution and by the early 1990s, both the media and CD drives had become inexpensive to be incorporated into consumer computing devices, including for both home consoles and computers.[100]Besides offering more capacity for gameplay content, optical media made it possible to include long video segments into games, such asfull motion video,or animated or pre-renderedcutscenes,allowing for more narrative elements to be added to games.[101]
Prior to the 1990s, some arcade games explored the use oflaserdiscs,the most notable beingDragon's Lairin 1983. These games are considered asinteractive moviesand usedfull motion videofrom the laserdisc, prompting the player to respond via controls at the right time to continue the game.[101][102]While these games were popular in the early 1980s, the prohibitive cost of laserdisc technology at the time limited their success. When optical media technology matured and dropped in price by the 1990s, new laserdisc arcade games emerged, such asMad Dog McCreein 1990.[101]Pioneer Corporationreleased theLaserActivegame console in 1993 that used only laserdiscs, with expansion add-ons to play games from the Sega Genesis and NEC TurboGrafx-16 library, but with a base console price of$1,000and add-ons at$600,the console did not perform well.[103]
For consoles, optical media were cheaper to produce than ROM cartridges, and batches of CD-ROMs could be produced in a week while cartridges could take two to three months to assemble, in addition to the larger capacity.[104]Add-ons were made for the 16-bit consoles to use CD media, including the PC Engine and the Mega Drive. Other manufacturers made consoles with dual-media, such as NEC'sTurboDuo.Philipslaunched theCD-iin 1990, a console using only optical media, but the unit had limited gaming capabilities and had a limited game library.[105]Nintendo had similarly worked with Sony to develop a CD-basedSNES,known as theSuper NES CD-ROM,but this deal fell through just prior to its public announcement, and as a result, Sony went on to develop to the PlayStation console released in 1994, that exclusively used optical media.[106]Sony was able to capitalize on how the Japanese market handled game sales in Japan for the PlayStation, by producing only limited numbers of any new CD-ROM game with the ability to rapidly produce new copies of a game should it prove successful, a factor that could not easily be realized with ROM cartridges where due to how fast consumers' tastes changed, required nearly all cartridges expected to sell to be produced upfront. This helped Sony overtake Nintendo and Sega in the 1990s.[107]A key PlayStation game that adapted to the CD format wasFinal Fantasy VII,released in 1997; Square's developers wanted to transition the series from the series' 2D presentation to using 3D models, and though the series had been exclusive to Nintendo consoles previously, Square determined it would be impractical to use cartridges for distribution while the PlayStation's CD-ROM gave them the space for all the desired content including pre-rendered cutscenes.[108]Final Fantasy VIIbecame a key game, as it expanded the idea of console role-playing games to console game consumers.[101][109]Since the PlayStation, all home gaming consoles have relied on optical media for physical game distribution, outside the Nintendo 64 and Switch.[104]
On the PC side, CD drives were initially available as peripherals for computers before becoming standard components within PCs. CD-ROM technology had been available as early as 1989, withCyan Worlds'The Manholebeing one of the first games distributed on the medium.[101]While CD-ROMs served as a better means to distribute larger games, the medium caught on with the 1993 releases of Cyan'sMystandTrilobyte'sThe 7th Guest,adventure games that incorporated full motion video segments among fixed pre-rendered scenes, incorporating the CD-ROM medium into the game itself. Both games were considered killer apps to help standardize the CD-ROM format for PCs.[110][111]
Introduction of 3D graphics
In addition to the transition to optical media, the industry as a whole had a major shift toward real-time3D computer graphicsacross games during the 1990s. There had been a number of arcade games that used simplewireframevector graphicsto simulate 3D, such asBattlezone,Tempest,andStar Wars.A unique challenge in 3D computer graphics is thatreal-time renderingtypically requiresfloating-point calculations,which until the 1990s, most video game hardware was not well-suited for. Instead, many games simulated 3D effects such as by usingparallaxrendering of different background layers, scaling of sprites as they moved towards or away from the player's view, or other rendering methods such as the SNES'sMode 7.These tricks to simulate 3D-rendeder graphics through 2D systems are generally referred to as2.5Dgraphics.
True real-time 3D rendering using polygons were soon popularized byYu Suzuki'sSega AM2gamesVirtua Racing(1992) andVirtua Fighter(1993), both running on theSega Model 1arcade system board;[112]some of theSony Computer Entertainment(SCE) staff involved in the creation of the originalPlayStationvideo game consolecreditVirtua Fighteras inspiration for the PlayStation's 3D graphics hardware. According to SCE's former producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama, the PlayStation was originally being considered as a2D-focused hardware, and it wasn't until the success ofVirtua Fighterin the arcades that they decided to design the PlayStation as a 3D-focused hardware.[113]Texture mappingandtexture filteringwere soon popularized by 3D racing and fighting games.[114]
Home video game consoles such as the PlayStation, theSega Saturn,andNintendo 64also became able to produce texture-mapped 3D graphics. Nintendo had already releasedStar Foxin 1993 which included theSuper FXgraphics co-processor chip built into the game cartridge to support polygonal rendering for the SNES, and the Nintendo 64 included a graphics coprocessor on the console directly.
On personal computers,John CarmackandJohn Romeroofid Softwarehad been experimenting with real-time rendering of 3D games throughHovertank 3DandCatacomb 3-D.These led to the release ofWolfenstein 3Din 1992, considered to be the originalfirst-person shooteras it rendered the game's world fast enough to keep up with the player's movements. However, at this point,Wolfenstein 3D'smaps were restricted to a single flat level.[115]Improvements would come withUltima UnderworldfromBlue Sky Productions,which included floors of different heights and ramps, which took longer to render but was considered acceptable in the role-playing game, and id'sDoom,adding lighting effects among other features, but still with limitations that maps were effectively two-dimensional and with most enemies and objects represented by sprites in-game. id had created one of the firstgame enginesthat separated the content from the gameplay and rendering layers, and licensed this engine to other developers, resulting in games such asHereticandHexen,while other game developers built their own engines based on the concepts of theDoomengine,such asDuke Nukem 3DandMarathon.[116]In 1996, id'sQuakewas the first computer game with a true 3D game engine with in-game character and object models, and as with theDoomengine, id licensed theQuakeengine,leading to a further growth in first-person shooters.[115]By 1997, the first consumer dedicated 3Dgraphics cardswere available on the market driven by the demand for first-person shooters, and numerous 3D game engines were created in the years that followed, includingUnreal Engine,GoldSrc,andCryEngine,and establishing 3D as the new standard in most computer video games.[115]
Resurgence and decline of arcades
The 1991 release ofCapcom'sStreet Fighter IIpopularized competitive one-on-onefighting games.[117]Its success led to a wave of other popular fighting games, such asMortal KombatandThe King of Fighters.Sports gamessuch asNBA Jamalso briefly became popular in arcades during this period.
Further drawing players from arcades were the latest home consoles which were now capable of playing "arcade-accurate" games, including the latest 3D games. Increasing numbers of players waited for popular arcade games to be ported to consoles rather than pumping coins into arcade kiosks.[118]This trend increased with the introduction of more realistic peripherals for computer and console game systems such asforce feedbackaircraft joysticks and racing wheel/pedal kits, which allowed home systems to approach some of the realism and immersion formerly limited to the arcades.[citation needed]To remain relevant, arcade manufacturers such as Sega and Namco continued pushing the boundaries of 3D graphics beyond what was possible in homes.Virtua Fighter 3for theSega Model 3,for instance, stood out for having real-time 3D graphics approaching the quality ofCGIfull motion video(FMV) at the time.[119]Likewise, Namco released theNamco System 23to rival the Model 3. By 1998, however, Sega'snew console,theDreamcast,could produce 3D graphics on-par with theSega Naomiarcade machine. After producing the more powerfulHikaruboard in 1999 andNaomi 2in 2000, Sega eventually stopped manufacturing custom arcade system boards, with their subsequent arcade boards being based on either consoles or commercial PC components.
As patronage for arcades declined, many were forced to close down by the late 1990s and early 2000s. Classic coin-operated games had largely become the province of dedicated hobbyists and as a tertiary attraction for some businesses, such as movie theaters,batting cages,miniature golfcourses, and arcades attached to game stores such asF.Y.E.The gap left by the old corner arcades was partly filled by large amusement centers dedicated to providing clean, safe environments and costly game control systems unavailable to home users. These newer arcade games offer driving or other sports games with specialized cockpits integrated into the arcade machine,rhythm gamesrequiring unique controllers likeGuitar FreaksandDance Dance Revolution,and path-basedlight gunshooting gallery games likeTime Crisis.[14]Arcade establishments expanded out to include other entertainment options, such as food and drink, such as the adult-orientedDave & Buster'sandGameWorksfranchises, whileChuck E. Cheese'sis a similar type of business for families and young children.[14]
Handhelds come of age
In 1989, Nintendo released the cartridge-basedGame Boy,the first majorhandheld game consolesince theMicrovision10 years earlier. Included with the system wasTetris,which became one of the best-selling video games of all time, drawing many that would not normally play video games to the handheld.[120]Several rival handhelds made their debut in the early 1990s, including theGame GearandAtari Lynx(the first handheld with color LCD display). Although these systems were more technologically advanced and intended to match the performance of home consoles, they were hampered by higher battery consumption and less third-party developer support. While some of the other systems remained in production until the mid-1990s, the Game Boy and its successive incarnations, theGame Boy Pocket,Game Boy ColorandGame Boy Advance,were virtually unchallenged for dominance in the handheld market through the 1990s.[121]The Game Boy family also introduced the first installments in thePokémonseries withPokémon RedandBlue,which remains one of the best-selling video game franchises for Nintendo.[122]
Computer games
With the introduction of 3D graphics and a stronger emphasis on console games, smaller developers, particularly those working on personal computers, were typically shunned by publishers as they had become risk-averse.[123]Shareware,a new method of distributing games from these smaller teams, came out of the early 1990s. Typically a shareware game could be requested by a consumer, which would give them a portion of the game for free outside of shipping charges. If the consumer liked the game, they could then pay for the full game. This model was later expanded to basically include the "demo" version of a game on the insert CD-ROM media for gaming magazines, and then later as digital downloads from various sites likeTucows.id Software is credited with successfully implementing the idea for bothWolfenstein 3DandDoom,which was later used by Apogee (now3D Realms), Epic MegaGames (nowEpic Games).[124]
Several key genres were established during this period.Wolfenstein 3DandDoomare the formative games of thefirst-person shooter(FPS); the genre itself had gone by "Doomclones "until about 2000 when FPS became the more popular term.[125]Graphic adventure games rose to prominence during this period; including the forementionedMystandThe 7th Guest,several of LucasArts adventure gamesincluding theMonkey Islandseries. However, the adventure game genre was considered dead by the end of the 1990s due to the rising popularity of the FPS and other action genres.[126]The firstimmersive sims,games that gave the player more agency and choices through flexible game systems, came along after the rise of FPS games, with games likeUltima Underworld: The Stygian AbyssandThief: The Dark Project.Thiefalso expanded the idea of stealth games and created the idea of "first person sneaker" games where combat was less a focus.[127]
Real-time strategy gamesalso grew in popularity in 1990s, with seminal gamesDune II,Warcraft: Orcs & HumansandCommand & Conquer.The first4X(short for "Explore, Expand, Exploit, Exterminate" ) strategy games also emerged during this decade, popularized bySid Meyer's Civilizationin 1991.Alone in the Darkin 1992 established many elements of thesurvival horrorgenre that were in the console gameResident Evil.[128]Simulation gamesbecame popular, including those fromMaxisstarting withSimCityin 1989, and which culminated withThe Sims,which was first released in early 2000.
Online connectivity in computer games has become increasingly important. Building on the growing popularity of the text-based MUDs of the 1980s,graphical MUDslikeHabitatused simple graphical interfaces alongside text to visualize the game experience. The firstmassively multiplayer online role-playing gamesadapted the new 3D graphics approach to create virtual worlds on screen, starting withMeridian 59in 1996 and popularized by the success ofUltima Onlinein 1997 andEverQuestandAsheron's Callin 1999. Online connective play also became important in genres like FPS and RTS, allowing players to connect to human opponents over phone and Internet connectivity. Some companies have created clients to help with connectivity, such asBlizzard Entertainment'sBattle.net.
During the 1990s, Microsoft introduced its initial versions of theMicrosoft Windowsoperating system for personal computers, a graphical user interface intended to replace MS-DOS. Game developers found it difficult to program for some of the earlier versions of Windows, as the operating system tended to block their programmatic access to input and output devices. Microsoft developedDirectXin 1995, later integrated intoMicrosoft Windows 95and future Windows products, as a set of libraries to give game programmers direct access to these functions. This also helped to provide a standard interface to normalize the wide array of graphics and sound cards available for personal computers by this time, further aiding in ongoing game development.[129]
32- and 64-bit home consoles
Sony's introduction of the first PlayStation in 1994 had hampered both Nintendo and Sega's console war, as well as made it difficult for new companies to enter the market. The PlayStation brought in not only the revolution in CD-ROM media but built-in support for polygonal 3D graphics rendering. Atari attempted to re-enter the market with the 32-bitAtari Jaguarin 1993, but it lacked the game libraries offered by Nintendo, Sega or Sony.The 3DO Companyreleased the3DO Interactive Multiplayerin 1993, but it also suffered from a higher price compared to other consoles on the market. Sega has placed a great deal of emphasis on the 32-bitSega Saturn,released in 1994, to follow the Genesis, and though initially fared well in sales with the PlayStation, soon lost ground to the PlayStation's larger range of popular games. Nintendo's next console after the SNES was theNintendo 64,a 64-bit console with polygonal 3D rendering support. However, Nintendo opted to continue to use the ROM cartridge format, which caused it to lose sales against the PlayStation, and allowing Sony to become the dominant player in the console market by 2000.[130]
Final Fantasy VII,as previously described, was an industry landmark title, and introduced the concept of role-playing games to console players. The origin ofmusic video gamesemerged with the PlayStation gamePaRappa the Rapperin 1997, coupled with the success of arcade games likebeatmaniaandDance Dance Revolution.[131]Resident EvilandSilent Hillformed the basis of the currentsurvival horrorgenre.[132]Nintendo had its own critical successes withGoldenEye 007fromRare,the first first-person shooter for a console that introduced staple features for the genre, andThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time,one of themost critically acclaimed games of all time.
2000s
This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(November 2007) |
The 2000s (decade) showed innovation on both consoles and PCs, and an increasingly competitive market for portable game systems. The impact of wider availability of the Internet led to new gameplay changes, changes in gaming hardware and the introduction of online services for consoles.
The phenomenon of user-createdvideo game modifications(commonly referred to as "mods" ) for games, one trend that began during theWolfenstein 3DandDoom-era, continued into the start of the 21st century. The most famous example is that ofCounter-Strike;released in 1999, it is still one of the most popular online first-person shooters, even though it was created as a mod forHalf-Lifeby two independent programmers. Eventually, game designers realized the potential of mods and custom content in general to enhance the value of their games, and so began to encourage its creation. Some examples of this includeUnreal Tournament,which allowed players to import 3dsmax scenes to use as character models, andMaxis'The Sims,for which players could create custom objects.
In China, video game consoles were banned in June 2000. This has led to an explosion in the popularity of computer games, especially MMOs. Consoles and the games for them are easily acquired however, as there is a robust grey market importing and distributing them across the country. Another side effect of this law has been increased copyright infringement of video games.[133][134]
The changing home console landscape
Sony's dominance of the console market at the start of the 2000s caused a major shift in the market. Sega attempted one more foray into console hardware with theDreamcastin 1998, notably the first console with a built-in Internet connection for online play. However, Sega's reputation had been tarnished from the Saturn, and with Sony having recently announced its upcomingPlayStation 2,Sega left the hardware console market after the Dreamcast, though remained in the arcade game development as well as developing games for consoles. The Dreamcast's library has some groundbreaking games, notably theShenmue serieswhich are regarded as a major step forward for 3Dopen-worldgameplay[135]and has introduced thequick time eventmechanic in its modern form.[136]
Sony released the PlayStation 2 (PS2) in 2000, the first console to support the newDVDformat and with capabilities of playing back DVD movie disks and CD audio disks, as well as playing PlayStation games in abackward compatiblemode alongside PS2 games. Nintendo followed the Nintendo 64 with theGameCubein 2001, its first console to use optical discs, though specially formatted for the system. However, a new player entered the console picture at this point,Microsoftwith its firstXboxconsole, also released in 2001. Microsoft had feared that Sony's PS2 would become a central point of electronic entertainment in the living room and squeeze out the PC in the home, and after having recently developing theDirectXset of libraries to standardize game hardware interfaces for Windows-based computers, used this same approach to create the Xbox.[137]
The PS2 remained the leading platform for the first part of the decade, and remains the best-selling home console of all time with over 155 million units sold. This was in part due to a number of critical games released on the system, includingGrand Theft Auto III,Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty,andFinal Fantasy X.[138]The Xbox was able to gain second-place to the PS2 sales, but at a significant lost to Microsoft. However, to Microsoft, the loss was acceptable, as it proved to them they could compete in the console space. The Xbox also introduced Microsoft's flagship title,Halo: Combat Evolved,which relied on the Xbox's built-in Ethernet functionality to support online gameplay.[139]
By the mid-2000s, only Sony, Nintendo, and Microsoft were considered major players in the console hardware space. All three introduced their next generation of hardware between 2005 and 2006, starting with Microsoft'sXbox 360in 2005 and Sony'sPlayStation 3(PS3) in 2006, followed by Nintendo'sWiilater that year. The Xbox 360 and PS3 showed a convergence with personal computer hardware: both consoles shipped with support for high-definition graphics, higher-density optical media likeBlu-rays,internal hard drives for storage of games, and had built-in Internet connectivity. Microsoft and Sony also had developed online digital services,Xbox LiveandPlayStation Networkthat helped players connect to friends online, matchmake for online games, and purchase new games and content from online stores. In contrast, the Wii was designed as part of a newblue ocean strategyby Nintendo after poor sales of the GameCube. Instead of trying to compete feature for feature with Microsoft and Sony, Nintendo designed the Wii to be a console for innovative gameplay rather than high performance, and created theWii Remote,amotion detection-based controller. Gameplay designed around the Wii Remote provided instant hits, such asWii Sports,Wii Sports Resort,andWii Fit,and the Wii became one of the fastest selling consoles in its few years.[140]The success of the Wii's motion controls partially led to Microsoft and Sony to develop their own motion-sensing control systems, theKinectand thePlayStation Move.
A major fad in the 2000s was the rapid rise and fall ofrhythm gameswhich use special game controllers shaped like musical instruments such as guitars and drums to match notes while playing licensed songs.Guitar Hero,based on the arcade gameGuitar Freaks,was developed byHarmonixand published byRed Octanein 2005 on the PS2, and was a modest success. Activision acquired Red Octane and gained the publishing rights to the series, while Harmonix was purchased byViacom,where they launchedRock Band,a similar series but adding in drums and vocals atop guitars. Rhythm games because a highly-popular property second only to action games, representing 18% of the video game market in 2008, and drew other publishers to the area as well.[141]While Harmonix approached the series by adding new songs as downloadable content, Activision focused on releasing new games year after year in theGuitar Heroseries; by 2009, they had six differentGuitar Hero-related games planned for the year. The saturation of the market, in addition to the fad of these instrument controllers, quickly caused the$1.4 billionmarket in 2008 to fall by 50% in 2009.[142]By 2011, Activision had stopped publishingGuitar Herogames (though returned one time in 2015 withGuitar Hero Live), while Harmonix has continued to developRock Backafter a hiatus between 2013 and 2015.
Nintendo still dominated the handheld games market during this period. TheGame Boy Advance,released in 2001, maintained Nintendo's market position with a high-resolution, full-color LCD screen and 32-bit processor allowing ports of SNES games and simpler companions to N64 and GameCube games.[143]The next two major handhelds, theNintendo DSand Sony'sPlayStation Portable(PSP) within a month of each other in 2004. While the PSP boasted superior graphics and power, following a trend established since the mid-1980s, Nintendo gambled on a lower-power design but featuring a novel control interface. The DS's two screens, with one being a touch-sensitive screen, proved extremely popular with consumers, especially young children and middle-aged gamers, who were drawn to the device by Nintendo'sNintendogsandBrain Ageseries respectively, as well as introducing localized Japanesevisual novel-type games such as theAce AttorneyandProfessor Laytonseries to the Western regions. The PSP attracted a significant portion of veteran gamers in North America and was very popular in Japan; its ad-hoc networking capabilities worked well within the urban Japanese setting, which directly contributed to spurring the popularity of Capcom'sMonster Hunterseries.[144]
MMOs, esports, and online services
As affordable broadband Internet connectivity spread, many publishers turned to online games as a way of innovating.Massively multiplayer online role-playing games(MMORPGs) featured significant PC games likeRuneScape,EverQuest,andUltima Online,withWorld of Warcraftas one of the most successful.[145]Other large-scale massively-multiplayer online games also were released, such asSecond Lifewhich focused mostly on social interactions with virtual playeravatarsand user creations, rather than any gameplay elements.[146]
Historically, console-based MMORPGs have been few due to the lack of bundled Internet connectivity options for the platforms. This made it hard to establish a large enough subscription community to justify the development costs. The first significant console MMORPGs werePhantasy Star Onlineon the SegaDreamcast(which had a built in modem and aftermarket Ethernet adapter), followed byFinal Fantasy XIfor the SonyPlayStation 2(an aftermarket Ethernet adapter was shipped to support this game).[145]Every major platform released since the Dreamcast has either been bundled with the ability to support an Internet connection or has had the option available as an aftermarket add-on. Microsoft's Xbox also had its own online service calledXbox Live.Xbox Live was a huge success and proved to be a driving force for the Xbox with games likeHalo 2that were highly popular.
The first majoresports(electronic sports) competitions also began in the 2000s. WhileStreet Fighter IIand other fighting games of the 1990s had introduced organized video game competitions earlier, professional esports emerged fromSouth Koreaaround 2000, with many of their events around current fighting games and various RTS games likeStarCraftandWarCraft III.[147][148]By 2010, numerous international esports tournaments had been established across various game genres.[149]
Browser, casual, and social games
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Internet accessibility and new online technologies flourished, such asJavaandAdobe Flash.Though Adobe Flash was initially intended to be a tool to develop fully interactive websites, Flash lost favor in this area but individual developers found ways to use the tool for animations and games, aided by the ease of the development tools for this purpose. The websiteNewgroundswas created to help people share and promote their Flash works. Though theseFlash gameslack the complexity of gameplay of games on consoles or computers, they were available for free and sparked creative ideas that would carry forward; for example,Crush the Castledirectly inspired the popular mobile gameAngry Birds,while the founder of Newgrounds, Tom Fulp, teamed with animatorDan Paladinto createAlien Hominidas a Flash game, which they later built upon into the more completeCastle Crashersunder the studioThe Behemoth.[150]
Flash and other in-browser platforms created a new trend incasual games,with limited complexity and designed for shortened or impromptu play sessions.[150]Many were puzzle games, such asPopcap'sBejeweledandPlayFirst'sDiner Dashwhile others were games with a more relaxed pace and open-ended play. Sites likeKongregateand developers like PopCap,ZyngaandKingemerged as leaders in this area.[150]Casual games also entered into more mainstream computer games with numeroussimulation games.The biggest hit wasThe SimsbyMaxis,which went on to become the best selling computer game of all time, surpassingMyst.[151]
Associal mediasites started to grow, the firstsocial network gamesemerged on social platforms. These games, often based on casual game mechanics, typically rely on users to interact with their friends via the social media site as to gain a form of "energy" to continue to play.Happy Farm,released in China in 2008, is considered the first such major social game.[152]Influenced by theJapanese console RPGseriesStory of Seasons,[153][154][155]Happy Farmattracted 23 million daily active users in China.[156][157]It soon inspired many clones such asSunshine Farm,Happy Farmer,Happy Fishpond,Happy Pig Farm,[153][158]and Facebook games such asFarmVille,Farm Town,Country Story,Barn Buddy,Sunshine Ranch,Happy Harvest,Jungle Extreme,andFarm Villain.[155][159]Happy Farmserved as direct inspiration forFarmVille,which had over 80 million active users worldwide by 2010.[152][160]
Rise of mobile gaming
Separately, gaming on mobile devices had limited success until the mid-2000s.Nokiahad installedSnakeonto its line of mobile phones since theNokia 6110in 1997.[161]Similar manufacturers of phones,personal digital assistantsand other devices also included built-in games, but these were designed to pass the time and not as engaging. As phone technology improved, aJapanese mobile phone culturegrew around 2003 with games ranging frompuzzle gamesandvirtual petgames that usecamera phoneandfingerprint scannertechnologies to3Dgames withPlayStation-quality graphics. Olderarcade-style gamesbecame very popular on mobile phones, which were an ideal platform for arcade-style games designed for shorter play sessions. Namco made attempts to introduce mobile games to Europe in 2003.[162]Nokia released itsN-Gage,a hybrid phone/handheld game system, in 2003 but had limited success compared to Nintendo'sGame Boy Advance.[163]
Around 2005, the firstsmartphoneswere available on the market, which offered data connectivity alongside phone services. Carriers licensed games to be made available for sale on a storefront, but this did not catch on due to the disparate storefronts and differences between phone models, and the games could not be as sophisticated as on consoles or handhelds due to limited hardware on the smartphones.[164]In 2007,Apple, Inc.introduced itsiPhonewhich was technologically more advanced than other smartphones on the market, and unveiled itsApp Storein 2008 through which new apps could be purchased. With the App Store, developers, once signed up as a partner, could then develop and publish their own apps through the store. This allowed developers of any size to participate in the App Store marketplace.[165]Google, which developed the competingAndroidmobile operating system, released its own version of an app store in 2008, later named asGoogle Playin 2012.[166]
The use of Apple's and Google's app storefronts for gaming applications quickly took off with early successes likeAngry BirdsandBejeweled.[167][168]When Apple introduced in-app purchases (IAP) in October 2009, a number of developers found ways to monetize their mobile games uniquely compared to traditional games, establishing thefreemiummodel where a game is usually free to download and play but players are encouraged to speed up their progress through IAPs. Games likeCandy Crush SagaandPuzzle & Dragons,both in 2012, established this approach as highly-profitable business models for mobile games.[169]Many of the social network game developers worked to either integrate a mobile version with their existing version, or completely shift their game to the mobile platform, as mobile gaming became more popular. A further rise in the popularity of mobile games was from China, where most residents do not own computers and where imported consoles were banned by the government starting in 2000, though eventually eased in 2014 and completely lifted in 2015.[170]Instead, most players in China used mobile phones or accessed subscription-based games throughPC cafes.Mobile games also proved popular and financially-successful there as well, with a ten-fold growth of China's video game market between 2007 and 2013.[171][172]
Coupled with the growth of mobile games was the introduction ofmicroconsoles,low-cost home consoles that used the Android operating system as to take advantage of the large library of games already made for mobile devices.[173]However, mobile gaming also displaced the handheld console market: both theNintendo 3DSand thePlayStation Vita(both 2011 releases) had major drops in sales from their predecessors, theNintendo DSandPlayStation Portablerespectively (both 2004 releases), following the rapid growth of mobile gaming. Sony has since exited the handheld console arena.[174]
The AAA video game industry and the emergence of indie games
Video games began seeing increasing larger budgets for development entering the 2000s;Final Fantasy VIIhad an estimated$40−45 millionbudget excluding marketing,[175]while the firstShenmuegame was estimated to cost$47–70 million.[176]Larger developers began approaching games comparable to Hollywoodfilmmaking,not only considering the aspects of development, distribution, and marketing, but incorporating budgets for both in-game cinematography, including professional actors and licensed properties, and larger promotional elements. These new approaches further extended game budgets.[177]Similar toblockbusterfilms, the video game industry began calling these high-budget games and the publishers and developers behind them "AAA" or "triple A" by the late 1990s and early 2000s.[178]
As a result of the larger budgets and better technology, new narrative-driven games emerged to incorporate larger stories as more direct components of gameplay, such as by eliminating pre-rendered cut scenes in favor of scenes carried out within the game's engine.[179]Incorporation of narrative into action games partially led to the waning of the adventure game genre by the early 2000s.[180]Examples of influential games from this period includeHalf-Life 2,Portal,Batman: Arkham Asylum,BioShock,Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty,andResident Evil 4,[179]as well as the first entries in the long-running seriesCall of DutyandAssassin's Creed.[181]
Hobbyist and homebrew game development had been in place since the first home computers in the late 1970s and 1980s, with the shift to shareware by individuals and small development teams in the 1990s, but the importance of console gaming and the rise of 3D game technology had made it initially difficult for individual developers to participate competitively in game development. The growth of AAA games with large budgets further made publishers risk-averse to support smaller games with non-standard or more experimental gameplay.[182]
Independent games, or indie games, gained a significant share of the market in the latter half of the 2000s that continued into the 2010s, and generally seen as a result of the industry looking for innovation beyond the safe, non-risky approaches that AAA development had centered on.[182]Interest in indie games grew out from the booming Flash game industry of the mid-2000s which had drawn attention to individual and small developers normally overlooked by the media.[150][183]Further, smaller developers were highlighted by the rapid growth in the mobile game industry, allowed them to complete equally on mobile app stores with larger developers.[150][184]Crowdfundingthrough sites likeKickstarterbecame a viable pathway for indie developers to gain funding in the late 2000s, explosively growing in popularity into the mid-2010s,[185]whileearly accessdistribution, where players purchase a not-yet-final version of a game to help play, test and provide feedback, was successfully demonstrated withMinecraftin 2009 and used as a model for some indie games since.[186]On personal computers,Valveopened up their digital content platformSteamto allow indie games to be listed alongside triple-A games, and several other similar digital storefronts.[182]Microsoft launched theXbox Live Arcade(XBLA) in 2004 which they used to publish games for the Xbox and later the Xbox 360 from smaller publishers and independent teams. Sony and Nintendo followed suit with similar indie game publishing programs in the early 2010s.[187][188]Several indie games gained the media spotlight in this period, includingSuper Meat Boy,Fez,andBraid.[189][190]
2010s
In the 2010s, the traditional model of racing to a five-year console life cycle was reduced.[191]Reasons included the challenge and massive expense of creating consoles that were graphically superior to the then-current generation, with Sony and Microsoft still looking to recoup development costs on their current consoles and the failure of content creation tools to keep up with the increased demands placed upon the people creating the games.
On June 14, 2010, during E3, Microsoft revealed its new Xbox 360 S or Slim. It is smaller and quieter, with a 250 GB hard drive and 802.11n WiFi.[192]It started shipping to US stores the same day, and in Europe on July 13.
TheOnLivecloud-based gaming system is one of the first cloud gaming services.[193]
High-definition graphics in video game hardware
Cathode ray tube-based display units had begun to phase out in the 2000s, replaced by inexpensiveflat-screentelevisions and monitors which had far higher screen resolution and refresh rates. Video game hardware began introducing support for the newHigh-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)standard, allowing for resolutions up to4K(3840 × 2160 pixels), which itself stressed the need for more powerful GPU cards with faster processors and larger memory. Game engines such as Unreal, Unity, and DirectX have added support for improved texture mapping to support high-resolution textures to give photorealistic graphics in games.
Microsoft and Sony both released their next console generations, theXbox OneandPlayStation 4,in 2013. Both expanded on features from their previous consoles with the added support for high-resolution graphics, and more support for digital distribution of content with additional storage space. The Xbox One had an initial flubbed launch, as Microsoft wanted to require users to be always connected to the Internet, along with persistent use of the Kinect motion sensor, which in turn would have given certain benefits to players. However, these decisions were met with negative feedback in the months prior to release over their privacy concerns, and Microsoft revamped their policies. The Kinect, though initially bundled with the Xbox One, was made optional, and a year after launch, Microsoft opted to end Kinect's production for the Xbox One.
Nintendo still kept to its own path. The company decided that the Wii may have lost a portion of its core gamers and developed theWii Uto draw this group back in. The Wii U, released in 2012, included a tablet-likeWii U GamePadthat included controls and a touchscreen display that acted as a second screen during gameplay, along with support for Wii Remote controllers, and included backward compatibility with Wii games. The Wii U was a commercial failure for Nintendo following the Wii; while the Wii had sold more than 100 million units, the Wii U only sold about 13 million in its lifetime. Nintendo attributed this to both the marketing of the Wii U which failed to make clear the purpose of the GamePad and which made consumers believe it was just another tablet system, and to the lack of third-party support on the console which dropped off quickly once initial console sale numbers were obtained.[194][195]and marketing reasons.[196]
Nintendo had already been working on its next console once the Wii U had been released, but pushed ahead as to get another console to release sooner to financially recover from the Wii U.[197]Again, staying with their past blue ocean strategy to focus on innovation rather than technical superiority of their competitors, Nintendo released theNintendo Switchin 2017, one of the first hybrid consoles, with the ability to be played as a handheld device but also can be placed into a docking station connected to a television and played like a home console. The Switch uses a detachableJoy-Conwhich function as both regular controllers and as motion-sensing devices like the Wii Remote. Alongside the Switch, Nintendo sought out third-party support for the console from both triple-A studios and indie developers. The Switch proved to be very successful, as of 2022, it is Nintendo's best-selling home console, succeeding the Wii, and helped Nintendo regain position in the hardware market.
The handheld market began to wane in the 2010s as mobile gaming supplanted it. Nintendo continued to refine the DS line; it released theNintendo 3DSin 2011, which included a screen with anautostereoscopicdisplay as to create a 3D effect without the need for special glasses. Sony released thePlayStation Vitain 2012 as a successor to the PSP, which included a front touch screen and a back-facing touchpad in addition to existing control.[198]The Vita failed to gain significant market share, and after Sony discontinued the product, have stated they have no plans for further handheld systems. Nintendo, on the other hand, released a modified version of the Switch, theNintendo Switch Lite,in 2019. The Switch Lite is a lower-cost version that directly integrates the Joy-Con into the unit and removes other features, as to create a device that supports handheld gameplay directly, but is otherwise fully compatible with the existing Switch library.
In personal computers, the graphics card market centered on progress made by industry leaders NVidia andAMD,who also supplied GPUs for the new consoles. Starting in the late 2010s, the power of these GPU cards were being used bycryptocurrency"miners", as they were lower cost than other computing hardware for the same purposes, and created a run on GPU cards that inflated prices and card shortages over extended periods.[199]Solid-state drives(SSDs), which had been used forflash cardstorage for video game consoles in the past, had advanced far enough to become consumer options for large volume storage. Compared to the traditionalhard disk drive(HDD) which used electromechanical parts, SSD drives have no mechanical componentry and are capable of much higher data throughput, which made them popular options for computers designed for video games.
Further advancements in online gaming: Cross-platform play and cloud gaming
Until the 2010s, online play for most platforms was limited to players on that same platform, though some games such asFinal Fantasy XIhad experimented with limited models. As new gaming consoles converged in design to personal computers and with common middleware libraries, it became technically feasible to allow for cross-platform play between different platforms, but business objectives by Microsoft, Nintendo, and Sony, looking to maintain control on their online services, initially rejected this, most notably by Sony who had stated they wanted to maintain a family-friendly environment for its online services.[200][201]Epic Games'Fortnite Battle Royalefirst released in 2017, proved an instrumental driver of cross-platform play.Fortnitehad quickly gained popularity in its first few months of release, and Epic had been able to prove the ease with which cross-platform play could be implemented between the Xbox, Windows, and mobile platforms with its backend libraries. Nintendo followed by allowing cross-play on the Switch, and eventually, by 2018, Sony agreed to allow selected games such asFortniteto have cross-platform play.[202]Since then, numerous games have gained or were released with cross-platform play support across consoles, computers, and mobile devices.[203]
The firstcloud gamingservices emerged in 2009. These services allowed players to play games where the processing power was performed on a computer system at a hosted location, while the game's output and player's input were sent to that system over the Internet, using the power ofcloud computing.This eliminated the need for a costly console or dedicated gaming computer for players. Early services likeOnLiveandGaikaishowed that cloud gaming was possible but was very much tied to the player'slatency,as a slow network could easily stall the game's performance.[204][205]
Cloud gaming became more refined in the 2010s as total network capacity around the world increased with higher bandwidths made available to consumers, in addition to new technologies to try to overcome the latency issue. Sony acquired both OnLive and Gaikai in the mid-2010s, and used the former as the basis for itsPlayStation Nowcloud gaming service, allowing players to play older PlayStation games on newer consoles. Other players in the cloud gaming arena that emerged in this period include NVidia'sGeForce Now,Microsoft'sxCloud,Google'sStadia,andAmazon Luna.[206]
New revenue models for video games
With game development budgets for triple-A games growing larger, developers and publishers looked for ways to gain additional revenue for games beyond the first sale of the game. Multiple factors from the prior decade including the growth of the mobile game market and the introduction of in-app purchases, subscription-based games such as MMOs, and the digital distribution market, led to new avenues for recurring revenue by treatinggames as a service(GaaS).[207]
Larger expansions and downloadable content had existed prior to the mid-2000s, and players had become accustomed to the subscription-based model for MMOs by that point. Microsoft enabled developers to offermicrotransactions,content sold at a small price point typically under$5,for their games on the Xbox 360 around 2005, with one of the most well-known examples being a horse armor package forThe Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivionin 2006. While mostly a cosmetic item in the game, the armor pack was one of the most popular items sold in forOblivionby 2009, and cemented the idea of microtransactions.[208][209][210]
Games that followedOblivionfound ways to include additional microtransaction content to games to extend per-game earnings.[210]Publishers that produced games with online content created special online passes, such as Electronic Arts' "Project Ten Dollar", which required purchase to gain access to online features; this was also intended to stall secondary sales of games. This approach was heavily criticized by consumers and players, and abandoned by 2013. Instead publishers offered theseason passmodel, first appearing in games likeL.A. NoireandMortal Kombat.Without a season pass, players would still have access to all fundamental features of a game including online play, but the season pass gave access to all planned expanded content for single player modes and new characters or items and cosmetics for online modes, all planned to be released typically within a year's period, typically at a discount compared to purchasing each individually. A game could thus offer repeating season passes year after year and generate revenue this way.[210]A related concept to the season pass is thebattle pass,first introduced inDota 2.Within a battle pass are a number of in-game items that a player can earn at various levels of the battle pass, but requires them to complete in-game challenges as to earn the levels within the pass. Some battle passes include a free tier of items but most incorporate a tier that requires purchase of the pass. Battle passes can be cycled like season passes, offering a fresh set of items with new challenges on a regular basis, and supply recurring revenue for a game.[210]
From mobile and free-to-play games,gachagameshad grown popular in Japan by the early 2010s, based on thecapsule toy vending machineconcept, with the earliest known system being inMapleStory.In-game, players would earn currency that they could use to earn a random draw from a set of items based on a preset rarities, often with the goal to collect all of a one set of items to gain a powerful in-game reward. While players could earn more currency through in-game actions, typically bygrinding,they could also can currency by spending real-world funds into the game. Thegachaconcept expanded out intoloot boxesthrough the Chinese gameZT Online,and in Western games likeFIFA 09andTeam Fortress 2in the early 2010s; players would earn loot boxes through in-game actions, or which could be purchased through real-world funds, and when opened would contain a variety of items, randomly selected based on rarity. By 2016, numerous high-profile games had included loot box mechanics, but this drew attention of world governments and policy makers, fearing that loot boxes were too similar to gambling, since real-world money could be used to purchase them. Since many of these video games were being aimed at minors, some countries had passed laws banning or restricting games with loot box mechanics due to their gambling nature. Coupled with poor implementation of loot box mechanics inStar Wars Battlefront IIand Electronic Arts'sFIFAUltimate Team game mode, loot box mechanics began to lose favor with consumers by the end of the 2010s.[210]
China's impact in monetization played a key role during this period, which exceeded over 500 million players by the mid-2010s. While the console ban had been lifted, China's government still required that imported hardware be sold through Chinese companies, and requires Chinese operators to manage online games as to uphold the country's laws on censorship and gameplay limitations for minors. Chinese companies that were already publishing games within the country began to make partnerships or other arrangements with foreign firms to help bring their games and hardware into the company through the complex approvals process. Such companies includeNetEaseandPerfect World,but the largest mover had beenTencent,which made numerous investments into foreign firms over the 2010s, which included full acquisition ofRiot Gamesand partial ownership ofSupercellandEpic Games,as well as minority stake in publishersUbisoft,Activision BlizzardandParadox Interactive.In exchange, Tencent had helped these companies refine their monetization approaches using their past experience with their own games.[211]
Mixed, virtual and augmented reality games
Virtual reality(VR) systems for video games had long been seen as a target for VR technology and had been in development as early as the 1990s, but had been hampered by their high cost and impractical for consumer sales. One of the initial attempts, Nintendo'sVirtual Boyin 1996, used a monochromaticstereoscopic displayto simulate 3D, but the unit was impractical and failed to gain developers, leading it to be a commercial failure for Nintendo. Breakthroughs in consumer-ready VR hardware came in the early 2010s with the development of theOculus RiftbyPalmer Luckey.The Rift was demonstrated at trade shows in 2013, and proved popular enough to leadFacebookto purchase the company and technology for$2 billionin 2014. Shortly afterward, Valve andHTCannounced theHTC Vive,first released in 2015, while Sony released itsPlayStation VRin 2016. Valve later developed its own VR hardware line, theValve Index,released in 2019. While numerous VR games took advantage of VR effectively over "flat-screen" games (those lacking VR capabilities) for immersive experience, VR's "killer app" came by way ofHalf-Life: Alyx,released by Valve in 2020.Half-Life: Alyxbrought several new ideas for integrating first-person shooter gaming into a VR app, and spurred sales of the Index.[212]
Augmented reality(AR) games, where the game takes a real-time video game image and renders additional graphics atop it, had also existed before the 2010s. Some PlayStation console games used theEyeToy,PlayStation Eye,orPlayStation Cameraas part of the gameplay, as well asXbox 360andXbox Onegames using the Kinect. Most of the games were more experimental since cameras were fixed and limited what interactions could be made. As handheld consoles including the PSP and the Nintendo DS line, and mobile phones incorporated video camera capabilities, new AR possibilities opened up on portable devices. Initial games were still more experimental and toys without comprehensive gameplay loops. AR-based games took off with the release ofPokémon Goin 2016, which combined AR withlocation-based games.Players would use their mobile device to guide them to where a virtual Pokémon may be found, which they searched for and attempted to capture using AR atop their device's camera.[213]
2020s
Ray-tracing and photorealistic graphics
NVidia and AMD introduced graphics cards in 2020 with hardware support for real-timeray tracing,which was also a major component introduced with Microsoft and Sony's next consoles, theXbox Series X/SandPlayStation 5,both released in November 2020. Significant improvements in technology also furthered the ability to display highly detailed textures, allowing forphotorealismin rendered video game scenes at high resolutions and high frame rates. These changes necessitated larger storage space for texture memory on the hardware and greater bandwidth between the storage memory and graphic processor. Both new consoles included specialized SSD options designed to provide high-bandwidth storage options, which had the added benefit of virtually eliminating loading times in many games particular those featuringin-game streamingfor open world games.
The metaverse, blockchain and NFT games, and video game acquisitions
Moving into the 2020s, the concept of themetaversegrew in popularity. Similar in nature to the social spaces ofSecond Life,the concept of a metaverse is based on using more advanced technology like virtual and augmented reality to create immersive worlds that not only can be used for social and entertainment functions but as well as for personal and business purposes, giving the user the ability to earn from participation in the metaverse.[214]Robloxis a more recent example of an open world game that allows players to build their own creations within game with the potential to earn money from these creations.[215]
The metaverse in the early 2020s was not yet well defined, but those developing the nascent technologies recognized that a financial system would be tied to these systems. Avoiding the pitfalls of prior game currency systems, the development ofcryptocurrency-based games and systems that used decentralizedblockchaintechnologies started to grow in popularity. Theseblockchain gameswere frequently based on the trading ofnon-fungible tokensthat players created and improved through the game, mimicking how metaverse content would function.[216]Some video game companies have expressed strong support for using blockchain and NFTs in their games, such asUbisoft,but there has been generally negative feedback from players and game developers that consider cryptocurrency and NFT a scam.[217]
Regardless of these developments, interest in the metaverse had led to a large number of major acquisitions in the video game industry at the start of the 2020s as large publishers gathered more studios and other publishers within their folds as to be able to offer their properties within the parent's version of the metaverse, diversify their offerings, and preparate for futures where gaming platforms shift away from traditional systems.[218]Tencent Holdingshas gained stake in numerous video game developers since the 2010s, including full ownership ofRiot Gamesand minority ownership ofEpic Games.[219]Epic Games themselves have also used Tencent's investment and further funding to acquire numerous additional video game developers and middleware developers in the 2020s as part its goal to build out its version of the metaverse using itsUnreal Engine.[220]Embracer Groupalso launched a large series of acquisitions leading into the 2020s as to broaden its portfolio, includingGearbox Software.[221]Other major acquisitions in the 2020s in support of the metaverse includesTake-Two Interactive's purchase of mobile game publisherZynga,[222]Sony Interactive Entertainmentpurchase of developerBungiefor supporting live-service games,[223]and Microsoft's purchases ofZeniMax Media(includingBethesda Softworks) andActivision-Blizzard.[224][225]Game prices were increasing from the generally pricing of $60 betweenc. 2005and 2020, with $60 titles going back to the 1990s according toBloomberg.[226]
TheCOVID pandemicin 2021 and 2022 also fueled global video game industry growth, as many around the globe, staying at home due to lockdowns, turned to video games as a means to pass the time and connect remotely with others. However, this rapid growth fell back on the industry around 2023 and into 2024 withnumerous layoffs,as several major publishers had to cull employees and studios with the world returning to normal following the pandemic. One major event was a failed $2 billion deal that theEmbracer Grouphad been planning on before it fell through in June 2023; Embracer was forced to close several of its studios, divest others, and made planned to break into three separate publishing labels by 2025.[227][228]
See also
References
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Further reading
- Purcaru, Bogdan Ion (2014).Games vs. Hardware. A history of PC gaming: The 80'sKindle Edition.ASINB00I4KRI4E.
- All Your Base Are Belong to Us: How 50 Years of Videogames Conquered Pop Culture. New York: Three Rivers, 2011. Print.
- Halter, Ed (2006).From Sun Tzu to Xbox: War and Video Games.Thunder's Mouth Press.ISBN1-56025-681-8.
- Taylor, T.L.(2006).Play Between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture.MIT Press.ISBN0-262-20163-1.
- Chaplin, Heather; Ruby, Aaron (2006).SMARTBOMB: The Quest for Art, Entertainment, and Big Bucks in the Videogame Revolution.Algonquin Books.ISBN1-56512-545-2.
- Baer, Ralph H.(2005).Videogames: In The Beginning.Rolenta Press.ISBN0-9643848-1-7.
- Kushner, David(2004).Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture.Random House, Inc.ISBN0-8129-7215-5.
- Wolf, Mark J.P.; Perron, Bernard, eds. (2003).The Video Game Theory Reader.Routledge.ISBN0-415-96579-9.
- Takahashi, Dean (2002).Opening the Xbox: Inside Microsoft's Plan to Unleash an Entertainment Revolution.Prima.ISBN0-7615-3708-2.
- Kent, Steven L.(2001).The Ultimate History of Video Games.San Val Inc.ISBN0-613-91884-3.
- Kent, Steven L.(2000).The First Quarter: A 25-year history of video games.BWD Press.ISBN0-9704755-0-0.
- J.C., Herz (1997).Joystick Nation.Little, Brown, and Co.ISBN0-316-36007-4.
- Sheff, David.Game Over: The Maturing of Mario.
- Herman, Leonard (2001).Phoenix: The Fall & Rise of Videogames(3 ed.). Rolenta Press.ISBN0-9643848-5-X.RetrievedSeptember 24,2009.
- Kohler, Chris (2005).Power-Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life.Brady Games.ISBN0-7440-0424-1.
- Forster, Winnie (2005).The Encyclopedia of Game Machines – Consoles, handheld & home computers 1972–2005.Gameplan.ISBN3-00-015359-4.Archived fromthe originalon May 26, 2005.RetrievedSeptember 24,2009.
- Day, Walter.The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades(1998) – A 200-page story contained withinTwin Galaxies' Official Video Game & Pinball Book of World Records.ISBN1-887472-25-8
- Video Game Invasion: The History of a Global Obsession(2004) (Documentary.Press Release,IMDb)
External links
- Brief history of Video Gaming,University of Nevada
- Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art, chap. VII.1 Computer- and Video Games
- The Video Game Revolution(2004) is a documentary fromPBSthat examines the evolution and history of the video game industry, from the 1950s through today, the impact of video games on society and culture, and the future of electronic gaming.