Wikipedia

Yahweh

This article is about the ancient Levantine deity. For the modern Judeo-Christian conception of Yahweh, seeGod in Judaism,God in Christianity,andGod in Abrahamic religions.For the name "YHWH" and its vocalization, seeTetragrammaton.For other uses, seeYahweh (disambiguation).

Yahweh[a]was an ancientLevantinedeity, andnational godof theIsraelitekingdoms ofIsraelandJudah.[4]Though no consensus exists regarding the deity's origins,[5]scholars generally contend that Yahweh is associated withSeir,Edom,ParanandTeman,[6]and later withCanaan.The origins of his worship reach at least to the earlyIron Age,and likely to the LateBronze Age,if not somewhat earlier.[7]

A coin showing a bearded figure seating on a winged wheel, holding a bird on his outstretched hand
A 4th-century BCE silver coin from thePersianprovince ofYehud Medinata,possibly representing Yahweh enthroned on awinged wheel.[1][2]This identification is disputed, however.[3]

In the oldestbiblicalliterature, he possesses attributes typically ascribed toweatherandwar deities,fructifying the land and leading theheavenly armyagainst Israel's enemies.[8]The earlyIsraeliteswerepolytheisticand worshipped Yahweh alongside a variety ofCanaanite gods and goddesses,includingEl,AsherahandBaal.[9]

In later centuries,Eland Yahweh became conflated and El-linked epithets such asEl Shaddaicame to be applied to Yahweh alone.[10]Some scholars believe El and Yahweh were always conflated.[11][12][13]Characteristics of other gods, such as Asherah and Baal, were also selectively "absorbed" in conceptions of Yahweh.[14][15][16]

Over time the existence of other gods was denied, and Yahweh was proclaimed thecreator deityandsole divinityto be worshipped. During theSecond Temple period,speaking the name of Yahweh in public became regarded astaboo,[17]andJewsinstead began to substitute other words, primarilyadonai(אֲדֹנָי‬‎, "my Lord" ). In Roman times, following theSiege of Jerusalemand destruction of its Temple, in 70CE,the original pronunciation of the god's name was forgotten entirely.[18]

Yahweh is also invoked inPapyrus Amherst 63,and in Jewish or Jewish-influenced Greco-Egyptian magical texts from the 1st to 5th century CE.[19]

Name

The god's name was written inpaleo-Hebrewas𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄(יהוה‎ inblock script),transliteratedasYHWH;modern scholarship has reached consensus totranscribethis as "Yahweh".[20]The shortened formsYeho-,Yahu- andYo- appear inpersonal namesand in phrases such as "Hallelujah!"[21]The sacrality of the name, as well as theCommandmentagainst "taking the name 'in vain'  ", led to increasingly strict prohibitions on speaking or writing the term. Rabbinic sources suggest that, by theSecond Temple period,the name of God was pronounced only once a year, by the high priest, on theDay of Atonement.[22]After the destruction of Jerusalem in70 CE,the original pronunciation of the name was forgotten entirely.[18]

History

Periods

Philip KingandLawrence Stagerplace the history of Yahweh into the following periods:

  • Late Bronze: 1550–1200 BCE
  • Iron Age I: 1200–1000 BCE
  • Iron Age II: 1000–586 BCE
  • Neo-Babylonian: 586–539 BCE
  • Persian: 539–332 BCE[23]

Other academic terms often used include First Temple period, from the construction of theTemplein 957 BCE to its destruction in 586 BCE, exilic for the period of the Exile from 586–539 BCE (identical with Neo-Babylonian above), post-Exilic for later periods andSecond Temple periodfrom the reconstruction of the Temple in 515 BCE until its destruction in 70 CE.

Late Bronze Age origins (1550–1200 BCE)

There is almost no agreement on Yahweh's origins.[5]His name is not attested other than among the Israelites, and there is no consensus on its etymology, withehyeh ašer ehyeh( "I Am that I Am"), the explanation presented inExodus3:14,[24]appearing to be a late theologicalglossinvented at a time when the original meaning had been forgotten,[25]although some scholars dispute this.[26][27]Lewis connects the name to theAmoriteelementyahwi-(ia-wi), found in personal names inMaritexts,[28]meaning "brings to life/causes to exist" (e.g.yahwi-dagan= "Dagoncauses to exist "), commonly denoted as the semantic equivalent of theAkkadianibašši-DN;[29]thoughFrank Moore Crossemphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the verbal root of the name "Yahweh", and that attempts to takeyahwi-as a divine epithet should be "vigorously" argued against.[30][31]In addition, J. Philip Hyatt believes it is more likely thatyahwi-refers to a god creating and sustaining the life of a newborn child rather than the universe. This conception of God was more popular among ancient Near Easterners but eventually, the Israelites removed the association ofyahwi-to any human ancestor and combined it with other elements (e.g.Yahweh ṣəḇāʾōṯ).[32][needs update]Hillel Ben-Sasson states there is insufficient evidence for Amorites usingyahwi-for gods. But he argues that it mirrors other theophoric names and thatyahwi-,or more accuratelyyawi,derives from the roothwyinpa'al,which means "he will be".[33]

One scholarly theory is that he originated in a shortened form ofˀel ḏū yahwī ṣabaˀôt,"El who creates the hosts",[34]which Cross considered to be one of the cultic names of El.[35]However, this phrase is nowhere attested either inside or outside the Bible, and the two gods are in any case quite dissimilar, with El being elderly and paternal and lacking Yahweh's association with the storm and battles.[36]Even if the above issues are resolved, Yahweh is generally agreed to have a non-causative etymology because otherwise, YHWH would be translated as YHYH.[11]It also raises the question of why the Israelites would want to shorten the epithet. One possible reason includes the co-existence of religious modernism and conservatism being the norm in all religions.[11]

The oldest plausible occurrence of his name is in theEgyptiandemonymtꜣ šꜣsw Yhwꜣ,"YHWA(in) the Land of theShasu"(Egyptian:𓇌𓉔𓍯𓄿Yhwꜣ) in an inscription from the time ofAmenhotep III(1390–1352 BCE),[37][38]theShasubeing nomads fromMidianandEdomin northern Arabia.[39]Although it is still uncertain whether a relationship exists between the toponymyhwꜣand theonymYHWH,[40]the dominant view is that Yahweh was from the southern region associated withSeir,Edom,ParanandTeman.[6]There is considerable although not universal support for this view,[41]but it raises the question of how Yahweh made his way to the north.[42]An answer many scholars consider plausible is theKenite hypothesis,which holds that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along thecaravanroutes betweenEgyptandCanaan.[43]This ties together various points of data, such as the absence of Yahweh from Canaan, his links withEdomandMidianin the biblical stories, and theKeniteor Midianite ties ofMoses,[42]but its major weaknesses are that the majority of Israelites were firmly rooted inPalestine,while the historical role of Moses is problematic.[44]It follows that if the Kenite hypothesis is to be maintained, then it must be assumed that the Israelites encountered Yahweh (and the Midianites/Kenites) inside Israel and through their association with the earliest political leaders of Israel.[45]Christian Frevel argues that inscriptions allegedly suggesting Yahweh's southern origins (e.g. "YHWH of Teman" ) may simply denote his presence there at later times, and that Teman can refer to any southern territory, including Judah.[46]

Alternatively, some scholars argue that YHWH worship was rooted in the indigenous culture of theKingdom of Israeland was promoted in theKingdom of Judahby theOmrides.[46][47]Frevel suggests thatHazael's conquests in the Kingdom of Israel forced the two kingdoms to cooperate, which spread YHWH worship among Judean commoners. Previously, YHWH was viewed as the patron god of the Judeanstate.[46]

Early Iron Age (1200–1000 BCE)

Early Iron Age bull figurine fromBull Siteat Dhahrat et-Tawileh (modernWest Bank,ancientEphraim), representing El, Baal or Yahweh[48][49]

In the Early Iron Age, the modern consensus is that there was no distinction in language ormaterial culturebetween Canaanites and Israelites. Scholars accordingly define Israelite culture as a subset of Canaanite culture.[50]In this view, the Israelite religion consisted of Canaanite gods such as El, the ruler of thepantheon,[51]Asherah,his consort, andBaal.[52]ButIsrael Knohlargues that there is no evidence of any anthropomorphic figurines or cultic statues in Israel during this period, suggesting monotheistic practice.[53]

In the earliest Biblical literature, Yahweh has characteristics of a storm god typical of ancient Near Eastern myths, marching out fromEdomor theSinai desertwith the heavenly host of stars and planets that make up his army to do battle with the enemies of his people Israel:[54]

Yahweh, when you went out of Seir,
when you marched out of the field of Edom,
the earth trembled, the sky also dropped.
Yes, the clouds dropped water.
The mountains quaked at Yahweh's presence,
even Sinai at the presence of Yahweh, the God of Israel.
...
From the sky the stars fought.
From their courses, they fought againstSisera.

(Book of Judges5:4–5, 20,WEBWorld English Bible,theSong of Deborah.)

Alternatively, parts of the storm god imagery could derive from Baal.[15][47]: 78 

From the perspective of theKenite hypothesis,it has also been suggested that the Edomite deityQōsmight have been one and the same as Yahweh, rather than a separate deity, with its name a title of the latter.[55]Aside from their common territorial origins, various common characteristics between theYahwist cultand the Edomite cult of Qōs hint at a shared connection.[56]Doeg the Edomite,for example, is depicted as having no problem in worshiping Yahweh and is shown to be at home in Jewish sanctuaries.[56]

Unlike the chief god of theAmmonites(Milcom) and theMoabites(Chemosh), theTanakhrefrains from explicitly naming the Edomite Qōs.[57][58]Some scholars have explained this notable omission by assuming that the level of similarity between Yahweh and Qōs would have made rejection of the latter difficult.[59]Other scholars hold that Yahweh and Qōs were different deities from their origins, and suggest that the tensions between Judeans and Edomites during the Second Temple period may lie behind the omission of Qōs in the Bible.[60]

Late Iron Age (1000–586 BCE)

Painting on ajar found at Kuntillet Ajrud,under the inscription "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" (c. 800 BCE)

It has been argued that Yahweh was originally described as one of the sons of El inDeuteronomy 32:8–9,[61]and that this was removed by a later emendation to the text:[62]Nonetheless, some scholars argue that El Elyon ( "the Most High" ) and Yahweh aretheonymsfor the same deity in the text, based on contextual analysis.[63][64]

When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance,
when he divided up humankind,
he set the boundaries of the peoples,
according to the number of the heavenly assembly.
For the Lord's allotment is his people,
Jacobis his special possession.

(Book of Deuteronomy32:8-9,New English Translation,Song of Moses)

The lateIron Agesaw the emergence ofnation statesassociated with specificnational gods:[65]Chemoshwas the god of the Moabites,Milcomthe god of the Ammonites, Qōs the god of the Edomites, and Yahweh the god of the Israelites.[66][67]In each kingdom the king was also the head of the national religion and thus theviceroyon Earth of the national god.[68]Yahweh filled the role of national god in thekingdom of Israel (Samaria),which emerged in the 10th century BCE; and also inJudah,which may have emerged a century later[69](no "God of Judah" is mentioned anywhere in the Bible).[66][67]

During the reign ofAhab,and particularly following his marriage toJezebel,Baal may have briefly replaced Yahweh as the national god of Israel (but not Judah).[70][71]

In the9th century BCE,there are indications of rejection of Baal worship associated with the prophetsElijahandElisha.The Yahweh-religion thus began to separate itself from its Canaanite heritage; this process continued over the period from 800 to 500 BCE with legal and prophetic condemnations of theasherim,sun worshipand worship on thehigh places,along with practices pertaining to the dead and other aspects of the old religion.[72]Features of Baal, El, and Asherah were absorbed into Yahweh, and epithets such asEl Shaddaicame to be applied to Yahweh alone.[73]

In this atmosphere a struggle emerged between those who believed that Yahweh alone should be worshipped, and those who worshipped him within a larger group of gods;[74]the Yahweh-alone party, the party of theprophetsandDeuteronomists,ultimately triumphed, and their victory lies behind the biblical narrative of an Israel vacillating between periods of "following other gods" and periods offidelityto Yahweh.[74]

Some scholars date the start of widespread monotheism to the8th century BCE,and view it as a response toNeo-Assyrianaggression.[75][76]In an inscription discovered inEin Gediand dated around 700 BCE, Yahweh appears described as the lord of "the nations", while in other contemporary texts discovered inKhirbet Beit Lei(near Lachish) he is mentioned as the ruler of Jerusalem and probably also of Judah.[77]

Neo-Babylonian and Persian Periods (586–332 BCE)

Main article:Second Temple Judaism
TheSecond Temple,asrebuiltbyHerodc. 20–10 BCE (modern model, 1:50 scale)

In 587/6 BCEJerusalem fellto theNeo-Babylonians,Solomon's Templewas destroyed, and the leadership of the community were deported.[78]The next 50 years, theBabylonian exile,were of pivotal importance to the history of Israelite religion. As the traditionalsacrificesto Yahweh (see below) could not be performed outside Israel, other practices includingsabbathobservance andcircumcisiongained new significance.[79]In the writing ofsecond Isaiah,Yahweh was no longer seen as exclusive to Israel, but as extending his promise to all who would keep the sabbath and observe his covenant.[80]In 539 BCEBabylon in turn fellto the Persian conquerorCyrus the Great,the exiles were given permission to return (although only a minority did so), and by about 500 BCE theSecond Templewas built.[81]

Towards the end of the Second Temple period, speaking the name of Yahweh in public became regarded astaboo.[17]When reading from the scriptures, Jews began to substitute the divine name with the wordadonai(אֲדֹנָי‬), meaning "my Lord".[18]TheHigh Priest of Israelwas permitted to speak the name once in the Temple during theDay of Atonement,but at no other time and in no other place.[18]During theHellenistic period,the scriptures were translated into Greek by the Jews of theEgyptian diaspora.[82]Greek translations of the Hebrew scriptures render both thetetragrammatonandadonaiaskyrios(κύριος), meaning "Lord".[18]

The period of Persian rule saw the development of expectation in a future human king who would rulepurifiedIsrael as Yahweh's representative at theend of time—amessiah.The first to mention this wereHaggaiandZechariah,both prophets of the early Persian period. They saw the messiah inZerubbabel,a descendant of theHouse of Davidwho seemed, briefly, to be about to re-establish the ancient royal line, or in Zerubbabel and the first High Priest,Joshua(Zechariah writes of two messiahs, one royal and the other priestly). These early hopes were dashed (Zerubabbel disappeared from the historical record, although the High Priests continued to be descended from Joshua), and thereafter there are merely general references to a Messiah ofDavid(i.e. a descendant).[83][84]From these ideas,Second Temple Judaismwould later emerge, whenceChristianity,Rabbinic Judaism,andIslam.

Yahweh and the rise of monotheism

Although the specific process by which the Israelites adoptedmonotheismis unknown, it is certain that the transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period.[85][page needed]

It is unclear when the worship of Yahweh alone began. The earliest known portrayals of Yahweh as the principal deity to whom "one owed the powers of blessing the land" appear in the teachings of the prophetElijahin the 9th century BCE. This form of worship was likely well established by the time of the prophetHoseain the 8th century BCE, in reference to disputes between Yahweh and Baal.[76]The early supporters of this faction are widely regarded as beingmonolatristsrather than truemonotheists;[86][needs update]they did not believe Yahweh was the only god in existence, but instead believed that he was the only god which the people of Israel should worship.[87]

Finally, in the national crisis of theBabylonian exile,the followers of Yahweh went a step further and outright denied that the other deities aside from Yahweh even existed, thus marking the transition from monolatrism to true monotheism.[88]The notion that Yahweh is to be worshipped as thecreator-godof all the earth is first elaborated by theSecond Isaiah,a6th-century BCEexilic work whose case for the theological doctrine rests on Yahweh's power over other gods,[89][needs update]and his incomparability and singleness relative to the gods of the Babylonian religion.[90][improper synthesis?]

Benjamin D. Sommer argues that the distinction between polytheism and monotheism has been greatly exaggerated.[91]

Worship

Main article:Yahwism

Festivals and sacrifice

See also:Feast of Wine

The centre of Yahweh's worship lay in three great annual festivals coinciding with major events in rural life:Passoverwith the birthing oflambs,Shavuotwith thecerealharvest,andSukkotwith thefruitharvest.[92]These probably pre-dated the arrival of the Yahweh religion,[92]but they became linked to events in thenational mythosof Israel: Passover withthe exodusfrom Egypt, Shavuot with the law-giving atMount Sinai,and Sukkot with thewildernesswanderings.[67]The festivals thus celebrated Yahweh'ssalvationof Israel and Israel's status as his holy people, although the earlier agricultural meaning was not entirely lost.[93]His worship presumably involved sacrifice, but many scholars have concluded that the rituals detailed inLeviticus1–16, with their stress on purity andatonement,were introduced only after theBabylonian exile,and that in reality any head of a family was able to offer sacrifice as occasion demanded.[94]A number of scholars have also drawn the conclusion thatinfant sacrifice,whether to the underworld deityMolechor to Yahweh himself, was a part of Israelite/Judahite religion until the reforms ofKing Josiahin the late 7th century BCE.[95]Sacrifice was presumably complemented by the singing or recital ofpsalms,but again the details are scant.[96]Prayerplayed little role in official worship.[97]

Temples

Solomondedicates the Temple at Jerusalem (painting byJames Tissotor follower, c. 1896–1902).

The Hebrew Bible gives the impression that the Jerusalem temple was always meant to be the central or even sole temple of Yahweh, but this was not the case.[67]The earliest known Israelite place of worship is a 12th-century BCE open-air altar in the hills ofSamariafeaturing a bronze bull reminiscent of CanaaniteBull-El(El in the form of a bull) and the archaeological remains of further temples have been found atDanon Israel's northern border, atAradin theNegevandBeersheba,both in the territory of Judah.[98]Shiloh,Bethel,Gilgal,Mizpah,Ramahand Dan were also major sites for festivals, sacrifices, the making ofvows,private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes.[99]

Portrayal

Yahweh-worship was famouslyaniconic,meaning that the god was not depicted by a statue or other image. This is not to say that he was not represented in some symbolic form, and early Israelite worship probably focused onstanding stones,but according to the Biblical texts the temple in Jerusalem featured Yahweh's throne in the form of twocherubim,their inner wings forming the seat and a box (theArk of the Covenant) as a footstool, while the throne itself was empty.[100]

There is no universally accepted explanation for suchaniconism,and a number of scholars have argued that Yahweh was in fact represented prior to the reforms ofHezekiahandJosiahlate in the monarchic period: to quote one study, "[a]n early aniconism,de factoor otherwise, is purely a projection of thepost-exilicimagination ".[101]Other scholars argue that there is no certain evidence of anyanthropomorphicrepresentation of Yahweh during the pre-exilic period.[102]

Graeco-Roman syncretism

Yahweh is frequently invoked inGraeco-Roman magicaltexts dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, most notably in theGreek Magical Papyri,[103]under the namesIao,Adonai,Sabaoth,andEloai.[19]In these texts, he is often mentioned alongside traditionalGraeco-Roman deitiesandEgyptian deities.[19]ThearchangelsMichael,Gabriel,Raphael,andOurieland Jewishcultural heroessuch asAbraham,Jacob,andMosesare also invoked frequently.[104]The frequent occurrence of Yahweh's name was likely due to Greek and Roman folk magicians seeking to make their spells more powerful through the invocation of a prestigious foreign deity.[19]

A coin issued byPompeyto celebrate his successfulconquest of Judaeashowed a kneeling, bearded figure grasping a branch (a common Roman symbol of submission) subtitledBACCHIVS IVDAEVS,which may be translated as either "The JewishBacchus"or" Bacchus the Judaean ". The figure has been interpreted as depicting Yahweh as a local variety of Bacchus, that is,Dionysus.[105]However, as coins minted with such iconography ordinarily depicted subjected persons, and not the gods of a subjected people, some have assumed the coin simply depicts the surrender of a Judean who was called "Bacchius", sometimes identified as the Hasmonean kingAristobulus II,who was overthrown by Pompey's campaign.[106][107][108][109]

In any event,Tacitus,John the Lydian,Cornelius Labeo,andMarcus Terentius Varrosimilarly identify Yahweh with Bacchus–Dionysus.[110]Jews themselves frequently used symbols that were also associated with Dionysus such askylixes,amphorae,leaves ofivy,and clusters ofgrapes,a similarityPlutarchused to argue that Jews worshipped ahypostasizedform of Bacchus–Dionysus.[111]In hisQuaestiones Convivales,Plutarch further notes that the Jews hail their god with cries of "Euoi"and"Sabi",phrases associated with the worship of Dionysus.[112][113][114]According toSean M. McDonough,Greek speakers may have confusedAramaicwords such asSabbath,Alleluia,or even possibly some variant of the name Yahweh itself, for more familiar terms associated with Dionysus.[115]

Other Roman writers, such asJuvenal,Petronius,andFlorus,identified Yahweh with the godCaelus.[116][117][118]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^/ˈjɑːhweɪ/,or often/ˈjɑːweɪ/in English; ‬𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄 inPaleo-Hebrew;reconstructedin block script:*יַהְוֶה‎*Yahwe,[jahˈwe]

Citations

  1. ^Edelman 1995,p. 190.
  2. ^Stavrakopoulou 2021,pp. 411–412, 742.
  3. ^Pyschny 2021,pp. 26–27.
  4. ^Miller & Hayes 1986,p. 110.
  5. ^abFleming 2020,p. 3.
  6. ^abSmith 2017,p. 42.
  7. ^Miller 2000,p. 1.
  8. ^Hackett 2001,pp. 158–59.
  9. ^Smith 2002,p. 7.
  10. ^Smith 2002,pp. 8, 33–34.
  11. ^abcLewis 2020,p. 222.
  12. ^Cross 1973,pp. 96–97.
  13. ^Cornell 2021,p. 18.
  14. ^Smith 2002,pp. 8, 135.
  15. ^abSmith 2017,p. 38.
  16. ^Cornell 2021,p. 20.
  17. ^abLeech 2002,pp. 59–60.
  18. ^abcdeLeech 2002,p. 60.
  19. ^abcdSmith & Cohen 1996b,pp. 242–256.
  20. ^Alter 2018:"The strong consensus of biblical scholarship is that the original pronunciation of the name YHWH... was Yahweh."
  21. ^Preuss 2008,p. 823.
  22. ^Elior 2006,p. 779: "... the pronunciation of the Ineffable Name was one of the climaxes of the Sacred Service: it was entrusted exclusively to the High Priest once a year on the Day of Atonement in the Holy of Holies."
  23. ^King & Stager 2001,p. xxiii.
  24. ^Exodus 3:14
  25. ^Parke-Taylor 1975,p. 51.
  26. ^Lewis 2020,p. 214.
  27. ^Miller II 2021,p. 18.
  28. ^Kitz 2019,pp. 42, 57.
  29. ^Lewis 2020,pp. 211, 215.
  30. ^Cross 1973,pp. 61–63.
  31. ^Fleming 2020,p. 176: "There has been one key objection, by Michael Streck, who reevaluated Amorite personal names as a whole in 2000 and as part of this work published the separate conclusion (1999) that all theYa-wi-andYa-aḫ-wi-elements in these names must be understood to reflect the same rootḥwy,"to live"....If Streck is correct that these are all forms of the verb "to live", then the Amorite personal names must be set aside as useful to any interpretation of the name [Yahweh]. "But seeFleming 2020b,p. 425: "While the identifcation of the verbal root in the Amorite names with and without the -ḫ- remains impossible to prove with certainty, the parallels with contemporary Old Babylonian Ibašši-DN and the later second-millennium parallels from the verbkwnshow the viability of a West Semitic roothwy,"to be, be evident", for at least some portion of these Amorite names. "
  32. ^Hyatt, J. Philip (1967)."Was Yahweh Originally a Creator Deity?".Journal of Biblical Literature.86(4): 369–377.doi:10.2307/3262791.JSTOR3262791– via JSTOR.
  33. ^Ben-Sasson 2019,pp. 55–56.
  34. ^Miller 2000,p. 2.
  35. ^Cross 1973,p. 71.
  36. ^Day 2002,pp. 13–14.
  37. ^Shalomi Hen 2021.
  38. ^Anderson 2015,p. 100.
  39. ^Grabbe 2007,p. 151.
  40. ^Shalomi Hen 2021:"Unfortunately, albeit the interesting analogies, the learned discussions, and the broad perspective, the evidence is too scanty to allow any conclusions concerning the exact meaning of the term YHWA/YHA/YH as it appears in Ancient Egyptian records."
  41. ^Grabbe 2007,p. 153.
  42. ^abVan der Toorn 1999,p. 912.
  43. ^Van der Toorn 1999,pp. 912–13.
  44. ^Van der Toorn 1995,pp. 247–248.
  45. ^Van der Toorn 1995,p. 248.
  46. ^abcFrevel, Christian (2021)."When and from Where did YHWH Emerge? Some Reflections on Early Yahwism in Israel and Judah".Entangled Religions.12(2).doi:10.46586/er.12.2021.8776.hdl:2263/84039.ISSN2363-6696.
  47. ^abStahl, Michael J. (2021)."God's Best 'Frenemy': A New Perspective on YHWH and Baal in Ancient Israel and Judah".Semitica.63:45–94.doi:10.2143/SE.63.0.3289896.ISSN2466-6815.
  48. ^Smith 2002,p. 83.
  49. ^Stavrakopoulou 2021,p. 395.
  50. ^Smith 2002,pp. 7, 19–31.
  51. ^Golden 2009,p. 182.
  52. ^Smith 2002,pp. 19–31.
  53. ^Knohl 2017,pp. 171–172.
  54. ^Hackett 2001,pp. 158–160.
  55. ^Anderson 2015,p. 101.
  56. ^abManyanya, Lévi Ngangura (2009).La fraternité de Jacob et d'Esaü (Gn 25–36): quel frère aîné pour Jacob?(in French). Labor et Fides. p. 257.ISBN978-2-8309-1253-1.
  57. ^E. A. Knauf. (1999). Qos [in] Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst [eds.],Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible,pp. 674–677. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing: "This clan or family must have been of Edomite or Idumaean origin." (p. 677).
  58. ^Elie Assis,Identity in Conflict: The Struggle between Esau and Jacob, Edom and Israel,Penn State Press,2016ISBN978-1-575-06418-5p.10: At 1 Kgs 1–8 there is exceptionally no mention of any Edomite gods:'King Solomon loved many foreign women along with the daughter of the Pharaoh: Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian, and Hittite women.... For Solomon followed Astarte the goddess of the Sidonians, and Milcom the aboimination of the Ammonites.... Then Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the abomination of Moab, and for Molech the abomination of the Ammonites, on the mountain east of Jerusalem. He did the same for all his foreign wives, who offered incense and sacrificed to their gods.'
  59. ^Dicou 1994,p. 177.
  60. ^Tebes 2023.
  61. ^Deuteronomy 32:8–9
  62. ^Anderson 2015,p. 77.
  63. ^Hess 2007,pp. 103–104.
  64. ^Smith 2008,p. 203.
  65. ^Schniedewind 2013,p. 93.
  66. ^abHackett 2001,p. 156.
  67. ^abcdDavies 2010,p. 112.
  68. ^Miller 2000,p. 90.
  69. ^Geller 2012,p. unpaginated.
  70. ^Smith 2002,pp. 71–72.
  71. ^Campbell 2001,pp. 221–222.
  72. ^Smith 2002,p. 9.
  73. ^Smith 2002,pp. 8, 33–34, 135.
  74. ^abSperling 2017,p. 254.
  75. ^Smith 2016,p. 287.
  76. ^abAlbertz 1994,p. 61.
  77. ^Hess 2020,p. 247–248.
  78. ^Grabbe 2010,p. 2.
  79. ^Cogan 2001,p. 271.
  80. ^Cogan 2001,p. 274.
  81. ^Grabbe 2010,pp. 2–3.
  82. ^Coogan, Brettler & Newsom 2007,p. xxvi.
  83. ^Wanke 1984,pp. 182–183.
  84. ^Albertz 2003,p.130.
  85. ^Taliaferro, Charles; Harrison, Victoria S.; Goetz, Stewart (2012).The Routledge Companion to Theism.Routledge.
  86. ^Eakin 1971,pp. 70, 263.
  87. ^McKenzie 1990,p. 1287.
  88. ^Betz 2000,p. 917.
  89. ^Rosenberg 1966,p. 297.
  90. ^Albani 2020,p. 226.
  91. ^Sommer 2009,p. 145.
  92. ^abAlbertz 1994,p. 89.
  93. ^Gorman 2000,p. 458.
  94. ^Davies & Rogerson 2005,pp. 151–152.
  95. ^Gnuse 1997,p. 118.
  96. ^Davies & Rogerson 2005,pp. 158–165.
  97. ^Cohen 1999,p. 302.
  98. ^Dever 2003a,p. 388.
  99. ^Bennett 2002,p. 83.
  100. ^Mettinger 2006,pp. 288–290.
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  102. ^Lewis 2020,pp. 293–297.
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  104. ^Arnold 1996,p.[page needed].
  105. ^Scott 2015,pp. 169–172.
  106. ^Scott 2015,pp. 11, 16, 80, 126.
  107. ^Levine, Lee I. (1998).Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity: Conflict or Confluence?.University of Washington Press. pp. 38–60.ISBN978-0-295-97682-2.JSTORj.ctvcwnpvs.
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  112. ^Plutarch n.d.,"Question VI".
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  114. ^Smith & Cohen 1996a,pp. 232–233.
  115. ^McDonough 1999,pp. 89–90.
  116. ^Juvenal,Satires14.97; Peter Schäfer,Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World(Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 41, 79–80.
  117. ^Petronius,frg. 37.2; Schäfer,Judeophobia,pp. 77–78.
  118. ^Florus,Epitome1.40 (3.5.30): "The Jews tried to defendJerusalem;but he[Pompeius Magnus]entered this city also and saw that grand Holy of Holies of an impious people exposed, Caelum under a golden vine "(Hierosolymam defendere temptavere Iudaei; verum haec quoque et intravit et vidit illud grande inpiae gentis arcanum patens, sub aurea vite Caelum).Finbarr Barry Flood,The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture(Brill, 2001), pp. 81 and 83 (note 118). TheOxford Latin Dictionary(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 252, entry oncaelum,cites Juvenal, Petronius, and Florus as examples ofCaelusorCaelum"with reference toJehovah;also, to some symbolization of Jehovah. "

Sources

Further reading

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