Wikipedia

Xenon

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, seeXenon (disambiguation).Not to be confused withXeonorCenon.

Xenonis achemical element;it hassymbolXeandatomic number54. It is a dense, colorless, odorlessnoble gasfound inEarth's atmospherein trace amounts.[15]Although generally unreactive, it can undergo a fewchemical reactionssuch as the formation ofxenon hexafluoroplatinate,the firstnoble gas compoundto be synthesized.[16][17][18]

Xenon,54Xe
A xenon-filleddischargetube glowing light blue
Xenon
Pronunciation
Appearancecolorless gas, exhibiting a blue glow when placed in an electric field
Standard atomic weightAr°(Xe)
Xenon in theperiodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Kr
↑
Xe
↓
Rn
iodine←xenon→cesium
Atomic number(Z)54
Groupgroup 18 (noble gases)
Periodperiod 5
Blockp-block
Electron configuration[Kr] 4d105s25p6
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 18, 8
Physical properties
PhaseatSTPgas
Melting point161.40K​(−111.75 °C, ​−169.15 °F)
Boiling point165.051 K ​(−108.099 °C, ​−162.578 °F)
Density
when solid (att.p.)
3.408 g/cm3[5]
(at STP)5.894 g/L
when liquid (atb.p.)2.942 g/cm3[6]
Triple point161.405 K, ​81.77 kPa[7]
Critical point289.733 K, 5.842 MPa[7]
Heat of fusion2.27kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization12.64 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity21.01[8]J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
atT(K) 83 92 103 117 137 165
Atomic properties
Oxidation states0,+2, +4, +6, +8 (rarely more than 0; a weaklyacidicoxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 2.60
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 1170.4 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 2046.4 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 3099.4 kJ/mol
Covalent radius140±9pm
Van der Waals radius216 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral linesof xenon
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure​face-centered cubic(fcc) (cF4)
Lattice constant
Face-centered cubic crystal structure for xenon
a= 634.84 pm (at triple point, 161.405 K)[5]
Thermal conductivity5.65×10−3W/(m⋅K)
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[9]
Molar magnetic susceptibility−43.9×10−6cm3/mol (298 K)[10]
Speed of soundgas: 178 m·s−1
liquid: 1090m/s
CAS Number7440-63-3
History
Discoveryand first isolationWilliam RamsayandMorris Travers(1898)
Isotopes of xenon
Main isotopes[11] Decay
abun­dance half-life(t1/2) mode pro­duct
124Xe 0.095% 1.8×1022y[12] εε 124Te
125Xe synth 16.9 h β+ 125I
126Xe 0.0890% stable
127Xe synth 36.345 d ε 127I
128Xe 1.91% stable
129Xe 26.4% stable
130Xe 4.07% stable
131Xe 21.2% stable
132Xe 26.9% stable
133Xe synth 5.247 d β− 133Cs
134Xe 10.4% stable
135Xe synth 9.14 h β− 135Cs
136Xe 8.86% 2.165×1021y[13][14] β−β− 136Ba
Category: Xenon
|references

Xenon is used inflash lamps[19]andarc lamps,[20]and as ageneral anesthetic.[21]The firstexcimer laserdesign used a xenondimermolecule (Xe2) as thelasing medium,[22]and the earliestlaserdesigns used xenon flash lamps aspumps.[23]Xenon is also used to search for hypotheticalweakly interacting massive particles[24]and as apropellantforion thrustersin spacecraft.[25]

Naturally occurring xenon consists ofseven stable isotopesand two long-lived radioactive isotopes. More than 40 unstable xenon isotopes undergoradioactive decay,and the isotope ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of theSolar System.[26]Radioactivexenon-135is produced bybeta decayfromiodine-135(a product ofnuclear fission), and is the most significant (and unwanted)neutron absorberinnuclear reactors.[27]

History

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Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemistWilliam Ramsayand English chemistMorris Traverson July 12, 1898,[28]shortly after their discovery of the elementskryptonandneon.They found xenon in the residue left over from evaporating components ofliquid air.[29][30]Ramsay suggested the namexenonfor this gas from theGreekword ξένονxénon,neuter singular form of ξένοςxénos,meaning 'foreign(er)', 'strange(r)', or 'guest'.[31][32]In 1902, Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth's atmosphere to be one part in 20 million.[33]

During the 1930s, American engineerHarold Edgertonbegan exploringstrobe lighttechnology forhigh speed photography.This led him to the invention of the xenonflash lampin which light is generated by passing brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas. In 1934, Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as onemicrosecondwith this method.[19][34][35]

In 1939, American physicianAlbert R. BehnkeJr. began exploring the causes of "drunkenness" in deep-sea divers. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth. From his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as ananesthetic.Although Russian toxicologistNikolay V. Lazarevapparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941, the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by American medical researcher John H. Lawrence, who experimented on mice. Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen, who successfully used it with two patients.[36]

An acrylic cube specially prepared for element collectors containing a glassampouleof liquefied xenon

Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to formcompounds.However, while teaching at theUniversity of British Columbia,Neil Bartlettdiscovered that the gasplatinum hexafluoride(PtF6) was a powerfuloxidizingagent that could oxidize oxygen gas (O2) to formdioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate(O+
2[PtF
6]−
).[37]Since O2(1165 kJ/mol) and xenon (1170 kJ/mol) have almost the same firstionization potential,Bartlett realized that platinum hexafluoride might also be able to oxidize xenon. On March 23, 1962, he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas,xenon hexafluoroplatinate.[38][18]

Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe+[PtF6]−,but later work revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon-containing salts.[39][40][41]Since then, many other xenon compounds have been discovered,[42]in addition to some compounds of the noble gasesargon,krypton,andradon,includingargon fluorohydride(HArF),[43]krypton difluoride(KrF2),[44][45]andradon fluoride.[46]By 1971, more than 80 xenon compounds were known.[47][48]

In November 1989,IBMscientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individualatoms.The program, calledIBM in atoms,used ascanning tunneling microscopeto arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal ofnickelto spell out the three-letter company initialism. It was the first-time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.[49]

Characteristics

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A layer of solid xenon floating on top of liquid xenon inside a high voltage apparatus
Liquid (featureless) and crystalline solid Xe nanoparticles produced by implanting Xe+ions into aluminium at room temperature

Xenon hasatomic number54; that is, its nucleus contains 54protons.Atstandard temperature and pressure,pure xenon gas has a density of 5.894 kg/m3,about 4.5 times the density of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, 1.217 kg/m3.[50]As a liquid, xenon has a density of up to 3.100 g/mL, with the density maximum occurring at the triple point.[51]Liquid xenon has a high polarizability due to its large atomic volume, and thus is an excellent solvent. It can dissolve hydrocarbons, biological molecules, and even water.[52]Under the same conditions, the density of solid xenon, 3.640 g/cm3,is greater than the average density ofgranite,2.75 g/cm3.[51]Undergigapascalsofpressure,xenon forms a metallic phase.[53]

Solid xenon changes fromFace-centered cubic(fcc) tohexagonal close packed(hcp) crystal phase under pressure and begins to turn metallic at about 140 GPa, with no noticeable volume change in the hcp phase.[54]It is completely metallic at 155 GPa.[55]When metallized, xenon appears sky blue because it absorbs red light and transmits other visible frequencies. Such behavior is unusual for a metal and is explained by the relatively small width of the electron bands in that state.[56][better source needed]

Xenon flashing inside aflashtubeframe by frame

Liquid or solid xenonnanoparticlescan be formed at room temperature by implanting Xe+ions into a solid matrix. Many solids have lattice constants smaller than solid Xe. This results in compression of the implanted Xe to pressures that may be sufficient for its liquefaction or solidification.[57]

Xenon is a member of the zero-valenceelements that are callednobleorinert gases.It is inert to most common chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because the outervalence shellcontains eight electrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound.[58]

In agas-filled tube,xenon emits ablueorlavenderishglow when excited byelectrical discharge.Xenon emits a band ofemission linesthat span the visual spectrum,[59]but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light, producing the coloration.[60]

Occurrence and production

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Xenon is atrace gasinEarth's atmosphere,occurring at a volume fraction of87±1 nL/L(parts per billion), or approximately 1 part per 11.5 million.[61]It is also found as a component of gases emitted from somemineral springs.Given a total mass of the atmosphere of 5.15×1018kilograms (1.135×1019lb), the atmosphere contains on the order of 2.03 gigatonnes (2.00×109long tons; 2.24×109short tons) of xenon in total when taking the average molar mass of the atmosphere as 28.96 g/mol which is equivalent to some 394-mass ppb.

Commercial

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Xenon is obtained commercially as a by-product of theseparation of airintooxygenandnitrogen.[62]After this separation, generally performed byfractional distillationin a double-column plant, theliquid oxygenproduced will contain small quantities ofkryptonand xenon. By additional fractional distillation, the liquid oxygen may be enriched to contain 0.1–0.2% of a krypton/xenon mixture, which is extracted either byadsorptionontosilica gelor by distillation. Finally, the krypton/xenon mixture may be separated into krypton and xenon by further distillation.[63][64]

Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at 5,000–7,000 cubic metres (180,000–250,000 cu ft).[65]At a density of 5.894 grams per litre (0.0002129 lb/cu in) this is equivalent to roughly 30 to 40 tonnes (30 to 39 long tons; 33 to 44 short tons). Because of its scarcity, xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gases—approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10€/L (=~€1.7/g) for xenon, 1 €/L (=~€0.27/g) for krypton, and 0.20 €/L (=~€0.22/g) for neon,[65]while the much more plentiful argon, which makes up over 1% by volume of earth's atmosphere, costs less than a cent per liter.

Solar System

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Within the Solar System, thenucleonfraction of xenon is1.56×10−8,for anabundanceof approximately one part in 630 thousand of the total mass.[66]Xenon is relatively rare in theSun's atmosphere, onEarth,and inasteroidsandcomets.The abundance of xenon in the atmosphere of planetJupiteris unusually high, about 2.6 times that of the Sun.[67][a]This abundance remains unexplained, but may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup ofplanetesimals—small, sub-planetary bodies—before the heating of thepresolar disk;[68]otherwise, xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices. The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may be explained bycovalent bondingof xenon to oxygen withinquartz,reducing theoutgassingof xenon into the atmosphere.[69]

Stellar

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Unlike the lower-mass noble gases, the normalstellar nucleosynthesisprocess inside a star does not form xenon. Nucleosynthesis consumes energy to produce nuclides more massive thaniron-56,and thus the synthesis of xenon represents no energy gain for a star.[70]Instead, xenon is formed duringsupernovaexplosions during ther-process,[71]by the slow neutron-capture process (s-process) inred giantstars that have exhausted their core hydrogen and entered theasymptotic giant branch,[72]and from radioactive decay, for example bybeta decayofextinctiodine-129andspontaneous fissionofthorium,uranium,andplutonium.[73]

Nuclear fission

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Xenon-135is a notableneutron poisonwith a highfission product yield.As it is relatively short lived, it decays at the same rate it is produced duringsteadyoperation of a nuclear reactor. However, if power is reduced or the reactor isscrammed,less xenon is destroyed than is produced from the beta decay of itsparent nuclides.This phenomenon calledxenon poisoningcan cause significant problems in restarting a reactor after a scram or increasing power after it had been reduced and it was one of several contributing factors in theChernobyl nuclear accident.[74][75]

Stable or extremely long lived isotopes of xenon are also produced in appreciable quantities in nuclear fission. Xenon-136 is produced when xenon-135 undergoesneutron capturebefore it can decay. The ratio of xenon-136 to xenon-135 (or its decay products) can give hints as to the power history of a given reactor and the absence of xenon-136 is a "fingerprint" for nuclear explosions, as xenon-135 is not produced directly but as a product of successive beta decays and thus it cannot absorb any neutrons in a nuclear explosion which occurs in fractions of a second.[76]

The stable isotope xenon-132 has a fission product yield of over 4% in thethermal neutronfission of235
Uwhich means that stable or nearly stable xenon isotopes have a higher mass fraction inspent nuclear fuel(which is about 3% fission products) than it does in air. However, there is as of 2022 no commercial effort to extract xenon from spent fuel duringnuclear reprocessing.[77][78]

Isotopes

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Main article:Isotopes of xenon

Naturally occurring xenon is composed of sevenstableisotopes:126Xe,128–132Xe, and134Xe. The isotopes126Xe and134Xe are predicted by theory to undergodouble beta decay,but this has never been observed so they are considered stable.[79]In addition, more than 40 unstable isotopes have been studied. The longest-lived of these isotopes are theprimordial124Xe, which undergoesdouble electron capturewith a half-life of1.8×1022yr,[80]and136Xe, which undergoes double beta decay with a half-life of2.11 × 1021yr.[81]129Xe is produced bybeta decayof129I,which has ahalf-lifeof 16 million years.131mXe,133Xe,133mXe, and135Xe are some of thefissionproducts of235Uand239Pu,[73]and are used to detect and monitor nuclear explosions.

Nuclear spin

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Nuclei of two of the stableisotopes of xenon,129Xe and131Xe (both stable isotopes with odd mass numbers), have non-zero intrinsicangular momenta(nuclear spins,suitable fornuclear magnetic resonance). The nuclear spins can be aligned beyond ordinary polarization levels by means of circularly polarized light andrubidiumvapor.[82]The resultingspin polarizationof xenonnucleican surpass 50% of its maximum possible value, greatly exceeding the thermal equilibrium value dictated byparamagneticstatistics (typically 0.001% of the maximum value atroom temperature,even in the strongestmagnets). Such non-equilibrium alignment of spins is a temporary condition, and is calledhyperpolarization.The process of hyperpolarizing the xenon is calledoptical pumping(although the process is different frompumping a laser).[83]

Because a129Xe nucleus has aspinof 1/2, and therefore a zeroelectricquadrupole moment,the129Xe nucleus does not experience any quadrupolar interactions during collisions with other atoms, and the hyperpolarization persists for long periods even after the engendering light and vapor have been removed. Spin polarization of129Xe can persist from severalsecondsfor xenon atoms dissolved inblood[84]to several hours in thegas phase[85]and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon.[86]In contrast,131Xehas a nuclear spin value of3⁄2and a nonzeroquadrupole moment,and has t1relaxation times in themillisecondandsecondranges.[87]

From fission

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Some radioactive isotopes of xenon (for example,133Xe and135Xe) are produced byneutronirradiation of fissionable material withinnuclear reactors.[16]135Xeis of considerable significance in the operation ofnuclear fission reactors.135Xe has a hugecross sectionforthermal neutrons,2.6×106barns,[27]and operates as aneutron absorberor "poison"that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the AmericanManhattan Projectforplutoniumproduction. However, the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms ofnuclear fuel).[88]

135Xe reactor poisoning was a major factor in theChernobyl disaster.[89]A shutdown or decrease of power of a reactor can result in buildup of135Xe, with reactor operation going into a condition known as theiodine pit.Under adverse conditions, relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may emanate from crackedfuel rods,[90]or fissioning of uranium incooling water.[91]

Isotope ratios of xenon produced innatural nuclear fission reactorsatOkloin Gabon reveal the reactor properties during chain reaction that took place about 2 billion years ago.[92]

Cosmic processes

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Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios inmeteoritesare a powerful tool for studying theformation of the Solar System.Theiodine–xenon methodofdatinggives the time elapsed betweennucleosynthesisand the condensation of a solid object from thesolar nebula.In 1960, physicistJohn H. Reynoldsdiscovered that certainmeteoritescontained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was adecay productof radioactiveiodine-129.This isotope is produced slowly bycosmic ray spallationandnuclear fission,but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions.[93][94]

Because the half-life of129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale (16 million years), this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the129I. These two events (supernova and solidification of gas cloud) were inferred to have happened during the early history of theSolar System,because the129I isotope was likely generated shortly before the Solar System was formed, seeding the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source. This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud.[93][94]

In a similar way, xenon isotopic ratios such as129Xe/130Xe and136Xe/130Xe are a powerful tool for understanding planetary differentiation and early outgassing.[26]For example, theatmosphere of Marsshows a xenon abundance similar to that of Earth (0.08 parts per million[95]) but Mars shows a greater abundance of129Xe than the Earth or the Sun. Since this isotope is generated by radioactive decay, the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere, possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was formed.[96][97]In another example, excess129Xe found incarbon dioxidewell gases fromNew Mexicois believed to be from the decay ofmantle-derived gases from soon after Earth's formation.[73][98]

Compounds

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See also:Category:Xenon compounds

After Neil Bartlett's discovery in 1962 that xenon can form chemical compounds, a large number of xenon compounds have been discovered and described. Almost all known xenon compounds contain theelectronegativeatoms fluorine or oxygen. The chemistry of xenon in each oxidation state is analogous to that of the neighboring elementiodinein the immediately lower oxidation state.[99]

Halides

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Xenon tetrafluoride
XeF4crystals, 1962

Threefluoridesare known:XeF
2,XeF
4,andXeF
6.XeF is theorized to be unstable.[100]These are the starting points for the synthesis of almost all xenon compounds.

The solid, crystalline difluorideXeF
2is formed when a mixture offluorineand xenon gases is exposed to ultraviolet light.[101]The ultraviolet component of ordinary daylight is sufficient.[102]Long-term heating ofXeF
2at high temperatures under anNiF
2catalyst yieldsXeF
6.[103]Pyrolysis ofXeF
6in the presence ofNaFyields high-purityXeF
4.[104]

The xenon fluorides behave as both fluoride acceptors and fluoride donors, forming salts that contain such cations asXeF+
andXe
2F+
3,and anions such asXeF−
5,XeF−
7,andXeF2−
8.The green, paramagneticXe+
2is formed by the reduction ofXeF
2by xenon gas.[99]

XeF
2also formscoordination complexeswith transition metal ions. More than 30 such complexes have been synthesized and characterized.[103]

Whereas the xenon fluorides are well characterized, the other halides are not.Xenon dichloride,formed by the high-frequency irradiation of a mixture of xenon, fluorine, andsiliconorcarbon tetrachloride,[105]is reported to be an endothermic, colorless, crystalline compound that decomposes into the elements at 80 °C. However,XeCl
2may be merely avan der Waals moleculeof weakly bound Xe atoms andCl
2molecules and not a real compound.[106]Theoretical calculations indicate that the linear moleculeXeCl
2is less stable than the van der Waals complex.[107]Xenon tetrachlorideandxenon dibromideare even more unstable and they cannot be synthesized by chemical reactions. They were created byradioactive decayof129
ICl−
4and129
IBr−
2,respectively.[108][109]

Oxides and oxohalides

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Three oxides of xenon are known:xenon trioxide(XeO
3) andxenon tetroxide(XeO
4), both of which are dangerously explosive and powerful oxidizing agents, andxenon dioxide(XeO2), which was reported in 2011 with acoordination numberof four.[110]XeO2forms when xenon tetrafluoride is poured over ice. Its crystal structure may allow it to replace silicon in silicate minerals.[111]The XeOO+cation has been identified byinfrared spectroscopyin solidargon.[112]

Xenon does not react with oxygen directly; the trioxide is formed by the hydrolysis ofXeF
6:[113]

XeF
6+ 3H
2O→XeO
3+ 6 HF

XeO
3is weakly acidic, dissolving in alkali to form unstablexenatesalts containing theHXeO−
4anion. These unstable salts easilydisproportionateinto xenon gas andperxenatesalts, containing theXeO4−
6anion.[114]

Barium perxenate, when treated with concentratedsulfuric acid,yields gaseous xenon tetroxide:[105]

Ba
2XeO
6+ 2H
2SO
4→ 2BaSO
4+ 2H
2O+XeO
4

To prevent decomposition, the xenon tetroxide thus formed is quickly cooled into a pale-yellow solid. It explodes above −35.9 °C into xenon and oxygen gas, but is otherwise stable.

A number of xenon oxyfluorides are known, includingXeOF
2,XeOF
4,XeO
2F
2,andXeO
3F
2.XeOF
2is formed by reactingOF
2with xenon gas at low temperatures. It may also be obtained by partial hydrolysis ofXeF
4.It disproportionates at −20 °C intoXeF
2andXeO
2F
2.[115]XeOF
4is formed by the partial hydrolysis ofXeF
6...[116]

XeF
6+H
2O→XeOF
4+ 2HF

...or the reaction ofXeF
6with sodium perxenate,Na
4XeO
6.The latter reaction also produces a small amount ofXeO
3F
2.

XeO
2F
2is also formed by partial hydrolysis ofXeF
6.[117]

XeF
6+ 2H
2O→XeO
2F
2+ 4HF

XeOF
4reacts withCsFto form theXeOF−
5anion,[115][118]while XeOF3reacts with the alkali metal fluoridesKF,RbFand CsF to form theXeOF−
4anion.[119]

Other compounds

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Xenon can be directly bonded to a less electronegative element than fluorine or oxygen, particularlycarbon.[120]Electron-withdrawing groups, such as groups with fluorine substitution, are necessary to stabilize these compounds.[114]Numerous such compounds have been characterized, including:[115][121]

  • C
    6    F
    5    –Xe+
    –N≡C–CH
    3    ,where C6F5is the pentafluorophenyl group.
  • [C
    6    F
    5    ]
    2    Xe
  • C
    6    F
    5    –Xe–C≡N
  • C
    6    F
    5    –Xe–F
  • C
    6    F
    5    –Xe–Cl
  • C
    2    F
    5    –C≡C–Xe+
  • [CH
    3    ]
    3    C–C≡C–Xe+
  • C
    6    F
    5    –XeF+
    2
  • (C
    6    F
    5    Xe)
    2    Cl+

Other compounds containing xenon bonded to a less electronegative element includeF–Xe–N(SO
2F)
2andF–Xe–BF
2.The latter is synthesized fromdioxygenyltetrafluoroborate,O
2BF
4,at −100 °C.[115][122]

An unusual ion containing xenon is thetetraxenonogold(II)cation,AuXe2+
4,which contains Xe–Au bonds.[123]This ion occurs in the compoundAuXe
4(Sb
2F
11)
2,and is remarkable in having direct chemical bonds between two notoriously unreactive atoms, xenon andgold,with xenon acting as a transition metal ligand. A similar mercury complex (HgXe)(Sb3F17) (formulated as [HgXe2+][Sb2F11–][SbF6–]) is also known.[124]

The compoundXe
2Sb
2F
11contains a Xe–Xe bond, the longest element-element bond known (308.71 pm = 3.0871Å).[125]

In 1995, M. Räsänen and co-workers, scientists at theUniversity of HelsinkiinFinland,announced the preparation of xenon dihydride (HXeH), and later xenon hydride-hydroxide (HXeOH), hydroxenoacetylene (HXeCCH), and other Xe-containing molecules.[126]In 2008, Khriachtchevet al.reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by thephotolysisof water within acryogenicxenon matrix.[127]Deuteratedmolecules, HXeOD and DXeOH, have also been produced.[128]

Clathrates and excimers

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See also:Excimer laser

In addition to compounds where xenon forms achemical bond,xenon can formclathrates—substances where xenon atoms or pairs are trapped by thecrystalline latticeof another compound. One example isxenon hydrate(Xe·5+3⁄4H2O), where xenon atoms occupy vacancies in a lattice of water molecules.[129]This clathrate has a melting point of 24 °C.[130]Thedeuteratedversion of this hydrate has also been produced.[131]Another example is xenonhydride(Xe(H2)8), in which xenon pairs (dimers) are trapped insidesolid hydrogen.[132]Suchclathrate hydratescan occur naturally under conditions of high pressure, such as inLake Vostokunderneath theAntarcticice sheet.[133]Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon, argon and krypton.[134]

Xenon can also formendohedral fullerenecompounds, where a xenon atom is trapped inside afullerenemolecule. The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be observed by129Xenuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) spectroscopy. Through the sensitivechemical shiftof the xenon atom to its environment, chemical reactions on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed. These observations are not without caveat, however, because the xenon atom has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene.[135]

When xenon atoms are in theground energy state,they repel each other and will not form a bond. When xenon atoms becomes energized, however, they can form anexcimer(excited dimer) until the electrons return to theground state.This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to complete the outermostelectronic shellby adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom. The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1–5 nanoseconds, and the decay releasesphotonswithwavelengthsof about 150 and 173nm.[136][137]Xenon can also form excimers with other elements, such as thehalogensbromine,chlorine,andfluorine.[138]

Applications

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Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from theEarth's atmosphere,it has a number of applications.

Illumination and optics

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Gas-discharge lamps

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Xenon short-arc lamp
Space ShuttleAtlantisbathed in xenon lights
Xenon gas discharge tube

Xenon is used in light-emitting devices called xenon flash lamps, used inphotographic flashesand stroboscopic lamps;[19]to excite theactive mediuminlaserswhich then generatecoherent light;[139]and, occasionally, inbactericidallamps.[140]The first solid-statelaser,invented in 1960, was pumped by a xenon flash lamp,[23]and lasers used to powerinertial confinement fusionare also pumped by xenon flash lamps.[141]

Continuous, short-arc, high pressurexenon arc lampshave acolor temperatureclosely approximating noon sunlight and are used insolar simulators.That is, thechromaticityof these lamps closely approximates a heatedblack bodyradiator at the temperature of the Sun. First introduced in the 1940s, these lamps replaced the shorter-livedcarbon arc lampsin movie projectors.[20]They are also employed in typical35mm,IMAX,anddigitalfilm projectionsystems. They are an excellent source of short wavelengthultravioletradiation and have intense emissions in the nearinfraredused in somenight visionsystems. Xenon is used as a starter gas inmetal halide lampsforautomotive HID headlights,and high-end"tactical" flashlights.

The individual cells in aplasma displaycontain a mixture of xenon and neon ionized withelectrodes.The interaction of this plasma with the electrodes generates ultravioletphotons,which then excite thephosphorcoating on the front of the display.[142][143]

Xenon is used as a "starter gas" inhigh pressure sodium lamps.It has the lowestthermal conductivityand lowestionization potentialof all the non-radioactive noble gases. As a noble gas, it does not interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp. The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating state, and the low ionization potential causes thebreakdown voltageof the gas to be relatively low in the cold state, which allows the lamp to be more easily started.[144]

Lasers

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In 1962, a group of researchers atBell Laboratoriesdiscovered laser action in xenon,[145]and later found that the laser gain was improved by addingheliumto the lasing medium.[146][147]The firstexcimer laserused a xenondimer(Xe2) energized by a beam of electrons to producestimulated emissionat anultravioletwavelength of 176nm.[22] Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer (or, more accurately, exciplex) lasers.[148]

Medical

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Xenon
Clinical data
ATC code
  • None
Identifiers
CAS Number
PubChemCID
DrugBank
UNII
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard(EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.028.338
Chemical and physical data
3D model (JSmol)
  • [Xe]
  • InChI=1S/Xe
  • Key:FHNFHKCVQCLJFQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Anesthesia

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Xenon has been used as ageneral anesthetic,but it is more expensive than conventional anesthetics.[149]

Xenon interacts with many different receptors and ion channels, and like many theoretically multi-modal inhalation anesthetics, these interactions are likely complementary. Xenon is a high-affinity glycine-siteNMDA receptor antagonist.[150]However, xenon is different from certain other NMDA receptor antagonists in that it is notneurotoxicand it inhibits the neurotoxicity ofketamineandnitrous oxide(N2O), while actually producingneuroprotective effects.[151][152]Unlike ketamine and nitrous oxide, xenon does not stimulate a dopamine efflux in thenucleus accumbens.[153]

Like nitrous oxide andcyclopropane,xenon activates the two-pore domain potassium channelTREK-1.A related channelTASK-3also implicated in the actions of inhalation anesthetics is insensitive to xenon.[154]Xenon inhibits nicotinic acetylcholineα4β2receptors which contribute to spinally mediated analgesia.[155][156]Xenon is an effective inhibitor ofplasma membrane Ca2+ATPase.Xenon inhibits Ca2+ATPase by binding to a hydrophobic pore within the enzyme and preventing the enzyme from assuming active conformations.[157]

Xenon is a competitive inhibitor of theserotonin5-HT3receptor.While neither anesthetic nor antinociceptive, this reduces anesthesia-emergent nausea and vomiting.[158]

Xenon has aminimum alveolar concentration(MAC) of 72% at age 40, making it 44% more potent than N2O as an anesthetic.[159]Thus, it can be used with oxygen in concentrations that have a lower risk ofhypoxia.Unlike nitrous oxide, xenon is not agreenhouse gasand is viewed asenvironmentally friendly.[160]Though recycled in modern systems, xenon vented to the atmosphere is only returning to its original source, without environmental impact.

Neuroprotectant

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Xenon induces robustcardioprotectionandneuroprotectionthrough a variety of mechanisms. Through its influence on Ca2+,K+,KATP\HIF, and NMDA antagonism, xenon is neuroprotective when administered before, during and afterischemicinsults.[161][162]Xenon is a high affinity antagonist at the NMDA receptor glycine site.[150]Xenon is cardioprotective in ischemia-reperfusion conditions by inducingpharmacologicnon-ischemic preconditioning. Xenon is cardioprotective by activating PKC-epsilon and downstream p38-MAPK.[163]Xenon mimics neuronal ischemic preconditioning by activating ATP sensitive potassium channels.[164]Xenon allosterically reduces ATP mediated channel activation inhibition independently of the sulfonylurea receptor1 subunit, increasing KATP open-channel time and frequency.[165]

Sports doping

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Inhaling a xenon/oxygen mixture activates production of thetranscription factorHIF-1- Alpha,which may lead to increased production oferythropoietin.The latter hormone is known to increasered blood cellproduction and athletic performance. Reportedly, doping with xenon inhalation has been used in Russia since 2004 and perhaps earlier.[166]On August 31, 2014, theWorld Anti Doping Agency(WADA) added xenon (andargon) to the list of prohibited substances and methods, although no reliable doping tests for these gases have yet been developed.[167]In addition, effects of xenon on erythropoietin production in humans have not been demonstrated, so far.[168]

Imaging

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Gammaemission from theradioisotope133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart, lungs, and brain, for example, by means ofsingle photon emission computed tomography.133Xe has also been used to measureblood flow.[169][170][171]

Xenon, particularly hyperpolarized129Xe, is a usefulcontrast agentformagnetic resonance imaging(MRI). In the gas phase, it can image cavities in a porous sample, alveoli in lungs, or the flow of gases within the lungs.[172][173]Because xenon issolubleboth in water and in hydrophobic solvents, it can image various soft living tissues.[174][175][176]

Xenon-129 is currently being used as a visualization agent in MRI scans. When a patient inhales hyperpolarized xenon-129 ventilation and gas exchange in the lungs can be imaged and quantified. Unlike xenon-133, xenon-129 is non-ionizing and is safe to be inhaled with no adverse effects.[177]

Surgery

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The xenon chlorideexcimer laserhas certain dermatological uses.[178]

NMR spectroscopy

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Because of the xenon atom's large, flexible outer electron shell, theNMRspectrum changes in response to surrounding conditions and can be used to monitor the surrounding chemical circumstances. For instance, xenon dissolved in water, xenon dissolved in hydrophobic solvent, and xenon associated with certain proteins can be distinguished by NMR.[179][180]

Hyperpolarized xenon can be used bysurface chemists.Normally, it is difficult to characterize surfaces with NMR because signals from a surface are overwhelmed by signals from the atomic nuclei in the bulk of the sample, which are much more numerous than surface nuclei. However, nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized bytransferring spin polarization to themfrom hyperpolarized xenon gas. This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure and distinguish from bulk signals.[181][182]

Other

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A prototype of a xenon ion engine being tested at NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratory

Innuclear energystudies, xenon is used inbubble chambers,[183]probes, and in other areas where a highmolecular weightand inert chemistry is desirable. A by-product ofnuclear weapontesting is the release of radioactivexenon-133 and xenon-135.These isotopes are monitored to ensure compliance with nucleartest ban treaties,[184]and to confirm nuclear tests by states such asNorth Korea.[185]

Liquid xenon is used incalorimeters[186]to measuregamma rays,and as a detector of hypotheticalweakly interacting massive particles,or WIMPs. When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus, theory predicts it will impart enough energy to cause ionization andscintillation.Liquid xenon is useful for these experiments because its density makes dark matter interaction more likely and it permits a quiet detector through self-shielding.

Xenon is the preferredpropellantforion propulsionofspacecraftbecause it has lowionization potentialperatomic weightand can be stored as a liquid at nearroom temperature(under high pressure), yet easily evaporated to feed the engine. Xenon is inert, environmentally friendly, and less corrosive to anion enginethan other fuels such asmercuryorcesium.Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s.[187]It was later employed as a propellant for JPL'sDeep Space 1probe, Europe'sSMART-1spacecraft[25]and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA'sDawn Spacecraft.[188]

Chemically, theperxenatecompounds are used asoxidizing agentsinanalytical chemistry.Xenon difluorideis used as an etchant forsilicon,particularly in the production ofmicroelectromechanical systems(MEMS).[189]The anticancer drug5-fluorouracilcan be produced by reacting xenon difluoride withuracil.[190]Xenon is also used inprotein crystallography.Applied at pressures from 0.5 to 5MPa(5 to 50atm) to a protein crystal, xenon atoms bind in predominantlyhydrophobiccavities, often creating a high-quality, isomorphous, heavy-atom derivative that can be used for solving thephase problem.[191][192]

Precautions

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Xenon
Hazards
NFPA 704(fire diamond)
[193]
Health 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chlorideFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazard SA: Simple asphyxiant gas. E.g. nitrogen, helium
0
0
0
SA

Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or metal containers atstandard temperature and pressure.However, it readily dissolves in most plastics and rubber, and will gradually escape from a container sealed with such materials.[194]Xenon is non-toxic,although it does dissolve in blood and belongs to a select group of substances that penetrate theblood–brain barrier,causing mild to full surgicalanesthesiawhen inhaled in high concentrations with oxygen.[195]

Thespeed of soundin xenon gas (169 m/s) is less than that in air[196]because the average velocity of the heavy xenon atoms is less than that of nitrogen and oxygen molecules in air. Hence, xenon vibrates more slowly in thevocal cordswhen exhaled and produces lowered voice tones (low-frequency-enhanced sounds, but thefundamental frequencyorpitchdoes not change), an effect opposite to the high-toned voice produced inhelium.Specifically, when thevocal tractis filled with xenon gas, its natural resonant frequency becomes lower than when it is filled with air. Thus, the low frequencies of the sound wave produced by the same direct vibration of thevocal cordswould be enhanced, resulting in a change of thetimbreof the sound amplified by the vocal tract. Like helium, xenon does not satisfy the body's need for oxygen, and it is both a simpleasphyxiantand an anesthetic more powerful than nitrous oxide; consequently, and because xenon is expensive, many universities have prohibited the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration.[197]The gassulfur hexafluorideis similar to xenon in molecular weight (146 versus 131), less expensive, and though an asphyxiant, not toxic or anesthetic; it is often substituted in these demonstrations.[198]

Dense gases such as xenon and sulfur hexafluoride can be breathed safely when mixed with at least 20% oxygen. Xenon at 80% concentration along with 20% oxygen rapidly produces the unconsciousness of general anesthesia. Breathing mixes gases of different densities very effectively and rapidly so that heavier gases are purged along with the oxygen, and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs.[199]There is, however, a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities: it may sit invisibly in a container, and a person who enters an area filled with an odorless, colorless gas may be asphyxiated without warning. Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern, though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space.[200]

Water-soluble xenon compounds such asmonosodium xenateare moderately toxic, but have a very short half-life of the body –intravenouslyinjected xenate is reduced to elemental xenon in about a minute.[195]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Mass fraction calculated from the average mass of an atom in the Solar System of about 1.29 atomic mass units.

References

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