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Zaydism

(Redirected fromZaydi)
For the surname Zaidi and other uses, seeZaidi (disambiguation).

Zaydism(Arabic:الزَّيْدِيَّة,romanized:az-Zaydiyya) is one of the three main branches[1]ofShia Islamthat emerged in the eighth century followingZayd ibn Ali‘sunsuccessful rebellionagainst theUmayyad Caliphate.[2]Zaydism is typically considered to be a branch of Shia Islam that comes closest to theSunni,although the "classical" form of Zaydism (usually referred to asHadawi) over the centuries had changed its posture with regard to Sunni and Shia traditions multiple times, to the point where interpretation of Zaydi as Shia is often based on just their acceptance ofAlias a rightful successor to prophetMuhammad.[3]Mainstream ( "twelver") Shia sometimes consider Zaydism to be a"fifth school"of Sunni Islam.[4]Zaydis regardrationalismas more important thanQuranic literalismand in the past were quite tolerant towards SunniShafi'ism,a religion of about half of theYemenis.[5]

Zaydis
A calligraphic logo used by Ansar Allah, a Zaydi Shia movement in Yemen commonly called the Houthis, with Arabic text: "Oh ye who believe, be supporters of God" (Quran 61:14)
Founder
Zayd ibn Ali
Regions with significant populations
north-westernYemen,southernSaudi Arabia

Most of the world's Zaydis are located in NorthernYemen,and in theSaudi Arabianarea ofNajran.

History

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In the 7th century some early Muslims expectedAlito become a firstcaliph,successor toMuhammad.After ascension ofAbu Bakr,supporters of Ali (and future Shia) continued to believe only people from the Prophet's family to qualify as rulers and selected one leader, imam, from each generation (the proto-Sunni, in contrast, recognized Abu Bakr as alegitimate first caliph).[5]The Zaydis emerged in reverence ofZayd ibn Ali'sfailed uprisingagainst theUmayyad caliphHisham ibn Abd al-Malik(r. 724–743). While a majority of the early Shia recognized Zayd's brother,Muhammad al-Baqir,as the fifth leader, some considered Zayd as the fifth imam, and thus in the8th centuryformed the Zaydi or "Fivers"offshoot of Islam.[5]

The Zaydis formed the states in what is now known asnorthern Iran(Tabaristan,864CE,byHasan ibn Zayd,expanded toDaylamandGilan) and later inYemen(893 CE, byal-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya). The Zaydis on theCaspian Seawere forcefully converted toTwelver Shi'ismin the 16th century.[6]

The Zaydis in Yemen had initially lived in the highlands and the northern territories, but extent of their dominance away from their capital of 7 centuries,Saada,had been changing over time.Rassid dynastywas established after anOttomaninvasion in the 16th century. After another interaction with Ottomans, a new succession line was started in the 19th century byMuhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din.With minor interruptions, these two dynasties ruled in Yemen until the creation ofYemen Arab Republicin 1962. While the rulers ostensibly conformed to Hadawi law (thus the "imamate" ), the doctrines had to be modified to allow hereditary, as opposed to traditional merit-based, selection of imams.[7]

The end of imam rule in 1962, with the new rulers in Yemen no longer conforming to the requirements of Zaydism, caused Zaydi scholars to call for the restoration of the imamate. This contributed to theNorth Yemen Civil Warthat lasted from 1962 to 1970.[8]The national reconciliation of 1970 paused the fighting with traumatized Zaydis following three main routes:[9]

  • joining the new political system (the religiousParty of Truthwas created in 1990);
  • restoring the spiritual and cultural heritage of Zaydism by opening religious centers and encouraging the tribes to send their youth for education there;
  • preparing for the future fighting (Houthi movementfounderHussein al-Houthiwas readying the militia).

Law

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In matters ofIslamic jurisprudence,the Zaydis followZayd Ibn 'Ali's teachings which are documented in his bookMajmu’ Al-Fiqh(Arabic:مجموع الفِقه). Zaydifiqhis similar to theHanafischool ofSunniIslamic jurisprudence,[10]as well as theIbadischool.Abu Hanifa,the founder of the Hanafi school, was favorable and even donated towards the Zaydi cause.[11]Zaydis dismiss religious dissimulation (taqiyya).[12]Zaydism does not rely heavily onhadith,but uses those that are consistent with theQur'an,and is open tohadith.Some sources argue that Zaydism is simply a philosophy of political government that justifies the overthrow of unjust rulers and prioritizes those who areBanu Hashim.[13]

Theology

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Haider[14]states that mainstream Zaydism (Hadawi) is a result of interaction of two currents,BatrismandJarudism,their followers brought together during the original Zayd's rebellion.[15]These names, also designated as Batri and Jarudi, do not necessarily represent cohesive groups of people, for example, Batrism ideas (proto-Sunni) were dominant among Zaydi in the 8th century, and Jarudism (Shia) took over in the 9th century.[14][16]The following table summarizes the differences between Batri and Jarudi beliefs per Haider:[17]

Batri vs. Jarudi
Batri Jarudi
Muhammad designated Ali as a caliph implicitly Ali was clearly named by the Prophet
Ali's opponents were victims of a bad judgement. They should not be cursed or declaredapostates Ali's opponents were apostates and can be cursed.
Imamate can go to a less worthy candidate Only the most worthy candidate shall become an imam
Legal authority is vested in the entire Muslim community Only Ali's and Fatima's descendants have the legal authority
Doctrines ofraj'a,taqiyya,bada'are not valid. Raja, taqiyya, and bada' are accepted.

Zaydis’ theological literature puts an emphasis on social justice and human responsibility, and its political implications, i.e. Muslims have an ethical and legal obligation by their religion to rise up and depose unjust leaders including unrighteous sultans and caliphs.[18]

Beliefs

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Zaydis believeZayd ibn Aliwas the rightful successor to the imamate because he led a rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate, which he believed was tyrannical and corrupt. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action and the followers of Zayd believed that a true Imām must fight against corrupt rulers.[19]The renowned Muslim juristAbu Hanifa,who is credited with founding theHanafi schoolofSunni Islam,delivered afatwāor legal statement in favour of Zayd in his rebellion against the Umayyad ruler. He also urged people in secret to join the uprising and delivered funds to Zayd.[20]

Unlike Twelver andIsma'ili Shi'ism,Zaydis do not believe in theinfallibility of Imams[21][22]and reject the notion ofnass imamate.[21]but believe that an Imam can be any descendant of Hasan ibn ʻAlī or Husayn ibn ʻAlī. Zaydis believe thatZayd ibn Aliin his last hour was betrayed by the people inKufa.[citation needed]

Zaydis rejectanthropomorphismand instead, take a rationalist approach to scriptural uses of anthropomorphic expressions, as illustrated in works such as theKitāb al-Mustarshidby the 9th-century Zaydi imamal-Qasim al-Rassi.[23]

History

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Further information:Battle of FakhkhandAlid revolt of 762–763

Status of Caliphs and the Sahaba

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Further information:Rashidun

There was a difference of opinion among the companions and supporters of Zayd ibn 'Ali, such as Abu al-Jarud Ziyad ibn Abi Ziyad, Sulayman ibn Jarir, Kathir al-Nawa al-Abtar and Hasan ibn Salih, concerning the status of the first threeRashiduncaliphs who succeeded to the political and administrative authority of Muhammad. The earliest group, calledJarudiyya(named for Abu al-Jarud Ziyad ibn Abi Ziyad), was opposed to the approval of certaincompanions of the Prophet.They held that there was sufficient description given by the Prophet that all should have recognizedAlias the rightful caliph. They therefore consider the Companions wrong in failing to recognise 'Ali as the legitimate Caliph and deny legitimacy toAbu Bakr,UmarandUthman;however, they avoid accusing them.[24]

The Jarudiyya were active during the late Umayyad Caliphate and earlyAbbasid Caliphate.Its views, although predominant among the later Zaydis, especially in Yemen under the Hadawi sub-sect,became extinct in Iraq and Irandue to forced conversion of the present religious sects toTwelver Shi'ismby theSafavid dynasty.[25][24]

The second group, the Sulaymaniyya, named for Sulayman ibn Jarir, held that the Imamate should be a matter to be decided by consultation. They felt that the companions, including Abu Bakr and 'Umar, had been in error in failing to follow 'Ali but it did not amount to sin.[citation needed]

The third group is known as theBatriyya,Tabiriyya, or Salihiyya for Kathir an-Nawa al-Abtar and Hasan ibn Salih. Their beliefs are virtually identical to those of the Sulaymaniyya, except they see Uthman also as in error but not in sin.[26]

The termrafidawas a term used by Zayd ibn Ali on those who rejected him in his last hours for his refusal to condemn the first two Caliphs of the Muslim world, Abu Bakr and Umar.[27]Zayd bitterly scolds the "rejectors" (rafidha) who deserted him, an appellation used bySalafisto refer to Twelver Shi'a to this day.[28]

A group of their leaders assembled in his (Zayd's presence) and said: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar?" Zayd said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah"[29]

According to Zaydi traditions,Rāfiḍareferred to thoseKufanswho deserted and refused to supportZayd ibn Ali,who had a favourable view of the first twoRashidun Caliphs.[30][31][32][33]The term "Rāfiḍa"became a popular pejorative term used by the Zaydi scholars against Imami Shias to criticize their rejection ofZayd ibn Ali.[34][35]

Twelver Shia references to Zayd

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While not one of theTwelve Imamsembraced by Twelver Shi'ism, Zayd ibn Ali features in historical accounts within Twelver literature in a positive and negative light.

In Twelver accounts, ImamAli al-Ridhanarrated how his grandfather,Ja'far al-Sadiq,also supported Zayd ibn Ali's struggle:

he was one of the scholars from the Household of Muhammad and got angry for the sake of the Honorable the Exalted God. He fought with the enemies of God until he got killed in His path. My father Musa ibn Ja’far narrated that he had heard his father Ja’far ibn Muhammad say, "May God bless my uncle Zayd... He consulted with me about his uprising and I told him," O my uncle! Do this if you are pleased with being killed and your corpse being hung up from the gallows in the al-Konasa neighbourhood. "After Zayd left, As-Sadiq said," Woe be to those who hear his call but do not help him! ".

— Uyūn Akhbār al-Riḍā,[36]p. 466

Jafar al-Sadiq's love for Zayd ibn Ali was so immense that he broke down and cried upon reading the letter informing him of his death and proclaimed:

From God we are and to Him is our return. I ask God for my reward in this calamity. He was a really good uncle. My uncle was a man for our world and for our Hereafter. I swear by God that my uncle is a martyr just like the martyrs who fought along with God’s Prophet or Ali or Al-Hassan or Al-Hussein

— Uyūn akhbār al-Riḍā,[36]p. 472

However, in other hadiths, narrated inAl-Kafi,the main Shia book ofhadith,Zayd ibn Ali is criticized by his half-brother, Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, for his revolt against theUmayyad Dynasty.According to Alexander Shepard, anIslamic Studiesspecialist, much of Twelver ahadith and theology was written to counter Zaydism.[37]

Empires

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Justanids

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TheJustanids(Persian: جستانیان‎) were the rulers of a part of Daylam (the mountainous district of Gilan) from 791 to the late 11th century. After Marzuban ibn Justan converted to Islam in 805, the ancient family of Justan's became connected to the Zaydi Alids of the Daylam region. The Justanids adopted the Zaydi form of Shi'ism.

Karkiya dynasty

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TheKarkiya dynasty,or Kia dynasty, was a Zaydi Shia dynasty which ruled over Bia pish (eastern Gilan) from the 1370s to 1592. They claimed Sasanian ancestry as well.[38]

Alid dynasty

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Alid dynasty of Tabaristan. SeeAlid dynasties of northern Iran.

Idrisid dynasty

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Extent of Zaydi dynasty in North Africa.

TheIdrisid dynastywas a Zaydi dynasty centered around modern-day Morocco. It was named after its first leaderIdris I.

Banu Ukhaidhir

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TheBanu Ukhaidhirwas a dynasty that ruled inal-Yamamah(centralArabia) from 867 to at least the mid-eleventh century.

Hammudid dynasty

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TheHammudid dynastywas a Zaydi dynasty in the 11th century in southern Spain.

Mutawakili

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Zaydi regions (orange) in Yemen's interior, excludesTihamahon the coast.

TheMutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen,also known as North Yemen, existed between 1918 and 1962 in the northern part of what is now Yemen. Its capital was Sana'a until 1948, then Ta'izz.

Community and former States

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Since the earliest form of Zaydism wasJaroudiah,[26]many of the first Zaidi states were supporters of its position, such as those of theIranianAlavidsofMazandaran Provinceand theBuyid dynastyofGilan Provinceand theArabdynasties of theBanu Ukhaidhir[citation needed]ofal-Yamama(modernSaudi Arabia) and theRassidsofYemen.TheIdrisid dynastyin the westernMaghrebwere another Arab[39]Zaydi[40][41][42][43][44][45]dynasty, ruling 788–985.

The Alavids established a Zaydi state inDeylamanand Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864;[46]it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the SunniSamanidsin 928. Roughly forty years later, the state was revived in Gilan (Northwest Iran) and survived until 1126.

From the 12th–13th centuries, Zaydi communities acknowledged theImams of Yemenor rival Imams within Iran.[47]

The Buyid dynasty was initially Zaidi[48]as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.[49]

The leader of the Zaidi community took the title ofCaliph.As such, the ruler of Yemen was known as the Caliph.Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya,a descendant of Imam Hasan ibn Ali, founded thisRassidstate atSa'da,al-Yaman, in c. 893–897. The RassidImamatecontinued until the middle of the 20th century, when a 1962 revolution deposed the Imam. After the fall of the Zaydi Imamate in 1962 many[citation needed]Zaydi Shia in northern Yemen had converted to Sunni Islam.[50][dubious–discuss]

The Rassid state was founded under Jarudiyya thought;[10]however, increasing interactions withHanafiandShafi'ischools of Sunni Islam led to a shift to Sulaimaniyyah thought, especially among the Hadawi sub-sect.

In the 21st century, the most prominent Zaidi movement is theShabab Al Mu'mineen,commonly known asHouthis,who have been engaged in an uprising against the Yemeni Government, causing a grave humanitarian crisis in north Yemen.[51][52]

Some Persian and Arab legends record that Zaidis fled toChinafrom the Umayyads during the 8th century.[53]

Houthi Yemen

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Main article:Houthis
Flag of theHouthi movement,associated with the Zaydit doctrine

Since 2004 inYemen,Zaidi fighters have been waging anuprisingagainst factions belonging to theSunnimajority group in the country. TheHouthis,as they are often called, have asserted that their actions are for the defense of their community from the government and discrimination, though theYemeni governmentin turn accused them of wishing to bring it down and institute religious law.[54]

On 21 September 2014, an agreement was signed inSana'aunderUNpatronage essentially giving the Houthiscontrol of the governmentafter a decade of conflict.[55]Tribal militias then moved swiftly to consolidate theirpositionin the capital, with the group officially declaring direct control over the state on 6 February 2015.[56]This outcome followed theremovalof Yemen's PresidentAli Abdullah Salehin 2012 in the wake of protractedArab Springprotests. Saudi Arabia has exercised the predominant external influence in Yemen since the withdrawal ofNasser'sEgyptian expeditionary force marking the end of the bitterNorth Yemen Civil War.[57][58]

There is a wide array of domestic opponents to Houthi rule in Yemen, ranging from the conservative SunniIslah Partyto the secular socialistSouthern Movementto theradical IslamistsofAl Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsulaand, since 2014, theIslamic State – Yemen Province.[59][60][61]

Imams of Zaidis

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TheImams of Yemenconstitute one line of Zaidi imams.

Further information:Imams of Yemen § List of imams

A timeline indicating Zaidi Imams in the early period amongst other Shia Imams as listed inAl-Masaabeeh fee As-Seerahby Ahmad bin Ibrahim is as follows:[citation needed]

  1. Ali ibn Abi Talib
  2. Al-HasanibnAli ibn Abi Talib
  3. Al-HusaynibnAli ibn Abi Talib
  4. ʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīnibnAl-ḤusaynibnAli
  5. Hasan al-Mu'thannāibnAl-ḤasanibnAli
  6. ZaydibnʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīnibnAl-Ḥusayn
  7. YahyaibnZaydibnʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn
  8. Muhammad al-Nafs al-ZakiyyaibnʿAbd Allāh al-KāmīlibnḤasan al-Mu'thanā
  9. IbrahimibnʿAbd Allāh al-KāmīlibnḤasan al-Mu'thannā
  10. AbdullahibnMuhammad al-Nafs al-ZakiyyaibnʿAbd Allāh al-KāmīlibnḤasan al-Mu'thannā
  11. Al-ḤasanibnIbrahimibnʿAbd Allāh al-KāmīlibnḤasan al-Mu'thannā
  12. Al-Ḥusaynibn ʿAlī al-ʿĀbid ibn Ḥasan al-Mu'thallath ibnḤasan al-Mu'thannā
  13. ʿĪsā(Father ofAḥmad)ibnZaydibnʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn
  14. YāhyāibnʿAbd Allāh al-KāmīlibnḤasan al-Mu'thannā
  15. Idris IibnʿAbd Allāh al-KāmīlibnḤasan al-Mu'thannā
  16. Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm Ṭabāṭabāibn Ismāʿīl al-Dībāj ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ghamr ibnal-Ḥasan al-Mu'thannā
  17. Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibnZaydibnʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn
  18. Muḥammad ibn Sulayman ibn Dawud ibnal-Ḥasan al-Mu'thannā
  19. Al-Qāsīm ibn Ibrāhīm Ṭabāṭabāibn Ismāʿīl al-Dībāj ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ghamr ibnal-Ḥasan al-Mu'thannā
  20. Yaḥyāibn ʿUmar ibn Yaḥyā ibn al-Ḥusayn Dhū'l-Dām'a ibnZaydibnʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn


  1. Idris IIibnIdris I[citation needed]
  2. MuhammadibnIdris II[citation needed]
  3. Ali Iibn Muhammad
  4. Yahya Iibn Muhammad
  5. Yahya IIibn Yahya I
  6. Ali IIibn Umar ibnIdris II[citation needed]
  7. Yahya IIIibn Al-Qasim ibnIdris II[citation needed]
  8. Yahya IVibn Idris ibn Umar ibnIdris II
  9. Al-Hasan Iibn Muḥammad ibn Al-Qasim ibnIdris II[citation needed]
  10. Al-Qasim Guennounibn Muḥammad ibn Al-Qasim ibnIdris II[citation needed]
  11. Abul-Aish Ahmadibn Al-Qasim Guennoun
  12. Al-Hasan IIibn Al-Qasim Guennoun


  1. Hasan ibn Zaydibn Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl ibnHasan ibn Zayd ibn Hasan
  2. Muḥammadibn Zayd ibn Muḥammad
  3. Hasan al-Utrushibn Ali ibn Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Umar al-Ashraf ibnʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn
  4. Hasan ibn Al-Qasim ibn Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Al-Qāsīm ibnHasan ibn Zayd ibn Hasanor Abu Muhammad Hasan ibn Qāsīm[citation needed]
  5. Ahmad ibn Hasan or Abu'l-Husayn Ahmad ibn Hasan
  6. Ja'far ibn Hasan or Abu'l-Qasim Ja'far ibn Hasan
  7. Muḥammad ibn Ahmad or Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ahmad
  8. Husayn ibn Ahmad or Abu Ja'far Husayn ibn Ahmad


  1. Ismā'īl ibn Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍiribn Ibrāhīm ibn Mūsā al-Jawn(brother of Muḥammad ibn Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍir)
  2. Muḥammad ibn Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍiribn Ibrāhīm ibn Mūsā al-Jawn(brother ofIsma'il ibn Yusufūʾl-Ukhayḍir)
  3. Yūsūf ibn Muḥammad ibn Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍir(son of Muḥammad ibn Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍir,grandson of Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍiribn Ibrāhīm ibn Mūsā al-Jawn) & (son of #2)
  4. Isma'il ibn Yūsūf ibn Muḥammad(son of #3)
  5. Al-Hasan ibn Ismā'īl ibn Muḥammad(son of #4)
  6. Ahmad ibn Al-Hasan ibn Yusuf(son of #5)
  7. Abu'l-Muqallid Ja'far ibn Ahmad ibn Al-Hasan(son of #6)


  1. al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahyaibn Al-Ḥusayn ibnAl-Qāsīm ibn Ibrāhīm Ṭabāṭabā
  2. al-Murtada MuhammadibnYāhyāibn Al-Husayn
  3. An-Nasir AhmadibnYāhyāibn Al-Husayn
  4. Al-Muntakhab al-HasanibnAn-Nasir AhmadibnYāhyā[citation needed]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Haider 2010,p. 436.
  2. ^Stephen W. Day (2012).Regionalism and Rebellion in Yemen: A Troubled National Union.Cambridge University Press. p. 31.ISBN9781107022157.
  3. ^Haider 2021,p. 203.
  4. ^Fattah, Khaled (11 May 2012)."Yemen's Sectarian Spring".Sada.Carnegie Endowment.Retrieved11 September2024.
  5. ^abcSalmoni, Loidolt & Wells 2010,p. 285.
  6. ^Salmoni, Loidolt & Wells 2010,pp. 285–286.
  7. ^Salmoni, Loidolt & Wells 2010,p. 286.
  8. ^Obaid 2023,p. 73.
  9. ^Obaid 2023,p. 74.
  10. ^abArticle by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi,At-tarikh aṣ-ṣaghir 'an ash-shia al-yamaniyeen(Arabic: التاريخ الصغير عن الشيعة اليمنيين, A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites), 2005
  11. ^The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought,Page 14,Gerhard Böwering,Patricia Crone, Mahan Mirza - 2012
  12. ^Regional Surveys of the World: The Middle East and North Africa 2003.London, England: Europa Publications. 2003. p. 149.ISBN978-1-85743-132-2.
  13. ^MAYSAA SHUJA AL-DEEN."Yemen's War-torn Rivalries for Religious Education".Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Retrieved7 June2021.
  14. ^abHaider 2021,pp. 203–204.
  15. ^Haider 2010,pp. 203–204.
  16. ^Haider 2021,p. 436.
  17. ^Haider 2021,p. 209.
  18. ^Abdullah, Lux (Summer 2009). "Yemen's last Zaydi Imam: theshabab al-mu'min,theMalazim,andhizb allahin the thought of Husayn Badr al-Din al-Huthi ".Contemporary Arab Affairs.2(3): 369–434.doi:10.1080/17550910903106084.
  19. ^Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization during the Later Medieval Timesby Abdul Ali, M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1996, p97
  20. ^Ahkam al-QuranBy Abu Bakr al-Jassas al-Razi, volume 1 page 100, published by Dar Al-Fikr Al-Beirutiyya
  21. ^abRobinson, Francis(1984).Atlas of the Islamic World Since 1500.New York:Facts on File.p.47.ISBN0871966298.
  22. ^"Zaidiyyah".The Free Dictionary.
  23. ^Abrahamov, Binyamin(1996).Anthropomorphism and interpretation of the Qurʼān in the theology of al-Qāsim ibn Ibrāhīm: Kitāb al-Mustarshid.E.J. Brill.ISBN9789004104082.
  24. ^abImmortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces.Steven R Ward, p. 43
  25. ^Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution.Nikki R Keddie, Yann Richard, pp. 13, 20
  26. ^abArticle by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi,At-tarikh aṣ-ṣaghir 'an ash-shia al-yamaniyeen(Arabic: التاريخ الصغير عن الشيعة اليمنيين, A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites), 2005 Referencing: Momen, pp. 50, 51. and S.S. Akhtar Rizvi, "Shi'a Sects"
  27. ^The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphateby Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p. 37
  28. ^The Encyclopedia of ReligionVol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243."They were called" Rafida by the followers of Zayd...the term became a pejorative nickname among Sunni Muslims, who used it, however to refer to the Imamiyah's repudiation of the first three caliphs preceding Ali... "
  29. ^The waning of the Umayyad caliphateby Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, pp. 37, 38
    The Encyclopedia of ReligionVol. 16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243.
  30. ^Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi; Karim Douglas Crow (2005).Facing One Qiblah: Legal and Doctrinal Aspects of Sunni and Shi'ah Muslims.Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd. p. 186.ISBN9789971775520.
  31. ^Najam Haider (26 September 2011).The Origins of the Shī'a: Identity, Ritual, and Sacred Space in Eighth-Century Kūfa.Cambridge University Press. pp. 196–7.ISBN9781139503310.
  32. ^Najībābādī, Akbar (2000).History of Islam Volume 2.Darussalam Publishers.p. 229.ISBN978-9960892863.
  33. ^Suleiman, Yasir, ed. (21 April 2010).Living Islamic History: Studies in Honour of Professor Carole Hillenbrand(illustrated ed.).Oxford University Press.p. 11.ISBN9780748642199.
  34. ^Kohlberg, Etan (1979). "The Term" Rāfida "in Imāmī Shīʿī Usage".Journal of the American Oriental Society.99(4): 677–679.doi:10.2307/601453.ISSN0003-0279.JSTOR601453.
  35. ^The Encyclopedia of ReligionVol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243. "They were called" Rafida by the followers of Zayd...the term became a pejorative nickname among Sunni Muslims, who used it, however to refer to the Imamiyah's repudiation of the first three caliphs preceding Ali... "
  36. ^abIbn Bābawayh al-Qummī, Muḥammad ibn ʻAlī.Uyūn Akhbār al-Riḍā.
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