Wikipedia

Volcano

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"Volcanic" redirects here. For other uses, seeVolcano (disambiguation)andVolcanic (disambiguation).

Avolcanois a rupture in thecrustof aplanetary-mass object,such asEarth,that allows hotlava,volcanic ash,andgasesto escape from amagma chamberbelow the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is calledvolcanism.

Augustine Volcano(Alaska) during its eruptive phase on January 24, 2006

On Earth, volcanoes are most often found wheretectonic platesaredivergingorconverging,and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, amid-ocean ridge,such as theMid-Atlantic Ridge,has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the PacificRing of Firehas volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in theEast African Rift,theWells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field,and theRio Grande riftin North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwellingdiapirsfrom thecore–mantle boundary,3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results inhotspot volcanism,of which theHawaiian hotspotis an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets ofsulfuric acidobscure the Sun and cool Earth'stroposphere.Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed byvolcanic winterswhich have caused catastrophic famines.[1]

Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus.[2]Mars has significant volcanoes.[3]In 2009, a paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such ascryovolcanism.It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from whichmagma,as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.'[4]

This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See§ Volcanoes on other celestial bodiesandcryovolcanofor more information.

Etymology

The wordvolcanois derived from the name ofVulcano,a volcanic island in theAeolian Islandsof Italy whose name in turn comes fromVulcan,the god of fire inRoman mythology.[5]The study of volcanoes is calledvolcanology,sometimes spelledvulcanology.[6]

Plate tectonics

Main article:Plate tectonics
Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading ridges) and recent sub-aerial volcanoes (mostly at convergent boundaries)

According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth'slithosphere,its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due toconvectionin the underlying ductilemantle,and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created).[7]

During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in the theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes arepolygeneticwith more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once aremonogenetic(meaning "one life" ) and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region.[8]

Divergent plate boundaries

Main article:Divergent boundary

At themid-ocean ridges,twotectonic platesdiverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath the thinnedoceanic crust.The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads toadiabaticexpansion and thepartial meltingof the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Mostdivergent plate boundariesare at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming newseafloor.Black smokers(also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such asIceland.[9]

Convergent plate boundaries

Main article:Convergent boundary

Subductionzones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process calledflux melting,water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creatingmagma.This magma tends to be extremelyviscousbecause of its highsilicacontent, so it often does not reach the surface butcools and solidifies at depth.When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes calledvolcanic arcs.Typical examples are the volcanoes in the PacificRing of Fire,such as theCascade Volcanoesor theJapanese Archipelago,or the eastern islands ofIndonesia.[10]

Hotspots

Main article:Hotspot (geology)

Hotspotsare volcanic areas thought to be formed bymantle plumes,which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off the plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. TheHawaiian Islandsare thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has theSnake River Plain,with theYellowstone Calderabeing part of the North American plate currently above theYellowstone hotspot.[11]However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned.[12]

Continental rifting

Main article:Rift

Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized byflood basaltsand may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split.[13][14]A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in anaulacogen), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusualalkali lavaorcarbonatites.Examples include the volcanoes of theEast African Rift.[15]

Volcanic features

Further information:Types of volcanoes
Video of lava agitating and bubbling in the volcanic eruption of Litli-Hrútur (Fagradalsfjall), Iceland, 2023

A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava.[16]The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as avolcanic edifice,typically a volcanic cone or mountain.[16]

The most common perception of a volcano is of aconicalmountain, spewinglavaand poisonousgasesfrom acraterat its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behaviour of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed bylava domesrather than a summit crater while others havelandscapefeatures such as massiveplateaus.Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava andash) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on thelandformand may give rise to smaller cones such asPuʻu ʻŌʻōon a flank ofKīlaueain Hawaii.Volcanic cratersare not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as withLake Taupōin New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognize as such and be obscured by geological processes.

Other types of volcano includecryovolcanoes(or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons ofJupiter,Saturn,andNeptune;andmud volcanoes,which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those ofigneousvolcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

Fissure vents

Main article:Fissure vent
Lakagigarfissure vent inIceland,the source of themajor world climate alteration of 1783–84,has a chain of volcanic cones along its length.

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through whichlavaemerges.

Shield volcanoes

Main article:Shield volcano
Skjaldbreiður,a shield volcano whose name means "broad shield"

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentleeffusive eruptions.Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common inIceland,as well.

Lava domes

Main article:Lava dome

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case ofMount St. Helens,but can also form independently, as in the case ofLassen Peak.Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent.

Cryptodomes

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The1980 eruption of Mount St. Helenswas an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down the north side of the mountain.

Cinder cones

Main articles:volcanic coneandCinder cone
Izalco volcano,the youngest volcano in El Salvador. Izalco erupted almost continuously from 1770 (when it formed) to 1958, earning it the nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific".

Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces ofscoriaandpyroclastics(both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 metres (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found inmonogenetic volcanic fieldsthat may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such asmaarexplosion craters andtuff rings.[17]Cinder cones may form asflank ventson larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.Parícutinin Mexico andSunset CraterinArizonaare examples of cinder cones. InNew Mexico,Caja del Riois avolcanic fieldof over 60 cinder cones.

Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon.[18][19][20][21]

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

Cross-section through astratovolcano(vertical scale is exaggerated):
  1. Large magma chamber
  2. Bedrock
  3. Conduit (pipe)
  4. Base
  5. Sill
  6. Dike
  7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano
  8. Flank
  9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano
  10. Throat
  11. Parasitic cone
  12. Lava flow
  13. Vent
  14. Crater
  15. Ash cloud
Main article:Stratovolcano

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows andtephrain alternate layers, thestratathat gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples includeMount Fujiin Japan,Mayon Volcanoin the Philippines, andMount VesuviusandStromboliin Italy.

Ashproduced by theexplosive eruptionof stratovolcanoes hashistoricallyposed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promotingexplosive eruptionsthat produce great quantities of ash, as well aspyroclastic surgeslike the one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loosetephraare material for dangerouslahars.[22]Large pieces of tephra are calledvolcanic bombs.Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 metres (4 ft) across and weigh several tons.[23]

Supervolcanoes

Main article:Supervolcano
See also:List of largest volcanic eruptions

A supervolcano is defined as a volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event.[24]Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a catastrophiccaldera-forming eruption. Ash flowtuffsemplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivalling those offlood basalts.[25]

Supervolcano eruptions, while the most dangerous type, are very rare;four are known from the last million years,and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes ofsulfurand ash released into the atmosphere.

Because of the enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without carefulgeologic mapping.[26]Known examples includeYellowstone CalderainYellowstone National ParkandValles CalderainNew Mexico(both western United States);Lake Taupōin New Zealand;Lake TobainSumatra,Indonesia; andNgorongoro Craterin Tanzania.

Caldera volcanoes

Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in the same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes".[27]

Submarine volcanoes

Main article:Submarine volcano
See also:Subaqueous volcano
Satellite images of the January 15, 2022, eruption ofHunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai

Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during theHoloceneEpoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor.[28][29]In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the ocean's surface. In the deep ocean basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected byhydrophonesand by the discoloration of water because ofvolcanic gases.Pillow lavais a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor.Hydrothermal ventsare common near these volcanoes, andsome support peculiar ecosystemsbased onchemotrophsfeeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or floatingpumice rafts.

In May and June 2018, a multitude ofseismicsignals were detected byearthquakemonitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. Anoceanographicresearch campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by the formation of a submarine volcano off the coast ofMayotte.[30]

Subglacial volcanoes

Main article:Subglacial volcano

Subglacial volcanoes develop underneathice caps.They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas andpalagonite.These volcanoes are also called table mountains,tuyas,[31]or (in Iceland) mobergs.[32]Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and inBritish Columbia.The origin of the term comes fromTuya Butte,which is one of the several tuyas in the area of theTuya RiverandTuya Rangein northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first suchlandformanalysed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation.[33]TheTuya Mountains Provincial Parkwas recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north ofTuya Lakeand south of theJennings Rivernear the boundary with theYukon Territory.

Mud volcanoes

Main article:Mud volcano

Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity.[34]The largest structures are 10 kilometres in diameter and reach 700 meters high.[35]

Erupted material

Timelapse ofSan Miguel (volcano)degassing in 2022.El Salvadoris home to 20 Holocene volcanoes, 3 of which have erupted in last 100yrs[36]
Pāhoehoe lava flow onHawaii.The picture shows overflows of a mainlava channel.
Litli-Hrútur (Fagradalsfjall) eruption 2023. View from an aeroplane
TheStrombolistratovolcano off the coast ofSicilyhas erupted continuously for thousands of years, giving rise to its nickname "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".

The material that is expelled in avolcanic eruptioncan be classified into three types:

  1. Volcanic gases,a mixture made mostly ofsteam,carbon dioxide,and a sulfur compound (eithersulfur dioxide,SO2,orhydrogen sulfide,H2S, depending on the temperature)
  2. Lava,the name of magma when it emerges and flows over the surface
  3. Tephra,particles of solid material of all shapes and sizes ejected and thrown through the air[37][38]

Volcanic gases

Main article:Volcanic gas

The concentrations of differentvolcanic gasescan vary considerably from one volcano to the next.Water vapouris typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed bycarbon dioxide[39]andsulfur dioxide.Other principal volcanic gases includehydrogen sulfide,hydrogen chloride,andhydrogen fluoride.A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for examplehydrogen,carbon monoxide,halocarbons,organic compounds, andvolatilemetal chlorides.

Lava flows

Main article:Lava flow
Mount Rinjanieruption in 1994, inLombok,Indonesia

The form and style of an eruption of a volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma. Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases.

Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions:[40]

  • If the eruptedmagmacontains a high percentage (>63%) ofsilica,the lava is described asfelsic.Felsic lavas (dacitesorrhyolites) are highlyviscousand are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows.[41]Lassen Peakin California is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.[42]
Because felsic magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which leads to explosive volcanism.Pyroclastic flows(ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of such volcanoes since they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as high as 850 °C (1,560 °F)[43]are known to occur in pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in their path, and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid down, often many meters thick.[44]Alaska'sValley of Ten Thousand Smokes,formed by the eruption ofNovaruptanearKatmaiin 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit.[45]Volcanic ash that is light enough to erupt high into theEarth's atmosphereas aneruption columnmay travel hundreds of kilometres before it falls back to ground as a fallouttuff.Volcanic gases may remain in thestratospherefor years.[46]
Felsic magmas are formed within the crust, usually through the melting of crust rock from the heat of underlying mafic magmas. The lighter felsic magma floats on the mafic magma without significant mi xing.[47]Less commonly, felsic magmas are produced by extremefractional crystallizationof more mafic magmas.[48]This is a process in which mafic minerals crystallize out of the slowly cooling magma, which enriches the remaining liquid in silica.
  • If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is ofintermediate compositionorandesitic.Intermediate magmas are characteristic of stratovolcanoes.[49]They are most commonly formed atconvergent boundariesbetweentectonic plates,by several processes. One process is the hydration melting of mantle peridotite followed by fractional crystallization. Water from a subductingslabrises into the overlying mantle, lowering its melting point, particularly for the more silica-rich minerals. Fractional crystallization further enriches the magma in silica. It has also been suggested that intermediate magmas are produced by the melting of sediments carried downwards by the subducted slab.[50]Another process is magma mi xing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir before emplacement or lava flow.[51]
  • If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is calledmafic(because it contains higher percentages ofmagnesium(Mg) and iron (Fe)) orbasaltic.These lavas are usually hotter and much less viscous than felsic lavas. Mafic magmas are formed by partial melting of the dry mantle, with limited fractional crystallization and assimilation of crustal material.[52]
Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings. These includemid-ocean ridges;Shield volcanoes(such theHawaiian Islands,includingMauna LoaandKilauea), on bothoceanicandcontinental crust;and as continentalflood basalts.
  • Some erupted magmas contain ≤45% silica and produceultramaficlava. Ultramafic flows, also known askomatiites,are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at Earth's surface since theProterozoic,when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and were probably more fluid than common mafic lavas, with a viscosity less than a tenth that of hot basalt magma.[53]

Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced[ˈʔaʔa]) andpāhoehoe([paːˈho.eˈho.e]), bothHawaiianwords. ʻAʻa is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse.[54]

More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where the flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks.Rhyoliticflows typically consist largely ofobsidian.[55]

Tephra

Main article:Tephra
Light-microscope image oftuffas seen inthin section(long dimension is several mm): the curved shapes of altered glass shards (ash fragments) are well preserved, although the glass is partly altered. The shapes were formed around bubbles of expanding, water-rich gas.

Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreaseswhen it flows to the surface.These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from the volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter (sand-sizedor smaller) are called volcanic ash.[37][38]

Tephra and othervolcaniclastics(shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism.[56]

Dissection

Through natural processes, mainlyerosion,so much of the solidified erupted material that makes up the mantle of a volcano may be stripped away that its inner anatomy becomes apparent. Using the metaphor ofbiological anatomy,such a process is called "dissection".[57]Cinder Hill,a feature ofMount BirdonRoss Island,Antarctica,is a prominent example of a dissected volcano. Volcanoes that were, on a geological timescale, recently active, such as for exampleMount Kaimonin southernKyūshū,Japan,tend to be undissected.

Types of volcanic eruptions

Main article:Types of volcanic eruptions
Schematic of volcano injection of aerosols and gases

Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions.[58]The intensity of explosive volcanism is expressed using thevolcanic explosivity index(VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions.[59]

  • Magmatic eruptions are driven primarily by gas release due to decompression.[58]Low-viscosity magma with little dissolved gas produces relatively gentle effusive eruptions. High-viscosity magma with a high content of dissolved gas produces violentexplosive eruptions.The range of observed eruption styles is expressed from historical examples.
  • Hawaiian eruptions are typical of volcanoes that erupt mafic lava with a relatively low gas content. These are almost entirely effusive, producing locallava fountainsand highly fluid lava flows but relatively little tephra. They are named after theHawaiian volcanoes.
  • Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderate viscosities and dissolved gas levels. They are characterized by frequent but short-lived eruptions that can produce eruptive columns hundreds of meters high, which can also be seen ina gas slug.Their primary product isscoria.They are named afterStromboli.
  • Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by yet higher viscosities and partial crystallization of magma, which is often intermediate in composition. Eruptions take the form of short-lived explosions for several hours, which destroy a central dome and eject large lava blocks and bombs. This is followed by an effusive phase that rebuilds the central dome. Vulcanian eruptions are named afterVulcano.
  • Peléan eruptions are more violent still, being characterized by dome growth and collapse that produces various kinds of pyroclastic flows. They are named afterMount Pelée.
  • Plinian eruptions are the most violent of all volcanic eruptions. They are characterized by sustained huge eruption columns whose collapse produces catastrophic pyroclastic flows. They are named afterPliny the Younger,who chronicled the Plinianeruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79AD.
  • Phreatomagmatic eruptionsare characterized by interaction of rising magma withgroundwater.They are driven by the resulting rapid buildup of pressure in thesuperheatedgroundwater.
  • Phreatic eruptionsare characterized by superheating of groundwater that comes in contact with hot rock or magma. They are distinguished from phreatomagmatic eruptions because the erupted material is allcountry rock;no magma is erupted.

Volcanic activity

FrescowithMount VesuviusbehindBacchusandAgathodaemon,as seen inPompeii'sHouse of the Centenary

As of December 2022,theSmithsonian Institution'sGlobal Volcanism Programdatabase of volcanic eruptions in theHoloceneEpoch(the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for the same time interval.[60][61]

Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having aneruption recurrenceranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years.[62]Volcanoes are informally described aserupting,active,dormant,orextinct,but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform among volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon a graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories.[63]

Erupting

The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater.

Active

Main article:Active volcano

While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano, the USGS defines a volcano asactivewhenever subterranean indicators, such asearthquake swarms,ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present.[64][65]

Dormant and reactivated

Narcondam Island,India, is classified as a dormant volcano by theGeological Survey of India.

The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again.[65]Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in the future.[66][67]

In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska'sMount Edgecumbevolcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at theAlaska Volcano Observatorypointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "[t]he term" dormant volcano "is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in the glossaries or index",[68]however the USGS still widely employs the term.

Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalization is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of theChaitén volcanoin 2008.[69]Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in the modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style, depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale.[70]: 95 For example, theYellowstonevolcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, andTobaof around 380,000 years.[71]Vesuviuswas described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpectederuption of 79 CE,which destroyed the towns ofHerculaneumandPompeii.

Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness.[70]: 96 Pinatubowas an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were the long-dormantSoufrière Hillsvolcano on the island ofMontserrat,thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capitalPlymouthinto aghost town) andFourpeaked Mountainin Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE.

Extinct

Capulin Volcano National Monumentin New Mexico, US

Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on theHawaiian–Emperor seamount chainin the Pacific Ocean (although some volcanoes at the eastern end of the chain are active),HohentwielinGermany,ShiprockinNew Mexico,US,Capulinin New Mexico, US,Zuidwal volcanoin theNetherlands,and many volcanoes inItalysuch asMonte Vulture.Edinburgh Castlein Scotland is located atop an extinct volcano, which formsCastle Rock.Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano"calderascan have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years may be considered dormant instead of extinct. An individual volcano in a monogenetic volcanic field can be extinct but that does not mean a completely new volcano might not erupt close by with little or no warning as its field may have an active magma supply.

Volcanic-alert level

The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.[72]Some alert systems use different numbers or colours to designate the different stages. Other systems use colours and words. Some systems use a combination of both.

Decade volcanoes

Koryakskyvolcano towering overPetropavlovsk-KamchatskyonKamchatka Peninsula,Far EasternRussia
Main articles:Lists of volcanoesandDecade Volcanoes

The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by theInternational Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior(IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations-sponsoredInternational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction(the 1990s). The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are:

TheDeep Earth Carbon Degassing Project,an initiative of theDeep Carbon Observatory,monitors nine volcanoes, two of which are Decade volcanoes. The focus of the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project is to useMulti-Component Gas Analyzer Systeminstruments to measure CO2/SO2ratios in real-time and in high-resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improvingprediction of volcanic activity.[73]

Volcanoes and humans

Solar radiation graph 1958–2008, showing how the radiation is reduced after major volcanic eruptions
Sulfur dioxideconcentration over theSierra Negra Volcano,Galapagos Islands,during an eruption in October 2005

Volcanic eruptions pose a significant threat to human civilization. However, volcanic activity has also provided humans with important resources.

Hazards

Main article:Volcanic hazard

There are many differenttypes of volcanic eruptionsand associated activity:phreatic eruptions(steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruptions of high-silicalava (e.g.,rhyolite), effusive eruptions of low-silica lava (e.g.,basalt),sector collapses,pyroclastic flows,lahars(debris flows) andvolcanic gas emissions.These can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes,hot springs,fumaroles,mud potsandgeysersoften accompany volcanic activity.

Volcanic gases can reach the stratosphere, where they formsulfuric acidaerosols that can reflect solar radiation and lower surface temperatures significantly.[74]Sulfur dioxide from the eruption ofHuaynaputinamay have caused theRussian famine of 1601–1603.[75]Chemical reactions of sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere can also damage theozone layer,and acids such ashydrogen chloride(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) can fall to the ground asacid rain.Excessive fluoride salts from eruptions have poisonedlivestockin Iceland on multiple occasions.[76]: 39–58 Explosive volcanic eruptionsrelease the greenhouse gascarbon dioxideand thus provide a deep source ofcarbonforbiogeochemical cycles.[77]

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especiallyjet aircraftwhere the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to theturbineblades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. This can cause major disruptions to air travel.

Comparison of major United States prehistoric eruptions (VEI 7 and 8) with major historical volcanic eruptions in the 19th and 20th century (VEI 5, 6 and 7). From left to right: Yellowstone 2.1 Ma, Yellowstone 1.3 Ma, Long Valley 6.26 Ma, Yellowstone 0.64 Ma. 19th century eruptions: Tambora 1815, Krakatoa 1883. 20th century eruptions: Novarupta 1912, St. Helens 1980, Pinatubo 1991.

Avolcanic winteris thought to have taken place around 70,000 years ago after thesupereruptionofLake Tobaon Sumatra island in Indonesia.[78]This may have created apopulation bottleneckthat affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[79]Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to major extinction events, such as theEnd-Ordovician,Permian-Triassic,andLate Devonianmass extinctions.[80]

The 1815 eruption ofMount Tamboracreated global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a Summer"because of the effect on North American and European weather.[81]The freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespreadfaminein northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic eruption.[82]

Benefits

See also:Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore depositandGeothermal power

Although volcanic eruptions pose considerable hazards to humans, past volcanic activity has created important economic resources. Tuff formed from volcanic ash is a relatively soft rock, and it has been used for construction since ancient times.[83][84]The Romans often used tuff, which is abundant in Italy, for construction.[85]TheRapa Nuipeople used tuff to make most of themoaistatues inEaster Island.[86]

Volcanic ash and weathered basalt produce some of the most fertile soil in the world, rich in nutrients such as iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus.[87]Volcanic activity is responsible for emplacing valuable mineral resources, such as metal ores.[87]It is accompanied by high rates of heat flow from Earth's interior. These can be tapped asgeothermal power.[87]

Tourism associated with volcanoes is also a worldwide industry.[88]

Safety considerations

Many volcanoes near human settlements are heavily monitored with the aim of providing adequate advance warnings of imminent eruptions to nearby populations. Also, a better modern-day understanding of volcanology has led to some better informed governmental and public responses to unanticipated volcanic activities. While the science of volcanology may not yet be capable of predicting the exact times and dates of eruptions far into the future, on suitably monitored volcanoes the monitoring of ongoing volcanic indicators is often capable of predicting imminent eruptions with advance warnings minimally of hours, and usually of days prior to any eruptions.[89]The diversity of volcanoes and their complexities mean that eruption forecasts for the foreseeable future will be based onprobability,and the application ofrisk management.Even then, some eruptions will have no useful warning. An example of this occurred in March 2017, when a tourist group was witnessing a presumed to be predictable Mount Etna eruption and the flowing lava came in contact with a snow accumulation causing a situational phreatic explosion causing injury to ten persons.[88]Other types of significant eruptions are known to give useful warnings of only hours at the most by seismic monitoring.[69]The recent demonstration of a magma chamber with repose times of tens of thousands of years, with potential for rapid recharge so potentially decreasing warning times, under the youngest volcano in central Europe,[70]does not tell us if more careful monitoring will be useful.

Scientists are known to perceive risk, with its social elements, differently from local populations and those that undertake social risk assessments on their behalf, so that both disruptive false alarms and retrospective blame, when disasters occur, will continue to happen.[90]: 1–3 

Thus in many cases, while volcanic eruptions may still cause major property destruction, the periodic large-scale loss of human life that was once associated with many volcanic eruptions, has recently been significantly reduced in areas where volcanoes are adequately monitored. This life-saving ability is derived via such volcanic-activity monitoring programs, through the greater abilities of local officials to facilitate timely evacuations based upon the greater modern-day knowledge of volcanism that is now available, and upon improved communications technologies such as cell phones. Such operations tend to provide enough time for humans to escape at least with their lives before a pending eruption. One example of such a recent successful volcanic evacuation was theMount Pinatuboevacuation of 1991. This evacuation is believed to have saved 20,000 lives.[91]In the case ofMount Etna,a 2021 review found 77 deaths due to eruptions since 1536 but none since 1987.[88]

Citizens who may be concerned about their own exposure to risk from nearby volcanic activity should familiarize themselves with the types of, and quality of, volcano monitoring and public notification procedures being employed by governmental authorities in their areas.[92]

Volcanoes on other celestial bodies

See also:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes,Volcanism on the Moon,Volcanism on Mars,Volcanism on Io,andVolcanism on Venus
TheTvashtarvolcano erupts a plume 330 km (205 mi) above the surface ofJupiter's moonIo.

Earth'sMoonhas no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.[93]However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such asmaria[94](the darker patches seen on the Moon),rilles[95]anddomes.[96]

The planetVenushas a surface that is 90%basalt,indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago,[97]from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface.Lava flowsare widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcanoMaat Mons,in the form ofash flowsnear the summit and on the northern flank.[98]However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.[99]

Olympus Mons(Latin,"Mount Olympus" ), located on the planet Mars, is the tallest known mountain in theSolar System.

There are several extinct volcanoes onMars,four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They includeArsia Mons,Ascraeus Mons,Hecates Tholus,Olympus Mons,andPavonis Mons.These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,[100]but the EuropeanMars Expressspacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.[100]

Jupiter'smoonIois the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because oftidalinteraction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that eruptsulfur,sulfur dioxideandsilicaterock, and as a result,Iois constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.[101]Europa,the smallest of Jupiter'sGalilean moons,also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes intoiceon the frigid surface. This process is known ascryovolcanism,and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of theSolar System.[102]

In 1989, theVoyager 2spacecraft observedcryovolcanoes(ice volcanoes) onTriton,amoonofNeptune,and in 2005 theCassini–Huygensprobe photographedfountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus,a moon ofSaturn.[103][104]The ejecta may be composed of water,liquid nitrogen,ammonia,dust, ormethanecompounds.Cassini–Huygensalso found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on theSaturnianmoonTitan,which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere.[105]It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on theKuiper Belt ObjectQuaoar.

A 2010 study of theexoplanetCOROT-7b,which was detected bytransitin 2009, suggested thattidal heatingfrom the host star very close to the planet and neighbouring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.[106]

History of volcano understanding

Main article:Volcanology § History

Volcanoes are not distributed evenly over the Earth's surface but active ones with significant impact were encountered early in human history, evidenced by footprints ofhomininafound in East African volcanic ash dated at 3.66 million years old.[107]: 104 The association of volcanoes with fire and disaster is found in many oral traditions and had religious and thus social significance before the first written record of concepts related to volcanoes. Examples are: (1) the stories in the Athabascan subcultures about humans living inside mountains and a woman who uses fire to escape from a mountain,[108]: 135 (2)Pele's migration through the Hawarian island chain, ability to destroy forests and manifestations of the god's temper,[109]and (3) the association in Javanese folklore of a king resident inMount Merapivolcano and a queen resident at a beach 50 km (31 mi) away on what is now known to be an earthquake fault that interacts with that volcano.[110]

Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions tosupernaturalcauses, such as the actions ofgodsordemigods.The earliest known such example is a neolithic goddess atÇatalhöyük.[111]: 203 The Ancient Greek godHephaistosand the concepts of the underworld are aligned to volcanoes in that Greek culture.[88]

However, others proposed more natural (but still incorrect) causes of volcanic activity. In the fifth century BC,Anaxagorasproposed eruptions were caused by a great wind.[112]By 65 CE,Seneca the Youngerproposed combustion as the cause,[112]an idea also adopted by theJesuitAthanasius Kircher(1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions ofMount EtnaandStromboli,then visited the crater ofVesuviusand published his view of an Earth inMundus Subterraneuswith a central fire connected to numerous others depicting volcanoes as a type of safety valve.[113]Edward Jorden, in his work on mineral waters, challenged this view; in 1632 he proposedsulfur"fermentation" as a heat source within Earth,[112]AstronomerJohannes Kepler(1571–1630) believed volcanoes were ducts for Earth's tears.[114][better source needed]In 1650,René Descartesproposed the core of Earth was incandescent and, by 1785, the works of Decartes and others were synthesized into geology byJames Huttonin his writings aboutigneous intrusionsof magma.[112]Lazzaro Spallanzanihad demonstrated by 1794 that steam explosions could cause explosive eruptions and many geologists held this as the universal cause of explosive eruptions up to the1886 eruption of Mount Tarawerawhich allowed in one event differentiation of the concurrentphreatomagmaticandhydrothermaleruptions from dry explosive eruption, of, as it turned out, a basaltdyke.[115]: 16–18 [116]: 4 Alfred Lacroixbuilt upon his other knowledge with his studies on the1902 eruption of Mount Pelée,[112]and by 1928Arthur Holmeswork had brought together the concepts of radioactive generation of heat, Earth'smantlestructure, partial decompression melting of magma, and magma convection.[112]This eventually led to the acceptance of plate tectonics.[117]

See also

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