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Roman emperor

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For the ruler of the Roman Kingdom in the archaic period, seeKing of Rome.For the dual chief magistrate during the Roman Republic, seeRoman consul.

TheRoman emperorwas the ruler and monarchicalhead of stateof theRoman Empire,starting with the granting of the titleaugustustoOctavianin 27 BC.[2]The termemperoris a modern convention, and did not exist as such during the Empire. When a given Roman is described as becomingemperorin English, it generally reflects his accession asaugustus,and later asbasileus.Another title used wasimperator,originally a military honorific, andcaesar,originally acognomen.Early emperors also used the titleprinceps('first one') alongside otherRepublicantitles, notablyconsulandpontifex maximus.

Emperor ofthe Roman Empire
Imperial
Vexillumof the emperor
Bust ofAugustuswearing thecorona civica
Details
StyleImperator,Caesar,Augustus,Princeps,Dominus Noster,AutokratororBasileus(depending on period)
First monarchAugustus
Last monarch
Formation16 January 27 BC
Abolition
  • 9 May 480 (Western)
  • 29 May 1453 (Eastern)
AppointerSenate(official),Roman military

The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of theRoman armyand recognition by theSenate;an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors to secure the succession or to divide the administration of the empire between them. The office of emperor was thought to be distinct from that of arex('king'). Augustus, the first emperor, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch.[3]For the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of the Republic, fearing any association with the kings who ruled Rome prior to the Republic.

FromDiocletian,whose reformedtetrarchydivided the position into one emperor in theWestand one in theEast,emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style.[4]Although succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy,[5]so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted, which often led to severalclaimants to the throne.Despite this, elements of the republican institutional framework (Senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire.

Constantine the Great,the first Christian emperor, moved the capital from Rome toConstantinople,formerly known asByzantium,in 330 AD. Roman emperors had always held high religious offices; under Constantine there arose the specifically Christian idea that the emperor was God's chosen ruler on earth, a special protector and leader of the Christian Church, a position later termedCaesaropapism.In practice, an emperor's authority on Church matters was frequently subject to challenge. TheWestern Roman Empirecollapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions byGermanicbarbarian tribes, with no recognised claimant to Emperor of the West remaining after the death ofJulius Neposin 480. Instead the Eastern emperorZenoproclaimed himself as the sole emperor of a theoretically undivided Roman Empire (although in practice he had no authority in the West). The subsequent Eastern emperors ruling from Constantinople styled themselves as "Basileusof the Romans "(Ancient Greek:βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων,Basileus Romaíon) but are often referred to in modern scholarship asByzantine emperors.

ThepapacyandGermanic kingdomsof the West acknowledged the Eastern emperors until the accession ofEmpress Irenein 797. After this, the papacy created a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, theHoly Roman Emperors,which ruled theHoly Roman Empirefor most of the period between 800 and 1806. These emperors were never recognized in Constantinople and their coronations resulted in the medievalproblem of two emperors.The last Eastern emperor wasConstantine XI Palaiologos,who died during theFall of Constantinopleto theOttoman Empirein 1453. After conquering the city,Ottoman sultansadopted the title "Caesarof the Romans "(kayser-i Rûm). A Byzantine group of claimant emperors existed in theEmpire of Trebizonduntil its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, although they had used a modified title since 1282.

Background and beginning

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See also:Crisis of the Roman Republic
Augustusdepicted as amagistrateat theNy Carlsberg Glyptotek

Modern historians conventionally regardAugustusas the first emperor, whereasJulius Caesaris considered the lastdictatorof theRoman Republic,a view that is shared by the Roman writersPlutarch,Tacitus,andCassius Dio.[6]Conversely, the majority of Roman writers, includingPliny the Younger,SuetoniusandAppian,as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first emperor.[7]Caesar did indeed rule the Roman state as anautocrat,but he failed to create a stable system to maintain himself in power.[8]His rise to power was the result of a long and gradual decline in which the Republic fell under the influence of powerful generals such asMariusandSulla.[9]

At the end of the Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar asemperorcould be seen as the English translation of the Latinimperator,then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of theCaesar's civil wars,it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return tothe old-style monarchy,but that the period when several officials would fight one another had come to an end.

Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves.Julius Caesarhad beenpontifex maximussince 64 BC; held the offices ofconsulanddictatorfive times since 59 BC, and was appointeddictator in perpetuityin 44 BC, shortly beforehis assassination.He had also become thede factosole ruler of Rome in 48 BC, when he defeated his last opposition at theBattle of Pharsalus.His killers proclaimed themselves as theliberatores( "liberators" ) and the restorers of the Republic, but their rule was cut short by Caesar's supporters, who almost immediately established a new dictatorship.

Cameoof Augustus in aquadrigadrawn bytritonsat theKunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna

In his will, Caesar appointed his grandnephewOctavianas his heir and adopted son. He inherited his property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies, and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. In August 43 BC, following thedeath of both consuls of the year,Octavian marched to Rome and forced the Senate to elect him consul. He then formed theSecond TriumviratealongsideMark AntonyandLepidus,dividing the Roman world among them. Lepidus was sidelined in 36 BC, and relations between Octavian and Antony soon deteriorated. In September 31 BC, Octavian'svictory at Actiumput an end to any effective opposition and confirmed his supremacy over Rome.

In January 27 BC, Octavian and the Senate concluded the so-called "First settlement".Until then Octavian had been ruling the state with his powers astriumvir,even though the Triumvirate itself disappeared years earlier. He announced that he would return the power to theSenate and People of Rome,but this was only an act. The Senate confirmed Octavian asprinceps,the "first among equals",and gave him control over almost all Roman provinces for a tenure of ten years. This limitation was only superficial, as he could renew his powers indefinitely. In addition, the Senate awarded him the appellation ofaugustus( "elevated" ). The honorific itself held no legal meaning, but it denoted that Octavian (henceforthAugustus) now approached divinity, and its adoption by his successors made it thede factomain title of the emperor. He also received thecivic crownalongside several other insignias in his honor. Augustus now held supreme and indisputable power, and even though he still received subsequent grants of powers, such as the granting oftribunicia potestasin 23 BC, these were only ratifications of the powers he already possessed.[10]

Most modern historians use 27 BC as the start date of the Roman Empire. This is mostly a symbolic date, as the Republic had essentially disappeared many years earlier. Ancient writers often ignore the legal implications of Augustus' reforms and simply write that he "ruled" Rome following the murder of Caesar, or that he "ruled alone" after the death of Mark Antony.[11][12]Most Romans thus simply saw the "emperor" as the individual that ruled the state, with no specific title or office attached to him.

Augustus actively prepared his adopted sonTiberiusto be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. After Augustus' death in AD 14, the Senate confirmed Tiberius asprincepsand proclaimed him as the newaugustus.Tiberius had already receivedimperium maiusandtribunicia potestasin AD 4, becoming legally equal to Augustus but still subordinate to him in practice.[13]The "imperial office" was thus not truly defined until the accession ofCaligula,when all of Tiberius' powers were automatically transferred to him as a single, abstract position that was symbolized by his sacred title ofaugustus.[14]

Powers under the Principate

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The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic and developed under Augustus and later rulers, rather than from a new political office. Under the Republic, these powers would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.[15]The Republican offices endured and emperors were regularly elected to the most prominent of them: theconsulshipandcensorship.[16]This early period of the Empire is known as the "Principate",derived from the titleprincepsused by the early emperors.

The most important bases of the emperor's power were his supreme power of command (imperium maius) and tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) as personal qualities, separate from his public office.[17]Originally, the powers of command where divided in consularimperiumfor Rome and proconsularimperiumfor theprovinces.This division became obsolete in 19 BC, when Augustus was given consularimperium– despite leaving the consulship in 23 BC – and thus control over all troops. This overwhelming power was referred to asimperium maiusto indicate its superiority to other holders ofimperium,such as theproconsulsof the few senatorial provinces and allies such asAgrippa.[18]The governors appointed to the imperial provinces only answered to the emperor himself, who could maintain or replace them at will.[19]

DenariusofAugustus(18 BC).[b]

The tribunician power (tribunicia potestas), first assumed by Augustus in 23 BC, gave him authority over thetribune of the plebswithout having to actually hold the office – a tribune was by definition aplebeian,whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become apatricianwhen he was adopted into thegens Julia.[19]By adopting the role of a tribune, Augustus was presenting himself as the representative of the common man and the protector of democracy.[20]As always, this was not a sudden grant of power; Augustus had been receiving several powers related to the tribunes, such assacrosanctity,since 36 BC.[21]With this powers, he couldvetoany act or proposal of any magistrate, propose laws and convoke the Senate.[22]His sacrosanctity also made him untouchable, and any offence against him could be treated as a crime of treason.[23]The tribunician power was arguably the most stable and important of the emperor's powers.[24]Despite being a perpetual title, it was always renewed each year, which often coincided with the beginning of a new regnal year (although "regnal years"were not officially adopted untilJustinian I).[25][c]

The office ofcensorwas not fully absorbed into the imperial office until the reign ofDomitian,who declared himself "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus) in AD 85. Before this, the title had been only used byClaudius(47),VespasianandTitus(both in 73).[26]

The emperor also had power over religious affairs, which led to the creation of aworship cult.Augustus becamepontifex maximus(the chief priest of theCollege of Pontiffs) in 12 BC, after the death of the formertriumvirLepidus.[27]Emperors from the reign ofGratian(r. 375–383) onward used the stylepontifex inclytus( "honorable pontiff" ). The title ofpontifex maximuswas eventually adopted by thebishops of Romeduring theRenaissance.[28]The last known emperors to use the title wereValentinian IIIandMarcian,in the 5th century.[29]

The only surviving document to directly refer to the emperor's power is theLex de imperio Vespasiani,written shortly afterVespasian's formal accession in December 69. The text, of which only the second part survives, states that Vespasian is allowed to: make treaties; hold sessions and propose motions to the Senate; hold extraordinary sessions with legislative power; endorse candidates in elections; expand thepomerium;and usediscretionary powerwhenever necessary. The text further states that he is "not bound by laws", and that any previous act wasretroactivelyconsidered legitimate.[30]There is no mention ofimperiumnortribunicia potestas,although these powers were probably given in the earlier clauses.[31]There is also no mention of any "imperial office", and the title of "emperor" is never used. The imperial titles are treated as inseparable of the person, which is reflected in the nameImperator CaesarVespasianusAugustus.ThisLexsometimes related to theLex regia( "royal law" ) mentioned in theCorpus Juris Civilisof Eastern emperorJustinian I(r. 527–565), who cites the early 3rd-century writerUlpian.This was probably a later construct, as its very name, which derives fromrex( "king" ), would have been utterly rejected in the West.[32]The Eastern Greek-speaking half of the Empire had always regarded the emperors as open monarchs (basileis), and called them as such.[33][34]

Succession and legitimacy

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The weakest point of the Augustan institution was its lack of a clear succession system.[35]Formally announcing a successor would have revealed Augustus as a monarch, so he and subsequent emperors opted to adopt their best candidates as their sons and heirs.Primogeniturewas not relevant in the early Empire, although emperors still attempted to maintain a familiar connection between them;Tiberius,for example, marriedJulia the Elder,making himAugustus' son-in-law.

Vespasian,who took power after the collapse of theJulio-Claudian dynastyand the tumultuousYear of the Four Emperors,was the first emperor to openly declare his sons,TitusandDomitian,as his sole heirs, giving them the title ofcaesar.[36]TheSenatestill exercised some power during this period, as evidenced by his decision to declareNeroa "public enemy",[37]and did influence in the succession of emperors. Following the murder of Domitian in AD 96, the Senate declaredNerva,one of their own, as the new emperor.[38]His "dynasty", theAntonine,continued the adoptive system until the reign ofMarcus Aurelius(r. 161–180). Marcus was the first emperor to rule alongside other emperors, first with his adoptive brotherLucius Verus,who succeeded jointly with him, and later with his sonCommodus,who was proclaimed co-augustusin 177.[39][d]

Despite being the son of a previous emperor and having nominally shared government with him, Commodus' rule ended with his murder at the hands of his own soldiers. From his death in 192 until the 5th century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. During this period, very few emperors died of natural causes.[41]Such problems persisted in the later Eastern Empire, where emperors had to often appoint co-emperors to secure the throne. Despite often working as a hereditary monarchy, there was no law or single principle of succession.[42]

Latininscription dedicated toSeptimius SeverusandCaracallainOstia Antica,AD 196.[e]

Individuals who claimed imperial power "illegally" are referred to as "usurpers"in modern scholarship. Ancient historians refer to these rival emperors as"tyrants".In reality, there was no distinction between emperors and usurpers, as many emperors started as rebels and were retroactively recognized as legitimate. TheLex de imperio Vespasianiexplicitly states that all of Vespasian's actions are considered legal even if they happened before his recognition by the Senate.[30]Ultimately, "legitimacy was apost factumphenomenon. "[43]Theodor Mommsenfamously argued that "here has probably never been a regime in which the notion of legitimacy is as absent as that of the Augustan principate".[44]Imperial propaganda was often used to legitimize or de-legitimize certain emperors. TheChronicon Paschale,for example, describesLiciniusas having been killed like "those who had briefly been usurpers before him".[45]In reality, Licinius was the legitimate emperor of the West (having been appointed byGalerius), while Constantine was the real "usurper" (having been proclaimed by his troops).[46]

There were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by theRoman army,which was really the true basis of imperial power. Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as support of the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, distributing one's own coins or statues, and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.[41]Septimius Severusnotably declared himself as the adoptive son of the long-deceasedMarcus Aurelius,hence why he namedCaracallaafter him.[47]Later Eastern imperial dynasties, such as theDoukaiandPalaiologoi,claimed descent fromConstantine the Great.[48]

What turns a "usurper" into a "legitimate" emperor is typically that they managed to gain the recognition of a more senior, legitimate, emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power.[49][50]Modern historiography has not yet defined clear legitimacy criteria for emperors, resulting in some emperors being included or excluded from different lists. The year 193 has traditionally been called the "Year of the Five Emperors",but modern scholarship now identifiesClodius AlbinusandPescennius Nigeras usurpers because they were not recognized by theRoman Senate.[51]Recognition by the Senate is often used to determine the legitimacy of an emperor,[49]but this criterion is not always followed.Maxentiusis sometimes called an usurper because he did not have the recognition ofTetrarchs,[52][53]but he held Rome for several years, and thus had the recognition of the Senate.[54]Other "usurpers" controlled, if briefly, the city of Rome, such asNepotianusandPriscus Attalus.In the East, the possession ofConstantinoplewas the essential element of legitimacy,[55]yet some figures such asProcopiusare treated as usurpers. Rival emperors who later gained recognition are not always considered legitimate either;Vetraniohad the formal recognition byConstantius IIyet he is still often regarded as a usurper,[56][57]similarly toMagnus Maximus,who was briefly recognized byTheodosius I.[57]Western emperors such asMagnentius,EugeniusandMagnus Maximusare sometimes called usurpers,[52]butRomulus Augustulusis traditionally regarded as the last Western emperor, despite never receiving the recognition of the Eastern emperorZeno.

Later developments

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TheColossus of Constantine.Portraits after theTetrarchystopped including realistic features, as the emperor began to be seen as a symbol rather than an individual.[58]

The period after thePrincipateis known as theDominate,derived from the titledominus( "lord" ) adopted byDiocletian.During his rule, the emperor became an absolute ruler and the regime became even more monarchical.[59]The emperors adopted thediademcrown as their supreme symbol of power, abandoning the subtleties of the early Empire.[60]

Beginning in the late 2nd century, the Empire began to suffer a series of political and economic crises, partially because it had overexpanded so much.[59]ThePax Romana( "Roman peace" ) is often said to have ended with the tyrannical reign of Commodus. His murder was followed by the accession ofSeptimius Severus,the victor of theYear of the Five Emperors.It was during his reign that the role of the army grew even more, and the emperors' power increasingly depended on it.[61][62]The murder of his last relative,Severus Alexander,led to theCrisis of the Third Century(235–285), a 50-year period that almost saw the end of the Roman Empire.[63]The last vestiges of Republicanism were lost in the ensuing anarchy. In 238, the Senate attempted to regain power by proclaimingPupienusandBalbinusas their own emperors (the first time sinceNerva).[64]They managed to usurp power fromMaximinus Thrax,but they were killed within two months. With the rise of the "soldier emperors", the city and Senate of Rome began to lose importance. Maximinus andCarus,for example, did not even set foot on the city.[62]Carus' successorsCarinusandNumerian,the last of the Crisis emperors, did not bother to assume thetribunicia potestaseither.[65]

After reuniting the Roman Empire in 285,Diocletianbegan a series of reforms to restore stability. Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the Republic, Diocletian established at the top of this new structure theTetrarchy( "rule of four" ) in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocletian set in place a system of two emperors (augusti) and two subordinates that also served as heirs (caesares). When an emperor retired (as Diocletian andMaximiandid in 305) or died, hiscaesarwould succeed him and in turn appoint a newcaesar.[66]Each pair ruled over a half of the Empire, which led to the creation of aWesternandEastern Roman Empire,a division that eventually became permanent.[67]This division had already a precedent in the joint rule ofValerian/GallienusandCarus/Carinus.[68]

Diocletian justified his rule not by military power, but by claimingdivine right.[67]He imitated Oriental divine kingship and encouraged the reverence of the emperor, making anything related to himsacer(sacred).[69]He declared himselfJovius,the son ofJupiter,and his partner Maximian was declaredHerculius,son ofHercules.[70]This divine claim was maintained after the rise of Christianity, as emperors regarded themselves as the chosen rulers of God.[59]

The emperor no longer needed the Senate to ratify his powers, so he became the sole source of law. These new laws were no longer shared publicly and were often given directly to thepraetorian prefects– originally the emperor's bodyguard, but now the head of the newpraetorian prefectures– or with private officials.[71]The emperor's personal court and administration traveled alongside him, which further made the Senate's role redundant. Consuls continued to be appointed each year, but by this point, it was an office often occupied by the emperor himself,[f]who now had complete control over the bureaucratic apparatus.[72]Diocletian did preserve some Republican traditions, such as thetribunicia potestas.[73]The last known emperor to have used it wasAnastasius I,at the start of the 6th century. Anastasius was also the last attested emperor to use the traditional titles ofproconsulandpater patriae.[74]The last attested emperor to use the title of consul wasConstans II,who was also the last Eastern emperor to visit Rome.[75]It's possible that later emperors also used it as an honorary title, as the office of consul was notabolisheduntil 892, during the reign ofLeo VI.[76]

During the Dominate it became increasingly common for emperors to raise their children directly toaugustus(emperor) instead ofcaesar(heir), probably because of the failure of the Tetrarchy. This practice had first been applied bySeptimius Severus,who proclaimed his 10-year-old sonCaracallaasaugustus.He was followed byMacrinus,who did the same with his 9-year-old sonDiadumenian,and several other emperors during the Crisis. This became even more common from the 4th century onwards.Gratianwas proclaimed emperor at the age of 8, and his co-ruler and successorValentinian IIwas proclaimed emperor at the age of 4.[77]Many child emperors such asPhilip IIorDiadumeniannever succeeded their fathers. These co-emperors all had the same honors as their senior counterpart, but they did not share the actual government, hence why junior co-emperors are usually not counted as real emperors by modern or ancient historians. There was no title to denote the "junior" emperor; writers used the vague terms of "second" or "little emperor".[78][g]

Despite having a successful reign himself, Diocletian's tetrarchic systemcollapsedas soon as he retired in 305.Constantine I,the son of tetrarchConstantius I,reunited the empire in 324 and imposed the principle of hereditary succession which Diocletian intended to avoid.[79]Constantine was also the first emperor to convert toChristianity,and emperors after him, especially after its officialization underTheodosius I,saw themselves as the protectors of the Church.[80]The territorial divisions of the Tetrarchy were maintained, and for most of the following century the Empire was ruled by two senior emperors, one in the West (withMilanand laterRavennaas capital) and another in the East (withConstantinopleas capital).[h]

This division became permanent on the death ofTheodosius Iin 395, when he was succeeded by his sonsHonoriusandArcadius.[81]The two halves of the Empire, while later functioning asde factoseparate entities, were always considered and seen, legally and politically, as separate administrative divisions of a single, insoluble state by the Romans of the time.[82]

Roman coins(tremissis) ofRomulus AugustulusandJulius Nepos,the last emperors of theWestern Roman Empire.

In theWest,the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of Germanicgeneralssuch asAetiusandRicimer;the last emperors of the West being known as the "shadow emperor".[83]In 476, theHeruliOdoaceroverthrew the child-emperorRomulus Augustulus,made himselfking of Italyand shipped the imperial regalia to theEmperor Zenoin Constantinople. Historians mark this date as the date of thefall of the Western Roman Empire,although by this time there was no longer any "Empire" left, as its territory had reduced to Italy.Julius Nepos,who was overthrown and expelled toDalmatiain favor of Romulus, continued to claim the title until his murder in 480. The Eastern court recognized this claim and Odoacer minted coins in his name, although he never managed to exercise real power.[84]The death of Nepos leftZenoas the sole emperor of a (technically) reunited Roman Empire.[1]

Byzantine period

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The Roman Empire survived in the East for another 1000 years, but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and its emperor, which adopted a moreHellenisticcharacter.[i]

The Eastern emperors continued to be recognized in theWestern kingdomsuntil the accession ofIrene(r. 797–802), the firstempress regnant.The Italian heartland was recovered during the reign ofJustinian I(r. 527–565), but this was reverted by the end of the century. Rome technically remainedunder imperial control,but was completely surrounded by theLombards.Africa waslost to the Arabsin the early 7th century, and Rome eventually fell to the Lombards in 751, during the reign ofConstantine V.The Frankish kingPepin the Shortdefeated them and received the favour ofPope Stephen II,who became the head of thePapal States.Pepin's son,Charlemagne,was crownedImperator Romanorum(the first timeImperatorwas used as an actual regnal title) byPope Leo IIIin Christmas AD 800, thus ending the recognition of the Eastern emperor.[88]Western rulers also began referring to the Empire as the "Greek Empire", regarding themselves as the true successors of Rome.[89]

Miniature depictingManuel II Palaiologosand his family, 1404.[j]

The inhabitants of the Eastern half of the Empire always saw the emperor as an open monarch. Starting withHeracliusin 629, Roman emperors styled themselves "basileus",the traditional title for Greek monarchs used since the times ofAlexander the Great.[91]The title was used since the early days of the Empire and became the common imperial title by the 3rd century, but did not appear in official documents until the 7th century.[92]Michael I Rangabe(r. 811–813) was the first emperor to actually use the title of "Roman emperor" (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων,Basileus Romaíon). This was a response to the new line of emperors created by Charlemagne – although he was recognized asbasileusof theFranks.[93]By the 9th century the full imperial title became "basileusandautokratorof the Romans ", usually translated as" Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans ".[94][k]The titleautokratorwas also used to distinguish a junior co-emperor (basileus) from his senior colleague (basileus autokrator).[94]By the times of thePalaiologos,there were two distinct ceremonies for the accession of an emperor: first an acclamation asbasileus,and later acoronationasautokrator(which also included being raised on a shield). These rites could happen years apart.[96]

The Eastern Empire became not only anabsolute monarchybut also atheocracy.According toGeorge Ostrogorsky,"the absolute power of the Roman emperor was further increased with the advent of Christian ideas".[97]This became more evident after theMuslim conquestsof the 7th century, which gave Byzantine imperialism a new sense of purpose.[98]The emperor was the subject of a series of rites and ceremonies, including aformal coronationperformed by thePatriarch of Constantinople.[97]The Byzantine state is often said to have followed a "Caesaropapist"model, where the emperor played the role of ruler and head of the Church, but there was often a clear distinction between political and secular power.[99]

The line of Eastern emperors continued uninterrupted until thesack of Constantinopleand the establishment of theLatin Empirein 1204. This led to the creation of three lines of emperors in exile: theemperors of Nicaea,theemperors of Trebizond,and the short-livedemperors of Thessalonica.The Nicean rulers have been traditionally regarded as the "legitimate" emperors of this period, as they recovered Constantinople and restored the Empire in 1261.[l]TheEmpire of Trebizondcontinued to exist for another 200 years, but from 1282 onwards its rulers used the modified title of "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East,the Iberians,and thePerateia",accepting the Niceans as the sole Roman emperors.[100]However, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced mostly to Constantinople, and the rise of other powers such asSerbiaandBulgariaforced the Byzantines to recognize their rulers asbasileus.Despite this, emperors continued to view themselves as the rulers of an "universal empire".[97]During the last decades of the Empire, power was once again shared between multiple emperors and colleagues, each ruling from their own capital, notably during the long reign ofJohn V.[101]Constantinople finallyfell to the Ottoman Turksin 1453; its last emperor,Constantine XI Palaiologos,dying in battle. The last vestiges of the empire,MoreaandTrebizond,fell in 1461.[101]

Titles

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Imperator

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Main article:Imperator
Denariusof Julius Caesar markedcaesar imp(erator)
AureusofVespasianmarked
imp(erator) caesar vespasianus aug(ustus)

The titleimperator– fromimperare,"to command" – dates back to theRoman Republicand was given to victorious commanders by their soldiers. They heldimperium,that is, military authority. The Senate could then award the extraordinary honor of atriumph;the commander then retained the title until the end of hismagistracy.In Roman tradition, the first triumph was that ofRomulus,the founder of Rome, but the first attested use ofimperatorwas in 189 BC, on the triumph ofAemilius Paulus.It was a title held with great pride:Pompeywas hailedimperatormore than once, as wasSullaandJulius Caesar.[102]However, as noted byCassius Dio,the meaning of the title changed under the new monarchy, and came to denote "the possession of the supreme power".[103]Both Dio andSuetoniusrefer to Caesar as the first one to assumeimperatoras a proper name (apraenomen imperatoris), but this seems to be ananachronism.[104]The last ordinary general to be awarded the title wasJunius Blaesusin AD 22, after which it became a title reserved solely for the sovereign.[102]

Augustus usedImperatorinstead of his first name (praenomen), becomingImperator Caesarinstead ofCaesar Imperator.[102]From this the title slowly became a synonym of the office, hence the word "emperor".Tiberius,CaligulaandClaudiusavoided using the title, but it is recorded that Caligula was hailedimperatorby the Senate on his accession, indicating that it was already considered an integral part of the dignity.[105]It was not until the late reign ofNero,in AD 66, thatimperatorbecame once more part of the emperor's nomenclature.[106]Virtually all emperors after him used thepraenomen imperatoris,with only a few variations under his successorsGalbaandVitellius.[107]The original meaning of the title continued to be used for a time, with emperors registering the number of times they were hailedimperator.[103]The title became the main appellation of the ruler by the time ofVespasian.[102][108]

After theTetrarchy,emperors began to be addressed asdominus noster( "our Lord" ), althoughimperatorcontinued to be used. The appellation ofdominuswas known and rejected by Augustus, but ordinary men of the Empire used it regularly. It began to used in official context starting withSeptimius Severus,and was first officially adopted in coinage byAurelian.[109]

In the East,imperatorwas translated asautokrator( "self-ruler" ), a title that continued to be used until the end of the Empire. This is the modern Greek word for "emperor" (υτοκράτορας). There are still some instances ofimperatorin official documents as late as the 9th century. Its last known use was on 866–867 coins ofMichael IIIand his co-emperorBasil I,who are addressed asimperatorandrexrespectively.[110]In the West,imperatorwas transformed into a monarchical title byCharlemagne,becoming the official Latin title of theHoly Roman Empire.

Caesar

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Main article:Caesar (title)

Originally thecognomen(third name) of the dictatorGaius Julius Caesar,which was then inherited by Augustus and his relatives. Augustus used it as a family name (nomen), styling himself asImp. Caesarinstead ofImp. Julius Caesar.[104]However, the nomen was still inherited by women (such asJulia the Younger) and appear in some inscriptions.[111]After the death ofCaligula,Augustus' great-grandson, his uncleClaudiuswas proclaimed emperor. He was not an official member of theJulia gens,[112]but he was the grandson ofOctavia,Augustus' sister, and thus still part of the family.[113]

Following the suicide of Nero, the last descendant of Caesar, the new emperorGalbaadopted the name ofServius Galba Caesar Augustus,thus making it part of the imperial title. Five days before his murder he adoptedPiso Licinianusas his son and heir, renaming him asServius Sulpicius Galba Caesar.[114]After thisCaesarcame to denote the heir apparent, who would add the name to his own as heir and retain it upon accession asaugustus.[109]The only emperor not to assume it wasVitellius,who adopted the nameGermanicusinstead. Most emperors used it as theirnomen– withImperatoras theirpraenomen– until the reign ofAntoninus Pius,when it permanently became part of the formulaImperator Caesar[full name]Augustus.[107]In the 3rd century,caesarsalso received the honorific ofnobilissimus( "most noble" ), which later evolved into a separate title.[115]

Coin ofConstantius IImarked:d(ominus) n(oster) constantinus p(ius) f(elix) aug(ustus)

During theTetrarchythe powers of thecaesarincreased considerably, but following the accession ofConstantine Iit once more remained as a title for heirs with no significant power attached to it. The title slowly lost importance in the following decades, as emperors started to promote their sons directly toaugustus.In the East, the title finally lost its imperial character in 705, whenJustinian IIawarded it toTervel of Bulgaria.[m]After this it became a court title bestowed to prominent figures of the government, and lost even more relevance after the creation of the titlesebastokratorbyAlexios I Komnenos.[116]Despite this, its regular use by earlier emperors led to the name becoming synonym with "emperor" in certain regions. Several countries useCaesaras the origin of their word for "emperor", likeKaiserinGermanyandTsarinBulgariaandRussia.

After theConstantinian dynasty,emperors followedImperator CaesarwithFlavius,which also began as a family name but was later incorporated into the emperor's titles, thus becomingImperator Caesar Flavius.[117]The last use of the formula, rendered asAutokrator Kaisar Flabios... Augoustos(Αὐτοκράτωρ καῖσαρ Φλάβιος αὐγουστος) in Greek, is in theBasilikaofLeo VI the Wise(r. 886–912).[118]

Augustus

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Main article:Augustus (title)

Originally the main title of the emperor.[119]According toSuetonius,it was "not merely a new title but a more honorable one, inasmuch as sacred places too, and those in which anything is consecrated by augural rites are called" august "(augusta), from the increase (auctus) in dignity ". It was also connected to the religious practice ofaugury,which was itself linked to Rome's founding byRomulus,and toauctoritas,the authority based on prestige.[120]The honorific was awarded as both a name and a title to Octavian in 27 BC and was inherited by all subsequent emperors, who placed it after their personal names. The only emperor to not immediately assume it wasVitellius,although he did use it after his recognition by the Senate.[121]Later emperors ruled alongside one or several junioraugustiwho heldde jure(but notde facto) equal constitutional power.[n]Despite its use as the highest imperial title, it was generally not used to indicate the office ofEmperoritself, as ordinary people and writers had become accustomed toImperator.

In the East the title was initially translated asSebastos,but the formAugoustoseventually became more common. Emperors afterHeracliusstyled themselves asBasileus,butAugoustosstill remained in use in a lesser form up until the end of the Empire. In the West, the title was also used by Charlemagne and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors as part of the formulaImperator Augustus.Both Eastern and Western rulers also used the stylesemper augustus( "forever augustus" ).[122]

Princeps

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Main article:Princeps

The wordprinceps,meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading member of the Senate, and it was used by the early emperors to emphasize the continuance of the Republic.[109]The title had already been used byPompeyandJulius Caesar,among others. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers, hence why it was never used in official titulature.[123]The title was the most preferred by Augustus as its use implies only "primacy" (is in the "first among equals"), as opposed todominus,which implies dominance. It was the title used by early writers before the termimperatorbecame popular.[108]In hisRes Gestae,Augustus explicitly refers to himself as theprinceps senatus.[124]The title was also sometimes given to heirs, in the form ofprinceps iuventutis( "first of the youth" ), a term that continued to be used during theTetrarchy.[125]

In the era of Diocletian and beyond,princepsfell into disuse and was replaced withdominus( "lord" );[126]the use ofprincepsanddominusbroadly symbolizes the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designationsPrincipateandDominate.The title is still found in some later sources, however. The poetClaudian,for example, describesHonoriusas having been raised from "caesar"to"princeps"(instead ofaugustus).[74]The title survived thefall of the Western Roman Empire,as it was used by rulers such asTheodoric the Great.

Coin ofLeo VI(r. 886–912) marked:leon en cristo basileus romaeon

Basileus/autokrator

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Main article:Basileus

Basileuswas the traditional Greek title for monarchs. It was first used byAlexander the Great(r. 336–323 BC) during his conquests.[127]The term was applied to emperors unofficially since the beginning of the Empire,[33]but in official records it was often used as the Greek translation of the titlerex,withautokrator(the Greek equivalent toimperator) reserved for the emperor. As a result, Western writers often associatedbasileuswith "king" as opposed to "emperor", despite this distinction not existing in Greek.[128]

Basileuswas first officially used byHeracliusin 629, after hisvictory over the Persians,and it became the main title of the emperor afterward. After the 9th century, the full imperial title became "basileusandautokratorof the Romans "(βασιλεύς καὶ αὐτοκράτωρ Ῥωμαίων), withautokratordistinguishing the senior emperor of the juniorbasileus.[94]In later centuries, the title was shortened simply as "autokratorof the Romans ", resulting in a revival of that title.[129]In later centuries, an emperor would typically be acclaimed asbasileusas an infant and thencrowned by the Patriarchasautokrator.[96]Foreign rulers were usually referred to asreges(a Greek rendition ofrex), but the Eastern emperors were eventually forced to recognize other monarchs asbasileus,mainly theLatin,[130]Holy Roman,SerbianandBulgarian emperors.[94]

Later assertions to the title

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Main articles:Succession of the Roman EmpireandSuccession to the Byzantine Empire

Despite overthrowing Roman rule,Odoacernever claimed the imperial dignity. His successorTheodoric the Greatis sometimes said to have been an emperor in all but name, despite using the title ofrexand recognizing the emperor in Constantinople. He also used the ancient title ofprinceps(in full,princeps Romanus) anddominus noster,actively trying to imitate the old emperors.[o][131][132]He even requested and received theregaliasent to Constantinople by Odoacer, although it appears that he only requested the purple robes and not the imperial crown nor scepter.[133]

The rebelsBurdunellusandPeter,both active shortly after the fall of the West, are referred to as "tyrants" in sources. This may imply that they claimed the imperial indignity, although there is almost no information available for these rebellions.[134]TheBerbergovernorMastiesassumed the title ofimperatorshortly after 476, claiming to rule over the "Romans and Maurians."[135]The last attempt to restore the office of emperor in the West was during theSiege of Ravenna (539–540),when the Goths offeredBelisariusthe throne, which he refused.[136]

Number of emperors

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Portrait ofConstantius IIinFilocalus'sChronograph of 354

Several ancient writers tried to count the number of Roman emperors through history, but each of them gives a different count. The 4th-century historianFestusstates that "FromOctavian Caesar AugustustoJovian,there wereimperatores,43 in number, through 407 years [reckoning from43 BC] ".[137]The 6th-centuryChronicon PaschalecallsDiocletianthe "33rd Roman emperor". Adding the eight other emperors mentioned in the work would give a total of 41 emperors up untilConstantine I.[45]

A few writers also attempted to make their own lists of emperors. The 4th-century calligrapherFilocalus,in hisChronographia,records 58 emperors from Augustus to Constantine.[138]His contemporaryEpiphaniusrecords 44 emperors in his workOn Weights and Measures.[139]The 13th-centuryChronicon Altinaterecords 46 emperors in the same time period.[140]These discrepancies arise from the fact that there was never a defining distinction between "legitimate emperors" and "usurpers".[141]Other emperors had such uneventful or brief reigns that they are unmentioned by literary sources, like Licinius's co-emperorsValerius ValensandMartinian.[142]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^AlthoughRomulus Augustulus(r. 475–476) is often regarded as the last Western emperor, his predecessorJulius Neposcontinued to be recognized in the Eastern court as the legitimate ruler of the West.[1]
  2. ^The legend reads:spqrimp(erator) caesari aug(ustus) co(n)s(ul) xi tri(bunicia) pot(estas) vi;meaning "consul for the 11th time, [wielder of the] tribunician power for the 6th time".
  3. ^For a further discussion of thetribunicia potestasand the role of the Senate, see:Rowe, Greg (2002).Princes and Political Cultures: The New Tiberian Senatorial Decrees.University of Michigan Press. pp.41–66.ISBN978-0-4721-1230-2.
  4. ^There was, however, much precedent. Theconsulateof theRepublicwas a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past –Augustusplanned to leaveGaiusandLucius Caesaras joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to haveCaligulaandTiberius Gemellusdo so as well; asClaudiuswithNeroandBritannicus.All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).[40]
  5. ^The text reads:IMP CAES DIVI MARCI ANTONINI PII FILIVS / DIVI COMMODI FRATER DIVI ANTONINI PII / NEPOS DIVI HADRIANI PRONEP DIVI TRAIANI / PARTHICI ABNEPOS DIVI NERVAE ADNEPOS / L SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS PIVS PERTINAX AVG / ARABICVS ADIABENICVS PP PONTIF MAX / TRIBVNIC POTEST IIII IMP VIII COS II ET / MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS CAESAR / DEDICAVERVNT."Dedicated to Imperator Caesar, son of the divineMarcus Antoninus Pius,brother of the divineCommodus,grandson of the divineAntoninus Pius,great-grandson of the divineHadrian,great-great grandson of the divineTrajanconqueror of Parthia,great-great-great-grandson of the divineNerva,Lucius Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax Augustus,conqueror of Arabia and Adiabene,father of the fatherland,supreme priest,having thetribunician powerfor the fourth time,imperatorfor the eighth time,consulfor the second time, andMarcus Aurelius Antoninus Caesar."
  6. ^Consuls still maintained some privileges during the later Empire, but at times it was only an honorary office. Some emperors gave the title to their children. For instance;Valentinian IIassumed the consulate of 376 at the age of 5 andHonoriusdid the same in 386 at the age of 2.
  7. ^Amosaic in ItalyshowsConstantine IV(r. 668–686) alongside his co-emperorsHeraliusandTiberius.Constantine is calledmaior imperator,Heraclius and Tiberius being onlyimperator.
  8. ^Starting withDiocletian,almost every other emperor ruled alongside an equal or junior co-emperor. The only two emperors of this period to rule over the entire Roman Empire for their entire reign wereJulian IIandJovian,both of which only ruled about a year.Valentinian I,who succeeded Jovian, immediately divided the empire between himself and his brotherValens.After this the empire was again reunited byTheodosius I,but he died only a few months later.
  9. ^The Eastern Empire is often referred as the "Byzantine Empire"(fromByzantium,the original name ofConstantinople) in modern scholarship, although it was still technically the same state of Antiquity.[85]Their Greek-speaking inhabitants were calledRomaioi(Ῥωμαῖοι), and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe and the Near East, although they always had a more Greek-oriented culture because of the conquests ofAlexander the Great.TheOttoman Turksstill used the term "Rûm"(Rome) when referring to the Eastern Empire.[86]After the fall of Empire, theTsardom of RussiaproclaimedMoscowas the "Third Rome",regarding Constantinople as the" Second Rome ".[87]The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in Constantinople also began to follow divergent paths, culminating in theschism of 1054between theRoman CatholicandEastern Orthodoxfaiths.
  10. ^Manuel is referred asΒΑCΙΛΕΥC ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΩΡ ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ Ο ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΟC ΚΑΙ ΑΕΙ ΑΥΓΟΥCΤΟC( "basileusandautokratorof the Romans, Palaiologos, alwaysaugoustos"). His wifeHelena Dragašis referred asΑΥΓΟΥCΤΑ ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΟΡΙCΑ ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ Η ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΙΝΑ( "augustaandautokratoraof the Romans, wise Palaiologina "); his sonJohn VIIIis calledbasileus,whileAndronikosandTheodoreare calleddespotes.[90]
  11. ^A variation of the title was later adopted by theRussian emperors,who styled themselves as "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias".[95]In Russian, the title employs the titleimperator(император) instead of the traditionaltsar(царь), which had the same meaning.
  12. ^This is reflected in thenumberingused by scholars:John V Palaiologosis numbered afterJohn III VatatzesandJohn IV Laskaris,both emperors of Nicaea, but the other rival emperors are treated as entirely new lines of succession.
  13. ^Kaisarwas originally a common way of referring to the emperor in the East. By the 6th-century, however, writers considered it to be a lower title thanbasileus.[34]
  14. ^Initially the number of co-emperors was often no more than one.Constantine Inotably ruled alongside eight successive emperors of equal seniority (perhaps with the exception ofValerius ValensandMartinain).
  15. ^There is one inscription (erected by a senator and not Theoderic himself) that calls himaugustus,which may indicate that some of his subjects regarded him as an emperor.Procopiusrefers to him as a "genuine emperor" (basileus) despite being "in name an usurper" (tyrannos).[131]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^abBury 2012,p. 408.
  2. ^Watkin 2017,p. 37.
  3. ^Galinsky 2005,pp. 13–14.
  4. ^Williams 1997,p. 147.
  5. ^Heather 2005,p. 28.
  6. ^Barnes 2009,pp. 278–279.
  7. ^Barnes 2009,pp. 279–282.
  8. ^Sandys 1921,p. 285. "To describe him as the founder of the Empire is an error, for he bequeathed to Augustus rather warnings than examples";Craven, Maxwell (2019).The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome.Fonthill Media. pp.27.
  9. ^Watkin 2017,pp. 33–37.
  10. ^Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996,pp. 76–87;Eck & Takács 2007,pp. 50–58.
  11. ^Eutropius,Breviarium7.8"From that period he held the government as sole ruler for forty-four years, for during the twelve previous years he had held it in conjunction with Antony and Lepidus. Thus from the beginning of his reign to the end were fifty-six years."
  12. ^Jerome,Chronichon,184th Olympiad."2nd [ruler] of the Romans, Octavianus Caesar Augustus reigned for 56 years and 6 months; from whom the kings [basileus] of the Romans are calledAugusti."
  13. ^Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996,p. 201.
  14. ^Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996,p. 119;Eck & Takács 2007,pp. 50–58;Rich, John (2012)."Making the emergency permanent: auctoritas, potestas and the evolution of the principate of Augustus".Des réformes augustéennes:80–82.
  15. ^Ancient RomeatEncyclopedia Britannica
  16. ^Murray, John (1875).A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.University of Chicago.pp. 260–266.
  17. ^Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996,pp. 117–118;Petit 2022,pp. 46–47;Sandys 1921,pp. 287–288.
  18. ^Atkins, Jed W. (2018).Roman Political Thought.Cambridge University Press. pp.29–30.ISBN978-1-1071-0700-7.;Mousourakis 2017,pp. 238–239;Petit 2022,pp. 46–47.
  19. ^abMousourakis 2017,pp. 238–239.
  20. ^Mousourakis 2014,p. 18;Sandys 1921,pp. 287–288.
  21. ^Petit 2022,pp. 46–47;Sandys 1921,pp. 287–288
  22. ^Mousourakis 2014,p. 18;Mousourakis 2017,pp. 238–239.
  23. ^Mousourakis 2014,p. 18;Sandys 1921,pp. 287–288.
  24. ^Sandys 1921,p. 231;Petit 2022,p. 145;Mousourakis 2017,p. 242.
  25. ^Sandys 1921,p. 231;Bagnall, Roger Shaler;Worp, Klaas Anthony(2004).Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt.Brill. pp.4.ISBN978-9-0041-3654-0.
  26. ^Sandys 1921,p. 231;Petit 2022,p. 145.
  27. ^Petit 2022,pp. 46–47;Mousourakis 2017,pp. 238–239.
  28. ^Curran, John R. (2020),"From Petrus to Pontifex Maximus",The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60–800 CE),Brill, pp. 43–57,ISBN978-9-0044-2568-2
  29. ^Hekster 2022,p. 36.
  30. ^abTuori, Kaius (2019),"lex de imperio Vespasiani",Oxford Classical Dictionary,ISBN978-0-1993-8113-5
  31. ^Sandys 1921,p. 280.
  32. ^Canning, Joseph (2014).A History of Medieval Political Thought: 300–1450.Routledge.ISBN978-1-1366-2342-4.
  33. ^abBury 2012,pp. 15–16.
  34. ^abWifstrand, Albert (2005).Epochs and Styles: Selected Writings on the New Testament, Greek Language and Greek Culture in the Post-classical Era.Mohr Siebeck. pp.158–163.ISBN978-3-1614-8627-2.
  35. ^Petit 2022,pp. 52–54;Mousourakis 2014,p. 20.
  36. ^Petit 2022,pp. 52–54;Tellegen-Couperus 2002,p. 76;Kelly & Hug 2022,pp. 60–62
  37. ^Overmeire, Sam Van (2012)."Nero, the Senate and People of Rome: Reactions to an Emperor's Image".In Deroux, Carl (ed.).Studies in latin Literature and Roman History.Vol. XVI. pp. 472–491.
  38. ^Tellegen-Couperus 2002,p. 76.
  39. ^Tellegen-Couperus 2002,p. 76;Kelly & Hug 2022,pp. 60–62
  40. ^Birley, Anthony (2000).Marcus Aurelius.Routledge. pp. 117, 153 n. 157.
  41. ^abSmolin, Nathan I. (2021).Christ the Emperor: Roman Emperor and Christian Theology in the 4th Century AD(Doctoral thesis). University of North Carolina. pp. 22–23.doi:10.17615/wg7y-3h07.
  42. ^Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich; Constable, Giles (1982).People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies.Dumbarton Oaks. p.146.ISBN978-0-8840-2103-2.
  43. ^McEvoy 2013,pp. 36–41.
  44. ^Omissi 2018,pp. 33–34.
  45. ^abChronicon PaschaleOlympiads 266–276
  46. ^Humphries, Mark (2008)."From Usurper to Emperor: The Politics of Legitimation in the Age of Constantine".Journal of Late Antiquity.1:82–100.doi:10.1353/jla.0.0009.S2CID154368576.
  47. ^Rantala, Jussi (2017).The Ludi Saeculares of Septimius Severus: The Ideologies of a New Roman Empire.Taylor & Francis. p.95.ISBN978-1-3519-7039-6.
  48. ^Krsmanović, Bojana (11 September 2003)."Doukas family".Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor.Athens: Foundation of the Hellenic World.Retrieved17 April2012.;"Palaeologan Dynasty (1259–1453)".Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World.Asia Minor: Foundation of the Hellenic World. 2008.Retrieved2020-06-17.
  49. ^abClaes, Liesbeth (2015)."Coins with power?: imperial and local messages on the coinage of the usurpers of the second half of the third century".Jaarboek voor Munt- en Penningkunde.102:15–60.OCLC948592865.
  50. ^Omissi 2018,pp. 17ff.
  51. ^Bennett, Julian (2003).Trajan: Optimus Princeps.Routledge. p.49.ISBN978-1-1347-0914-4.
  52. ^abKulikowski, Michael (2006).Rome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric.Cambridge University Press. p. 199.ISBN978-1-1394-5809-2.
  53. ^"Collections Online | British Museum".britishmuseum.org.Retrieved2023-08-09.
  54. ^Omissi 2018,p. 131.
  55. ^Van Tricht, Filip (2011). "The Imperial Ideology".The LatinRenovatioof Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228).Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-20323-5.
  56. ^Omissi 2018,pp. 185–186.
  57. ^abElton, Hugh (2018).The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History.Cambridge University Press. p.112.ISBN978-0-5218-9931-4.
  58. ^Ruiz, María Pilar García; Puertas, Alberto J. Quiroga (2021).Emperors and Emperorship in Late Antiquity: Images and Narratives.Brill. pp.141–146.ISBN978-9-0044-4692-2.
  59. ^abcAguilera-Barchet 2014,p. 54.
  60. ^Bury 2012,p. 10.
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  62. ^abSouthern, Pat(2003).The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine.Routledge. p.254.ISBN978-1-1345-5381-5.
  63. ^Mousourakis 2014,p. 20.
  64. ^Hekster 2022,p. 189;Digeser 2000,p. 25.
  65. ^Tellegen-Couperus 2002,p. 77.
  66. ^Watkin 2017,p. 53.
  67. ^abDigeser 2000,p. 26.
  68. ^Digeser 2000,p. 25.
  69. ^Watkin 2017,p. 56;Bury 2012,p. 12.
  70. ^Digeser 2000,pp. 27–30.
  71. ^Watkin 2017,p. 56.
  72. ^Aguilera-Barchet 2014,p. 55.
  73. ^Sandys 1921,p. 231.
  74. ^abHekster 2022,p. 42.
  75. ^Cameron, A., & Schauer, D. (1982).The Last Consul: Basilius and His Diptych.The Journal of Roman Studies72:126–145.
  76. ^Riedel, Meredith (2018).Leo VI and the Transformation of Byzantine Christian Identity.Cambridge University Press. pp.100.ISBN978-1-1070-5307-6.
  77. ^McEvoy 2013,pp. 1–8.
  78. ^Bury 2012,pp. 5–6.
  79. ^Kim, Young Richard (2021).The Cambridge Companion to the Council of Nicaea.Cambridge University Press. pp.27–29.ISBN978-1-1084-2774-6.
  80. ^Watkin 2017,p. 62.
  81. ^Watkin 2017,p. 61.
  82. ^Sandberg, Kaj (2008)."The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire in AD 395: Notes on a Persistent Theme in Modern Historiography".Arctos.42:199–213.ISSN0570-734X.Bury 2012,p. 408.
  83. ^McEvoy, Meaghan (2017)."Shadow emperors and the choice of Rome (455–476 AD)".Antiquité Tardive.25:95–112.doi:10.1484/J.AT.5.114852.ISSN1250-7334.
  84. ^Demo, Željko (1988)."The Mint in Salona: Nepos and Ovida (474–481/2)".In Kos, Peter; Demo, Željko (eds.).Studia Numismatica Labacensia Alexandro Jeločnik Oblata.Ljubljana: Narodni muzej.
  85. ^There is much discussion on the term "Byzantine", as well as when does exactly the "Dominate" end and the "Byzantine" period begins.Mango, Cyril(2002).The Oxford History of Byzantium.OUP Oxford. pp. 1–5.ISBN0-1981-4098-3.
  86. ^El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004).Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs.Harvard University Press. pp.22ff.ISBN978-0-9328-8530-2.
  87. ^Parry, Ken; Melling, David, eds. (1999).The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity.Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 490.ISBN978-0-6312-3203-2.
  88. ^Kazhdan 1991,p. 413.
  89. ^Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996).Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720.Manchester University Press. p.345.ISBN978-0-7190-4791-6.
  90. ^Hilsdale, Cecily J. (2014).Byzantine Art and Diplomacy in an Age of Decline.Cambridge University Press. pp.260–262.ISBN978-1-1070-3330-6.
  91. ^Kaegi, Walter E. (2003).Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium.Cambridge University Press.p.194.ISBN978-0-5218-1459-1.;Kazhdan 1991,p. 264.
  92. ^Bury 2012,pp. 15–16;Kazhdan 1991,p. 264.
  93. ^Kazhdan 1991,p. 264.
  94. ^abcdKazhdan 1991,p. 235.
  95. ^"Chapter Six On the Title of His Imperial Majesty and the State Coat of Arms".The Fundamental State Laws of the Russian Empire.Russian Imperial House.Archivedfrom the original on Oct 22, 2023.
  96. ^abMacrides, Ruth; Munitiz, J. A.; Angelov, Dimiter (2016).Pseudo-Kodinos and the Constantinopolitan Court: Offices and Ceremonies.Routledge. pp.https://books.google /books?id=I9UYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT302302]–305.ISBN978-1-3170-7395-6.
  97. ^abcOstrogorsky, George (1956). "The Byzantine Emperor and the Hierarchical World Order".The Slavonic and East European Review.35(84): 1–14.ISSN0037-6795.JSTOR4204790.
  98. ^Magdalino, Paul (2017)."Basileia: The Idea of Monarchy in Byzantium, 600–1200".In Kaldellis, Anthony; Siniossoglou, Niketas (eds.).The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium(PDF).Cambridge University Press. pp. 575–598.ISBN978-1-1070-4181-3.
  99. ^"Caesaropapism | Byzantine Empire, Autocracy & Ecclesiastical Power".Encyclopædia Britannica.
  100. ^Kazhdan 1991,p. 1047.
  101. ^abJeffreys, Elizabeth; Haldon, John F.; Cormack, Robin (2008).The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies.Oxford University Press. pp.291–293.ISBN978-0-1992-5246-6.
  102. ^abcdHornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012)."Imperator".The Oxford Classical Dictionary.pp.728–729.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3268.ISBN978-0-1995-4556-8.
  103. ^abFor a discussion ofimperiumandimperator,seeFoster, Russell (2015)."All roads lead to Rome".Mapping European Empire: Tabulae imperii Europaei.Routledge. pp. 11–52.ISBN978-1-3175-9307-2.
  104. ^abSyme 1958.
  105. ^Barrett, Anthony A. (2002).Caligula: The Corruption of Power.Routledge. p.53.ISBN978-1-1346-0988-8.
  106. ^Sutherland, C.H.V. (2018).Roman Imperial Coinage.Vol. 1. Spink Books. p.133.ISBN978-1-9126-6736-9.
  107. ^abHammond 1957.
  108. ^abPaterculus(II, 80–90), for example, only usesprinceps,but the English text translates the word directly as "emperor".Livy(I. 19) calls Augustusimperatoronce, but he also uses the term when writing about other generals (II. 39ff).
  109. ^abcGreenidge 1901,pp. 352–355.
  110. ^Grierson, Philip (1973).Catalogue of Byzantine Coins, vol. 3: Leo III to Nicephorus III, 717–1081.Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 456–467.ISBN0-8840-2012-6.
  111. ^CIL2, 1660;6, 930.Tiberius is sometimes calledTiberius Julius Caesarinstead of the more commonTiberius Caesar.
  112. ^Loewenstein 1973,p. 349.
  113. ^Pagán, Victoria Emma (2017).Tacitus.Bloomsbury Publishing. pp.28–30.ISBN978-1-7867-3132-6.
  114. ^Harriet I. Flower (2006).The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture.Univ of North Carolina Press. p.225.ISBN978-0-8078-3063-5.
  115. ^Bury, J. B. (2015).The Imperial Administrative System in the Ninth Century.Cambridge University Press. p.35.ISBN978-1-1080-8150-4.
  116. ^Kazhdan 1991,p. 363.
  117. ^Rösch, Gerhard (1978).Onoma Basileias.Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 49–50.ISBN978-3-7001-0260-1.
  118. ^Novela 1, inJus Graeco-RomanumIII, p.67.
  119. ^Loewenstein 1973,p. 349;Strothmann, Meret (Bochum) (2006-10-01)."Augustus [2]".Brill's New Pauly.
  120. ^Suetonius,Augustus7.;Southern, Patricia (2013).Augustus.Routledge. p.196.ISBN978-1-1345-8949-4.
  121. ^Tacitus.Annals,Book II, 62, 90.
  122. ^Drocourt, Nicolas (2021).A Companion to Byzantium and the West, 900–1204.Brill. p.234.ISBN978-9-0044-9924-9.
  123. ^Salmon, Edward Togo (1968).A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138.Psychology Press. p.11.ISBN978-0-4150-4504-9.;Greenidge 1901,pp. 352–355.
  124. ^Res GestaeI.7,"For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD 14] I have beenprinceps senatusfor forty years. "Augustus thus dates his tenure asprincepsfrom 27 BC. He also only counts hisde juretenure as triumvir.
  125. ^Rees, Roger (2002).Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric, AD 289–307.Oxford University Press. pp.146–147.ISBN978-0-1992-4918-3.
  126. ^Goldsworthy 2010,p. 443.
  127. ^Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010).A Companion to Ancient Macedonia.John Wiley & Sons. p.375.ISBN978-1-4051-7936-2.
  128. ^Madariaga, Isabel De (2014).Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Russia.Routledge. pp.17–18.ISBN978-1-3178-8190-2.
  129. ^Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip (1973).Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection.Dumbarton Oaks. p.96.ISBN978-0-8840-2261-9.
  130. ^Tricht, Filip Van (2011).The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228).Brill. pp.357.ISBN978-9-0042-0392-1.
  131. ^abAmory, Patrick (2003).People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554.Cambridge University Press. pp.59.ISBN978-0-5215-2635-7.
  132. ^Fouracre, Paul; McKitterick, Rosamond; Abulafia, David (1995).The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 1, c. 500–c. 700.Cambridge University Press. p.146.ISBN978-0-5213-6291-7.
  133. ^Arnold, Jonathan J. (2014).Theoderic and the Roman Imperial Restoration.Cambridge University Press. pp.72–77,100–104.ISBN978-1-1070-5440-0.
  134. ^Collins, Roger (2008).Visigothic Spain 409–711.John Wiley & Sons. pp.35–36.ISBN978-0-4707-5456-6.
  135. ^Martindale, John R. (1980),Masties.The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire – Volume 2,Cambridge University Press, p.734,ISBN0-5212-0159-4
  136. ^Moorhead, John (2013).Justinian.Routledge. p.85.ISBN978-1-3178-9879-5.
  137. ^BreviaruminDe Imperatoribus Romanis.
  138. ^Chronography of 354 AD. Part 16: Chronicle of the City of Rome.Tertullian.org.
  139. ^Dean, James Elmer (1935).Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version.The University of Chicago Press. pp. 28–39.OCLC912074.
  140. ^Cessi, Roberto,ed. (1993).Origo civitatum Italie seu Venetiarum (Chronicon Altinate et Chronicon Gradense).Tipografia del senato. pp. 102–104.OCLC1067434891
  141. ^Omissi 2018,pp. 3–33.
  142. ^Barnes, Timothy D. (1982).The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine.p. 15.doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674280670.ISBN978-0-6742-8066-3.Literary sources explicitly style him Caesar, the coins Augustus

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