As of 2021[update],the island ofIrelandhad 5,585 MW of installedwind powercapacity, with 4,309 MW in theRepublic of Ireland.In 2020, wind provided over 86% of Ireland's renewable electricity and generated 36.3% of Ireland's electricity demand, one of the highest percentages globally.[1][2]In 2023, Wind Energy Ireland confirmed that wind farms provided 35 per cent of Ireland and Northern Ireland’s electricity in 2023, totalling a record breaking 13,725 gigawatt-hours (GWh).[3]Ireland has over 300wind farms,mostly onshore. APublic Service Obligationsubsidy supportsrenewable energyand wind power development, driven by concerns over energy, security, andclimate changemitigation.[citation needed]
Capacity Growth
edit
Eddie O'Connor,thenCEOof the semi-state owned peat harvesting company,Bord na Móna,commissioned the country's first "commercial wind farm" in a cutawaypeat boginCounty Mayoin 1992.[4]Wind power deployment in the Republic of Ireland began slowly during the 1990's but has accelerated in the2000's.Whilst annual wind capacity growth has been variable, it has shown an increasing trend (Figure 1).[5]Wind power has provided a steadily increasing share of electricity, from 4% (1,874 GWh) in 2005, to 28% in 2018 (10,195 GWh) (Figure 2).[5]In the first two months of 2020, wind provided 49% of electricity demand,[6]and a peak recorded output from wind power of 4,471 MW was delivered on 12 February 2021.[1]Wind is now the second largest source of electricity generation after natural gas, which accounted for 52% of electricity generated in 2018.[5]
Drivers of wind power expansion
editConcerns overenergy security(Ireland has an estimated 15.4m tonnes of coal reserves, peat bogs, offshore oil and gas fields, and has extensive wind resources), climate change mitigation policies, and compliance with EU Directives for market liberalization, have all shaped wind power development in Ireland.[7]
In theDirective[8]2001/77/EC, otherwise known as the RES-E Directive, theEuropean Unionstated a goal to have 22% of the total energy consumed by member states to be produced from renewable energy resources by 2010. As a result, Ireland, in a report titled "Policy Consideration for Renewable Electricity to 2010", made the commitment to have 4% of its total energy consumption come from renewable energy resources by 2002 and 13.2% by 2010. The Department of Communications Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR) founded the Renewable Energy Group (REG) which established the short-term analysis group (STAG) to investigate a means of accomplishing this goal. To meet the 2010 target of 13.2%, 1,432 MW of electricity will need to be generated from renewable resources with 1,100 MW being generated from wind resources both onshore and offshore.[citation needed]
State financial support
editState financial support for the national electricity sector, and particular technologies, has been influenced by a slow move towards liberalization, and concerns for energy security and climate change mitigation.[7]Ireland uses an industrysubsidyknown as thePublic Service Obligation(PSO) to support the generation of electricity from sustainable, renewable and indigenous sources, including wind.[9]The PSO levy is charged to all electricity customers. As of April 2020, for residential consumers, the current PSO levy is €38.68 per year inclusive ofvalue-added tax(VAT), and is displayed on the typical two-monthly electricity bill as €5.68 (€2.84 × 2) + 13.5% VAT.[citation needed]
The PSO levy funds the government's main mechanisms to support the generation of electricity from sustainable, renewable and indigenous sources. These mechanisms have shifted from the initial use of competitive auctions in the late 1990s, to a renewable energyfeed-in tariff(REFiT) from 2006 to 2015, and back to a new renewable energy auction scheme as of 2020. Ireland's initial use of competitive auction from 1996 failed to support the intended growth in wind development. Between 2006 and 2015, the government supported a REFiT, secured for 15 years. The 2020 REFiT reference price for large wind (>5MW) is €70.98 /MWh and for small wind (<5MW) is €73.47/MWh. In June 2020, Ireland will run its first competitive renewable energy auction under the government's new Renewable Energy Support Scheme (RESS-1).[10]RESS-1 support is structured as a two-way floatingfeed-in premium(FIP), roughly the difference between the 'strike price' set in the successful auction bid and the 'market reference price'. When costs of electricity suppliers exceed market revenues a Support Payment will be due to the supplier, and when market revenues exceed costs a Difference Payment will be due from the supplier. An economic analysis of the financial cost of different RESS options, estimated that a least cost auction with floating FIP mechanism would cost a domestic consumer €0.79 per month by 2030 (at 2017 prices).[11]This is significantly less than the current PSO levy rate to fund REFiT costs.
Offshore wind power
editTheArklow Bank Wind Park,located 10 km off the coast ofArklowon the Arklow Bank in theIrish Sea,is Ireland's only offshore wind farm. The wind farm is owned and built byGE Energyand was co-developed byAirtricityand GE Energy. The site has 7 GE Energy 3.6 MW turbines that generate a total of 25 MW. The development of the site was originally divided into two phases with the first phase being the current installation of 7 turbines. The second phase was a partnership between Airtricity andAcciona Energy.Acciona Energy had an option to buy the project after the facility is completed. The wind farm was planned to expand to 520 MW of power. However, Phase 2 was cancelled in 2007.[12]
Although the waters off the Atlantic coast of Ireland have higher winds, sites along the eastern coast, such as Arklow, have been chosen for their shallower waters, with depths of 20m or less.
In Belfast, the harbor industry is being redeveloped as a hub for offshore wind farm construction, at a cost of about £50m. The work will create 150 jobs in construction, as well as requiring about 1 million tonnes of stone from local quarries, which will create hundreds more jobs. "It is the first dedicated harbor upgrade for offshore wind".[13]
In 2023, an offshore wind auction approved four projects totaling 3 GW.[14]The Codling project won first approval for a power price around €90/MWh by 2027.[15]
Current trends
edit
Grid connections are currently allocated on a 'first come, first served' basis through the Gate 3 procedures. Upon reviewing the Gate 3 queue, it was noted that several large onshore and offshore wind projects are positioned lower in the queue, meaning they will likely be offered grid connections towards the end of the anticipated 18-month processing period, which began in December 2009.[16]
Under normal circumstances, planning permission expires after 5 years. However, Section 41 of the Planning and Development Act 2000 allows for an extended period. It is currently common to apply for and obtain a 10-year permission for wind energy developments. Section 42 of the same Act initially permitted a 5-year extension of the "appropriate period," provided that substantial works were carried out. This led to issues, as the term "substantial works" was not clearly defined, resulting in varied interpretations among planning authorities. This problem was addressed by the Planning and Development (Amendment) Act 2010, which introduced Section 28, allowing a one-off extension of up to 5 years if "there were considerations of a commercial, economic, or technical nature beyond the control of the applicant, which substantially militated against either the commencement of development or the carrying out of substantial works pursuant to the planning permission."[citation needed]
The fourth issue regarding the generation of wind power is the Renewable EnergyFeed-in Tariff,or REFIT.[17]REFIT's goal is to promote the development of renewable energy sources. For wind power production, the current limit to the tariff is 1,450 MW. However, applications currently being processed for grid connections exceed the limit by almost 1,500 MW for a total for nearly 3,000 MW. Since the limit is 1,450 MW, many of the applications for grid connections are most likely not eligible for the tariff.[18][failed verification]
5 largest onshore wind farms
edit| Wind Farm | Capacity(MW) | No. | Turbine Vendor | Model | Size (MW) | Operator | Completed | County |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oweninny | 192 | 60 | Siemens Gamesa Enercon |
SWT-3.2-113 N117/3600 |
3.2 3.6 |
ESB Bord na Móna |
2023 | Mayo |
| Galway Wind Park[19] | 174 | 58 | Siemens Gamesa | SWT-3.0-101 | 3.0 | SSE Renewables&Coillte | 2017 | Galway |
| Grousemount[20] | 114 | 38 | Siemens Gamesa | SWT-3.2-108 SWT-2.3-93 |
3.2 2.3 |
ESB | 2020 | Kerry |
| Ardderroo[21][22] | 101 | 22 | Nordex | N149 | 4.0 5.0 |
2023 | Galway | |
| Knockacummer[23] | 100 | 40 | Nordex | N90 | 2.5 | Greencoat Renewables | 2013 | Cork |
Controversy
editEconomy
editIn 2011, the 120-member Irish Academy of Engineering described wind as "an extremely expensive way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions when compared to other alternatives" like conservation,nuclear energyor theCorrib gas projectandLiquified Gas tankerimports atShannon,concluding that the suggestion of 40% grid penetration by wind, is "unrealistic".[24]In 2020, grid penetration had hit 36.3%[2]and was still increasing but slowly.[25]By contrast, theSustainable Energy Authority of Irelandsaid in 2014 that wind power cost the same as gas power.[26]In 2020 theIrish Timesreported that the cost of onshore wind energy had dropped over the last 20 years but that regulation on noise and height of turbines made Irish wind energy more expensive than elsewhere.[27]
Peatlands and bog landslides
editBuilding wind turbines and access roads on top ofpeatlandresults in the drainage and then eventualoxidationof some of the peat. The turbines represent a minor impact,[28]provided that the entire wind farm area is not drained, potentially emitting morecarbon dioxide(CO2) than the turbines would save.[29]Biochemist Mike Hall said in 2009; "wind farms (built on peat bogs) may eventually emit more carbon than an equivalentcoal-fired power station"if drained.[30]
A 2014 report for theNorthern Ireland Environment Agency,which has similar peatland, notes that building wind turbines on peatland could release considerable carbon dioxide from the peat, weakenflood control,and spoil water quality: "The potential knock-on effects of using the peatland resource for wind turbines are considerable and it is arguable that the impacts on this facet ofbiodiversitywill have the most noticeable and greatest financial implications for Northern Ireland. "[31]
TheIrish Peatland Conservation Councilmaintains a database on incidents where building wind turbines (and wind farms) on or near peatland caused devastatinglandslides,called "bog bursts" / "peat flows". These accelerate the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.[32]
In October 2003, the building of a wind farm inCounty Galwaycaused theDerrybrien landslide,an almost 2.5 km long, 450,000 m3bog landslide, polluting a nearby lake and killing 50,000 fish.[33]The lake was also the source of the town ofGort's drinking water.[34]If all carbon in the slide is being released, it represents 7–15 months of production from the wind farm in avoided carbon dioxide from fossil power.[29]In 2004, engineering companies were convicted of being responsible for the pollution,[35]while the wind farm company was acquitted.[36]The Irish government was convicted in 2008 of poor oversight.[37]
Following the Corrie Mountain bog burst of 2008, Ireland was fined by a European Court over its mishandling of wind farms on peatland.[32][38]By 2010, there had been at least three major bog landslides related to wind farms in Ireland.[28]
In 2020, there was another large bog landslide at a wind farm construction site at Meenbog,County Donegal.This polluted rivers that are protectedAtlantic salmonhabitats, and was predicted to have caused a "complete fish kill". Drinking water supplies linked to the rivers had to be suspended.[39][40]
The body representing industrial peat harvesting in Ireland,Bord na Móna,announced in 2015 the "biggest change of land use in modern Irish history": harvesting peat is being phased out by 2030, due to the long-expected depletion of profitable lowland peat,[41]at which point the company would complete its transition to becoming a "sustainable biomass, wind and solar power" organization.[42]
Local opposition
edit
Some on-land wind farms in Ireland have been opposed by local residents, county councils, theHeritage CouncilandAn Taisce (The National Trust)for their potential to blight the landscape, and having a harmful impact on protected scenic areas, archaeological landscapes, tourism and cultural heritage. In 2014, more than 100 protest groups united against government plans to build thousands of wind turbines in theMidlandsto export energy to Britain. Among other things, they argued the wind farms would ruin the landscape and mainly benefit "multinational corporations who are sucking subsidies from the UK taxpayers". The Irish government shelved the plans.[43][44][45]
In 2021, a proposed wind farm at Kilranelagh in theWicklow Mountainswas refused as it would have harmed the area's archaeological landscape, which includes the Baltinglasshillfortcomplex.[46]
An application to build a wind farm overlooking the scenic valley ofGougane Barrawas refused byCork County Council,who voted unanimously against it. The company appealed toAn Bord Pleanála,whose inspector also rejected it, stating it "would have significant adverse environmental and visual impacts and is not sustainable at this highly sensitive location". Despite this, An Bord Pleanála granted permission, on the grounds that the wind farm would contribute "to the implementation of Ireland's national strategic policy on renewable energy". The spokesman of the campaigners against the wind farm said the decision was undemocratic, as the local people and council opposed it.[47]
Environmental Impact & Greenhouse gases
edit
In a typical study of a wind farmsLife cycle assessment(LCA), in isolation, it usually results in similar findings as the following 2006 analysis of 3 installations in the US Midwest, were the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of wind power ranged from 14 to 33metric tonper GWh (14 - 33gCO2/kWh) of energy produced, with most of the CO2emissions coming from the production of concrete for wind-turbine foundations.[52]
However, when approached from the effects on the grid as a whole, that assess wind turbines' ability to reduce a country's total electric gridemission intensity,a study by theIrish national grid,agrid that is predominately (~70%) powered by fossil gas,(and if it was 100% gas, would result in emissions of 410 - 650gCO2/kWh.[53][54]) found that "Producing electricity from wind reduces the consumption of fossil fuels and therefore leads to [electric grid] emissions savings", with findings in reductions of the grid-wide CO2emissions to 0.33-0.59metric tonof CO2per MWh (330 - 590gCO2/kWh).[55]
These findings were of relatively "low [emission] savings", as presented in the Journal ofEnergy Policy,and were largely due to an over-reliance on the results from the analysis of wind farms LCAs in isolation.[50][51]As highelectric gridpenetration byintermittent power sourcese.g. wind power, sources which have lowcapacity factorsdue to the weather, either requires theconstruction of transmission to neighbouring areas,energy storage projectslike the 292 MWTurlough Hill Power Station,that have their own additionalemission intensitywhich must be accounted for,[56][57]or the more common practice of requiring a higher reliance on fossil fuels than thespinning reserverequirements necessary to back-up the more dependable/baseload powersources, such as hydropower andnuclear energy.[50]
This higher dependence on back-up/Load following power plantsto ensure a steadypower gridoutput has the knock-on-effect of more frequent inefficient (in CO2e g/kW·h)throttlingup and down of these other power sources in the grid to accommodate the intermittent power source's variable output. When one includes the intermittent sources total effect it has on other power sources in the grid system, that is, including these inefficient start up emissions of backup power sources to cater for wind energy, into wind energy's total system wide life cycle, this results in a higher real-world emission intensity related to wind energy than the in-isolationg/kW·hvalue, a statistic that is determined by looking at the power source in isolation and thus ignores all down-stream detrimental/inefficiency effects it has on the grid.[50]In a 2012 paper that appeared in theJournal of Industrial Ecologyit states.[49]
Thethermal efficiencyof fossil-based power plants is reduced when operated at fluctuating and suboptimal loads to supplement wind power, which may degrade, to a certain extent, the GHG (Greenhouse gas) benefits resulting from the addition of wind to the grid. A study conducted by Pehnt and colleagues (2008) reports that a moderate level of [grid] wind penetration (12%) would result in efficiency penalties of 3% to 8%, depending on the type of conventional power plant considered. Gross and colleagues (2006) report similar results, with efficiency penalties ranging from nearly 0% to 7% for up to 20% [of grid] wind penetration. Pehnt and colleagues (2008) conclude that the results of adding offshore wind power in Germany on the background power systems maintaining a level supply to the grid and providing enough reserve capacity amount to adding between 20 and 80 g CO2-eq/kWh to the life cycle GHG emissions profile of wind power.
According to theIPCC,wind turbines when assessed in isolation, have amedianlife cycle emission value of between 12 and 11 (gCO2eq/kWh). While the more dependable alpine Hydro power and nuclear stations have median total life cycle emission values of 24 and 12 g CO2-eq/kWh respectively.[53][54]
Regarding interconnections, Ireland is connected to adjacentUK National Gridat anelectricity interconnection level(transmission capacity relative to production capacity) of 9%.[58]The two grids have a high windcorrelationof 0.61, whereas the windcorrelationbetween the Irish grid and the Danish grid is low at 0.09.[59]
Tourism
editA significant feature of wind farms in Ireland is their ability to attract both local and tourists.. The Bord na Mona wind farm in Mount Lucas, Daingean, Co.Offaly has provided a local walk way through the newly established wind farm that attracts people of all ages. The walk way provides a safe environment off-road for walking, running and cycling. The walk way is approximately nine kilometres in distance with numerous stop off points for breaks. Maps can also be located in a variety of locations on the walk for guidance around the wind farm and back to allocated car parks. The walk way also provides aesthetic scenery on a relatively flat landscape. Such a walk attracts many people year round and circulates money back into the local community as tourists stop off in local shops.[60]
Grid study in Ireland
editA 2008 Irish study of the grid indicates that it would be feasible to accommodate 42% (of demand) renewables in the electricity mix.[61]This acceptable level of renewable penetration was found in what the study called Scenario 5, provided 47% of electrical capacity (different from demand) with the following mix of renewable energies:
- 6,000 MW wind
- 360 MW base load renewables
- 285 MW additional variable renewables (other intermittent sources)
The study cautions that various assumptions were made that "may have understated dispatch restrictions, resulting in an underestimation of operational costs, required wind curtailment, and CO2emissions "and that" The limitations of the study may overstate the technical feasibility of the portfolios analyzed... "
Scenario 6, which proposed renewables providing 59% of electrical capacity and 54% of demand had problems. Scenario 6 proposed the following mix of renewable energies:
- 8,000 MW wind
- 392 MW base load renewables
- 1,685 MW additional variable renewables (other intermittent sources)
The study found that, forScenario 6,"a significant number of hours characterized by extreme system situations occurred, where load and reserve requirements could not be met." The results of the network study suggested that, for scenarios with extreme renewable penetration, a system redesign would be necessary, rather than merely reinforcing the existing system. The study chose not to analyze the cost-effectiveness of the required changes, stating that "determination of costs and benefits had become extremely dependent on the assumptions made," and that this uncertainty could have impacted the robustness of the results.[62]
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ab"Wind Statistics".iwea.23 November 2021.Retrieved23 November2021.
- ^ab"Wind Energy Powers Ireland to Renewable Energy Target".28 January 2021.
- ^Sullivan, Chloé."New record set for wind power generation in 2023".windenergyireland.Retrieved7 November2024.
- ^"SPECIAL REPORT: A look at the wind energy debate".Irish Examiner.7 April 2014.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^abc"Energy In Ireland Report, 2019"(PDF).seai.ie.2019.Retrieved3 April2020.
- ^"Record wind levels Feb 2020".eirgridgroup.Retrieved3 April2020.
- ^abGaffney, F.; Deane, J. P.; Gallachóir, B. P. Ó (1 June 2017)."A 100 year review of electricity policy in Ireland (1916–2015)".Energy Policy.105:67–79.doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.02.028.hdl:10468/5299.ISSN0301-4215.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 13 May 2008.Retrieved6 November2007.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^"PUBLIC SERVICE OBLIGATION LEVY 2015/2016"(PDF).Cer.ie.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^"Ireland Renewable Energy Support Scheme: Terms and Conditions"(PDF).Government of Ireland.February 2020.Retrieved3 April2020.
- ^"Economic Analysis to Underpin a New Renewable Electricity Support Scheme in Ireland"(PDF).Government of Ireland.May 2017.Retrieved3 April2020.
- ^"Airtricity Welcomes Support for Offshore Wind Farm Development"(PDF).Airtricity.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^Harvey, Fiona(6 February 2012)."Offshore wind turbines set to benefit British industries".The Guardian.London.
- ^"Ireland makes history with its first offshore wind auction".WindEurope.12 May 2023.Retrieved22 September2023.
- ^"Revealed: Fred Olsen and EDF power price for first Irish gigascale offshore wind farm".Recharge | Latest renewable energy news.16 June 2023.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 21 July 2011.Retrieved15 December2009.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^"Renewable Energy Feed in Tariff".Iwea.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^"IWEA is the national association for the wind industry in Ireland".Iwea.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^"Galway Wind Park - Ireland's largest wind farm enters commercial operation".Coillte.24 October 2017.Retrieved3 August2021.
- ^Carmen (10 December 2021)."Grousemount Wind Farm, Ireland".Power Technology.Retrieved26 September2023.
- ^"Nordex to supply turbines for 101-MW wind project in Ireland".Renewablesnow.Retrieved26 September2023.
- ^"Amazon announces new project in Ireland as part of commitment to be 100% powered by renewable energy".EU About Amazon.24 August 2020.Retrieved26 September2023.
- ^"Greencoat subsidiary acquires two Irish wind farms".The Irish Times.Retrieved26 September2023.
- ^Energy Policy and Economic Recovery 2010-2015Archived14 May 2013 at theWayback Machine,page 5.Irish Academy of Engineering,2011.Archive
- ^Statista."Ireland: Installed wind power capacity 2021".
- ^SPECIAL REPORT: A look at the wind energy debate Monday, 7 April 2014, By Claire O'SullivanIrish ExaminerArchive
- ^O'Sullivan, Kevin."Ireland can 'almost halve' the cost of renewable electricity".The Irish Times.Retrieved15 November2021.
- ^abRichard Lindsay.Peat bogs and carbon,page 164.University of East London,14 June 2010
- ^abRichard Lindsay.Wind farms and blanket peat,page 70, 79-87, 111.University of East London,2004
- ^Fred Pearce."Greenwash: How a wind farm could emit more carbon than a coal power station | Fred Pearce | Environment".The Guardian.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^David Tosh, W. Ian Montgomery & Neil ReidA review of the impacts of onshore wind energy development on biodiversityArchived31 May 2015 at theWayback Machine,Northern Ireland Environment Agency, Research and Development Series 14/02, 2014, p.54
- ^ab"Habitat Loss of Peatlands, Wind Farms on Peatlands".Irish Peatland Conservation Council.Archived fromthe originalon 1 March 2014.
- ^Douglas, Ed (5 July 2006)."The hidden cost of wind turbines".New Scientist.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^Douglas, Ed (5 July 2006)."The hidden cost of wind turbines".New Scientist.Retrieved16 June2020.
- ^"Companies convicted for Galway river pollution".RTÉ.ie.20 October 2004.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^"Galway court dismisses pollution prosecution".RTÉ.ie.19 October 2004.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^"EU court rules against Ireland on Derrybrien".RTÉ.ie.3 July 2008.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^"Re: Moratorium on upland wind farm construction"(PDF).Friends of the Irish Environment. 12 May 2009.
- ^"Fears Donegal landslide has devastated EU protected salmon site".RTÉ News.18 November 2020.Retrieved18 January2022.
- ^"Donegal: Peat landslide linked to wind farm raised in Dáil".BBC News.18 November 2020.Retrieved18 January2022.
- ^Joanne Edgar (14 June 1987)."In The Bogs of Western Ireland".The New York Times.Ireland, Republic Of.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^de Róiste, Daithí."Bord na Móna announces biggest change of land use in modern Irish history".Bord na Móna.Bord na Móna.Retrieved6 October2015.
- ^"Ireland's rural protests over wind energy".BBC News.2 February 2014.
- ^"It's official: The Government has cancelled its Midlands wind energy export plan".TheJournal.ie.13 April 2014.
- ^"Export plan for wind energy dumped".Irish Examiner.14 April 2014.
- ^Dodd, Eimear (27 March 2021)."Permission to build five turbine wind farm at Kilranelagh refused".Irish Independent.Retrieved18 January2022.
- ^"Row over planned wind farm at Cork beauty spot Gougane Barra".The Irish Times.26 April 2022.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).srren.ipcc-wg3.de.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 June 2013.Retrieved17 January2022.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^abStacey L. Dolan; Garvin A. Heath (2012). "Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Utility-Scale Wind Power Systematic Review and Harmonization".Journal of Industrial Ecology.16:S136–S154.doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00464.x.S2CID153821669.
- ^abcdJoseph Wheatley (December 2013). "Quantifying CO2savings from wind power ".Energy Policy.63:89–96.doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.123.
- ^abMartin, Owen."Quantifying CO2savings from wind power | Biospherica ".Joewheatley.net.Retrieved15 January2017.
- ^White, S. W. (2007). "Net Energy Payback and CO2Emissions from Three Midwestern Wind Farms: An Update ".Natural Resources Research.15(4): 271–281.doi:10.1007/s11053-007-9024-y.S2CID110647290.
- ^ab"IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II I: Technology - specific cost and performance parameters"(PDF).IPCC. 2014. p. 10. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 15 December 2014.Retrieved1 August2014.
- ^ab"IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II Metrics and Methodology. pg 37 to 40,41"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 September 2015.
- ^"Impact of Wind Generation in Ireland on the Operation of Conventional Plant and the Economic Implications"(PDF).ESB National Grid. February 2004. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 May 2005.Retrieved15 January2008.
- ^"Study of Electricity Storage Technologies and Their Potential to Address Wind Energy Intermittency in Ireland. Co-authored with Dr. Brian Ó Gallachóir"(PDF).
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 July 2015.Retrieved19 July2015.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^COM/2015/082 final: "Achieving the 10% electricity interconnection target"TextPDFpage 2-5.European Commission,25 February 2015.ArchiveMirror
- ^Bach, Paul F. "Enlarged Wind Power Statistics 2010",page 4.Archive
- ^"Our Wind Farms".Bord na Móna.Retrieved1 December2016.
- ^"Study shows Ireland can be world leader in renewable energy".Department of Communications, Energy and National Resources.January 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 21 March 2012.Retrieved20 October2008.
- ^"All Island Grid Study"(PDF).Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources.January 2008. pp. 3–5, 15. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 18 March 2009.Retrieved15 October2008.
External links
edit
- sei.ie- Sustainable Energy Ireland, Ireland's national energy agency.
- iwea.ie- Irish Wind Energy Association
- Arklow Bank Wind Park, GE Brochure(PDF)
- 2012 Regional map of wind farms
