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Zimbabwean English

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Zimbabwean English(ZimE;en-ZIM;en-ZW) is aregional variety of Englishfound inZimbabwe.While the majority of Zimbabweans speakShona(75%) andNdebele(18%) as a first language,standard Englishis the primary language used in education, government, commerce and media in Zimbabwe, giving it an important role in society.[2]Just under 5 percent of Zimbabweans are nativeEnglish speakersand 89 percent of the population can speak English fluently or at a high level, second only tothe Seychelles(93 percent) amongst African nations.[3]

Zimbabwean English
RegionZimbabwe
EthnicityZimbabweans
Native speakers
485,000 (2019)[1]
Second language: 5,100,000 (2019)[1]
Early forms
Latin(English Alpha bet)
Unified English Braille
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
IETFen-ZW
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Casual observers tend to have difficulty in placing the Zimbabwean accent, as it differs from those that are clearly fromBritish,South Africanor otherAfrican Englishes;like other English dialects, the accent tends to vary between individuals based on education, class and ethnic background.[4]To Americans, it sounds slightly British, while British speakers find the accent rather old-fashioned and either nasal or somewhat twangy or African-influenced depending on the background of the speaker.[2]

The Zimbabwean education system uses English beginning in grade 3. Of the languages used in Zimbabwe, it is used nationally and, as the sole official language, has the highest status in the country.[5]

History

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Zimbabwean English has been called "one of the under researched varieties of English".[6]It primarily shows a mixture of traits typical of British English and to a lesser extent, South African English, and is generally classified as a form ofSouthern HemisphereEnglish along withAustralian English,New Zealand English,South African Englishand the lesser knownFalkland Islands English,which all descend fromsouthern British English dialects.[7]While Zimbabwean English shares many similarities with southern hemisphere Englishes (Australian, New Zealand, South African), it is distinct from its closest relative,South African English,despite occasional confusion by outsiders.Southern Rhodesiawas heavily influenced by South Africa from 1890 until it voted forresponsible governmentin 1923. This along with waves of immigration from theCape ColonyandOrange Free Stateinfluenced the early development of English in the country. As a result, most similarities between Zimbabwean English andSouth African Englishdate from this early period, and were somewhat reinvigorated bypost warmigration from South Africa.

However, after 1923, the Rhodesian and British Governments increasingly grouped Rhodesia with theCentral African coloniesand firmly within the British sphere of influence. This led to a divergence between the two Englishes and from then on Zimbabwean English was predominately influenced byBritish English,with the minor influence of Afrikaans (in comparison with South Africa) and African languages, generally used to describe flora and fauna, with terms such askopje,dassieand bhundu (Shona for bush).[2]Migration from Britain, especially afterWorld War II,introduced and reinforced many features of dialects from Southern England and to a lesser extent those from theEast MidlandsandScotland,which had an impact on local speech.[8]This dialect came to be known asRhodesian English,typified by speakers such asIan SmithandP.K. van der Byl.

After independence in 1980, this dialect fell sharply out of favour and came to be regarded as an archaic, non-productive dialect, only spoken by the oldest generation ofwhite Zimbabweansand out of touch, nostalgicRhodiesandwhenwes.Zimbabwean English evolved with the changing social, economic and political conditions in which blacks and whites interacted in Zimbabwe; with the old conservative Rhodesian accent being effectively replaced by the more neutral and prestigious soundingcultivatedprivate school accent, which ironically retains some of its features.[9][8]

Another noticeable trend, was a steep decline in the influence of South African English andAfrikaans-derived terminology after 1980, with a notable preference for British English or African-derived alternatives, due to tensions between theMugabeandapartheidSouth African governments, though a handful of terms such asbraaiandvoetsekremain (seeList of South African slang words). Similarly, bilingualAfrikanerinstitutions such as theDutch Reformed Church in South AfricaandEaglesvale Senior Schoolswitched to an English-only or English-dominant format, in response to government scrutiny.[10][11]Today, the main languages spoken in are English, Shona and Ndebele. Only 3.5%, mainly the white, Indian, Asian, coloured (mixed race) and foreign-born minorities, consider English their native language. The vast majority of English speakers are black Zimbabweans, who arebilingualor even trilingual with Bantu languages such asShona(75%), Ndebele (18%) and the other minority languages, and thus these speakers have an outsize role in influencing the direction of Zimbabwean English, despite traditional native speakers maintaining an important influence.[12]

Phonetics and phonology

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English in Zimbabwe is uniformlynon-rhotic.[13]This is consistent with other varieties of English in the southern hemisphere.[13]One major difference between the now archaic Rhodesian English and other Englishes of the southern hemisphere is a high pitched nasality or twang noted in speakers such asIan Smith.This influence remains to a lesser degree in cultivated forms of Zimbabwean English especially as spoken by olderAnglo Africanspeakers.[13]

Characteristics

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Sociocultural

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Cultivated accents

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Much likeAustralianandSouth African English,spoken English exists on a continuum frombroad,generaltocultivated(seebroad and general accents), based on an individual's background, particularly with regards to education, class, income and historically, ethnicity.[14]Affluent,upper middle classandhighly educatedZimbabweans speak in a cultivated accent, influenced by older forms ofsouthern British English,especiallyReceived Pronunciationand the now archaic Rhodesian English. The cultivated accent can be viewed as a localised approximation ofReceived Pronunciation,taught at private, fee-paying day and boarding schools such asPrince Edward School,Arundel SchoolandPeterhouse Boys' School.Indeed,cultivatedspeakers (such as Peter Ndoro orTsitsi Dangarembga) can sometimes sound virtually indistinguishable from middle class, privately educated, BritishReceived Pronunciationspeakers (though not the British upper class). As such, the accent is only spoken natively by a tiny fraction of the population and denotesprestigeand authority, with many dialect speakers dominating spaces such as business, the performing arts, law, journalism,cricketand higher education as late as the late 1990s. Similar accents can be noted in other former British territories such ascultivated AustralianandCanadian dainty.[15]The cultivated accent is sometimes humorously mocked by other speakers for its nasality and alleged pretentiousness, with speakers derided as the so-callednose brigades.[16]Robert Mugabe,Brendan Taylor,Pommie Mbangwa,Dave Houghtonand journalists Peter Ndoro and Sophie Chamboko are notable speakers of a cultivated accent.[17]

Broad Accents

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On the other hand, rural and urban working class speakers, are heavily influenced by their native languages (these groups are also mocked asSRBswhose accents betray theirstrong rural background). This "broad" variety is most associated with the working class, rural persons, low socioeconomic status, and limited education.[9]These three sub-varieties have also been called "Cultivated ZimE", "General ZimE", and "Broad ZimE", respectively. Broad accents roughly approximates the English as a second-language varieties of English.[18]This variety has been stigmatised by middle and upper middle class English speakers and is considered a vernacular or improper form of Zimbabwean English. A notable trend by broad speakers is a growing preference for English names that are direct translations from African languages. This is largely due to the prestige of English in society, their limited education and the aspiration of parents for their children to move into the middle classes or pursue opportunities abroad.[19]Such names generally appear non-standard to native English speakers and are usually viewed humorously by middle class Zimbabweans andBritons,Irish people andAustralians,when they interact withbroadspeakers abroad. Examples of such names includeInnocent,Fortunate,BlessingandLovemore.[19]Notable speakers of the broad Zimbabwean accent areJonathan MoyoandWinky D.[18]

General Zimbabwean English

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Lower middle to middle classblack Zimbabweans are by far the largest speakers of Zimbabwean English and are generally the most prominent in the mainstream media, especially since 2000.[18]These speakers generally fall in a spectrum between the two accents with educated accents approximating cultivated accents but without quite the same level ofelocution,while lower middle class speakers tend to speak more plainly. As a result, the general accent shows greater variety than other dialects. Indeed, contrary to outside expectations, a number notable of white Zimbabweans, especially those under 45 exhibit features of a general accent, albeit with a hint of nasality. This is largely due to the growth of the internet,circular migration,as well as Zimbabweans of all races interacting with each other on equal terms. Despite this white speakers still form a disproportionate number ofcultivatedaccent speakers. A notable feature of general accents is a tendency to over pronounce certain consonants, than other dialects, such as thehard T,though this is not a feature among white speakers.[20]Speakers of thegeneraldialect tend to have at least a high school education and speak English fluently and natively and are perfectlybilingual.[2][18]

The aspirational nature of this group, has led to younger speakers becoming more susceptible to influences from other Englishes, particularly pop-culture references fromAmerican English(what's up, you guys, chill out, like) that are derided by cultivated speakers who overwhelmingly prefer British conventions and more traditionally minded Zimbabweans who dismiss individuals with such affectations as so calledsalads(stupid Africans who like (ie copy) American dressing (trends)).[21]Lesser influences includeJamaican patoisfrom the popularity ofreggaeanddancehallwith lower middle class youths andBritish slangandLondon Englishaccents due to the growth ofZimbabweans in the United Kingdom.[21]Speakers of thisgeneralZimbabwean accent include:Evan Mawarire,Hamilton Masakadza,Marc Pozzo,Heath Streak,Morgan TsvangiraiandPetina Gappah.

A subset of the general accent is general Zimbabwean English as spoken by younger middle-class, white Zimbabweans, especially those who were born or came of age after 1980. This form of speech eschews the negative connotations of the obsoleteRhodesian dialectand speakers tend to avoid the elocution, nasality (and alleged elitism) of acultivatedprivate school accent, as they either did not attend the elite institutions where the accent is taught or prefer to downplay it, to sound more relatable or 'cool'.[21]A similar trend can be observed in British English with the development ofEstuary English.This concept ofcommunication accommodation,either upwards or downwards in idiolect, can be seen in many social interactions. A speaker aims to put someone at ease by speaking in a familiar tone or intonation, or one can intimidate or alienate someone by speaking more formally.[21]A lot of crossover exists between this sub-variety and the wider general accent, thus it can be difficult to differentiate speakers by ethnicity especially if they have gone to the same schools.[21]Unlike older generations, younger white Zimbabweans tend to have learnt Shona and Ndebele at school and have friends from different backgrounds and nationalities. Also, unlike young black Zimbabweans, a greater proportion of young whites now live abroad, which may lead to the sub-dialect eventually being absorbed by the larger general accent. Examples of speakers of the modern, sub-dialect includeKirsty Coventry,Kyle Jarvis(who retains somecultivatedfeatures),Tom Curran,Don Armand,andDave Ewers.[22]

Today English is spoken by virtually all in the cities, but less so in rural areas.[2]English, the official language, enjoys status dominance and is the language of instruction in education, commerce, the government and the majority of the media.

Ethnocultural

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While black and white dialects of Zimbabwean English are well represented in the media, a less prominent and under researched sub-variety of Zimbabwean English is Coloured Zimbabwean English, originally and best associated withinner-city,mixed-raceColouredspeakers.[23]

Coloured Zimbabwean English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Zimbabwe, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to general and cultivated Zimbabwean English to more heavy forms, that exhibit a disproportionate influence fromSouth African EnglishandAfrikaans.[23]There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use. This influence is due to the fact that the earliest Coloured communities were formed mainly by those who had emigrated as workers and servants ofwhite South Africansettlers from theCape ColonyandOrange Free State.Coloured immigration from South Africa spiked following a depression after thesecond Boer Warand continued in various waves, as Coloured people emigrated on their own accord in large numbers untilRhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence.Coloured communities were largely segregated from both whites and blacks and as a result formed their own communities where their unique English dialects developed separately. By the 1940s most local Coloureds had been born in Southern Rhodesia as offspring of British administrators and colonists and local women, solidifying the shift away from Afrikaans to English.[23]

While a wave of immigration from South Africa in the eighties boosted the community's numbers, as Coloured South Africans sought refuge from the oppressiveapartheidregime. However, since independence, many Coloured Zimbabweans have complained of feeling increasingly disenfranchised, and neglected by the government. A Coloured lobby group, the National Association for the Advancement of Mixed Race Coloureds (NAAC), was formed in 2001 to protest against what they perceived as discrimination against their community by the state. As a result, Coloured English speakers are rarely featured in the media, with the few exceptions such as musician, Andy Brown, either adopting general accents or working in Shona language media.[23]This situation is largely comparable to the status ofCape Flats Englishwhich also experiences neglect from the mainstream press and is derided as non-standard.[24]Similarities, exist between the two dialects, however, they have diverged significantly as mostCape Colouredsare largely Afrikaans speaking, while Zimbabwean Coloureds have become universallyanglophoneor less commonly bilingual withShonaor Ndebele.[23]

ZCE terms, or derivative terms, are sometimes used by the broader Zimbabwean community. Zimbabwean Coloured English is spoken among Coloured people generally, though not allmixed-racepeople identify as Coloured and not all Coloureds speak the dialect. It is especially evident in what are called "discrete communities", such as the historically Coloured suburbs of Braeside,Arcadia,Hillside,Cranborneand St. Martins inHarare.Black Zimbabweans who live in these communities or have ties to historically Coloured schools (such as Morgan High School and St. Johns High) and sports such as cricket, have partially adopted the dialect but also maintain features of general or cultivated accents based on their education or background. Because most Coloured Zimbabweans are concentrated in urban areas (83%), especially Harare and Bulawayo, coloured dialects are almost exclusively an urban phenomenon.[24]Additionally, like other Zimbabweans, the country's economic crisis, has prompted many to leave the country, leading to a growing diaspora abroad, notably so in the UK (Milton Keynes,Luton,Reading),Cape Town,South Africa and Australia (Perth,Brisbane,Sydney), reducing the dialect almost exclusively toHarareandBulawayo.Notable speakers of a Coloured accent are comedianEdgar Langeveldtand sporting announcerEd Rainsford.

Lexicon

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The following are terms used by Coloured English speakers that are either less common or absent in Zimbabwean and other Englishes

  • Auntie- A respectful term for an older woman. Black Zimbabweans tend to use similar terms in African languages.Auntieis also used in other Englishes such asCaribbean English,southernAfrican American Englishand inMāoriand Polynesian cultures.
  • Barley- Many Coloured people use the wordbarleyin a distinct way, to meanfatheror a respected older man. Occasionally used by middle class black Zimbabweans, but not widely so.
  • Blondie-A naïve, unruly or stupid young woman.
  • China- A friend; as in the greeting 'How's it my china?' Likely fromCockney rhyming slang"China plate" (meaning "my mate" ); from early British immigrants.
  • Cheeky- "Cheeky" may be used to describe a mischievous person, particularly a child.
  • Connection- a close friend, mate or a person who can do you a favour.
  • Den- Many Coloured people refer to their house as their den, particularly inHarareand theMashonaland East.This word has also been adopted by young black Zimbabweans, particularly in Harare. The term probably entered youth culture in the late 1990s.
  • Dead- Dead is used by manyColoured peopleto mean boring, or uninteresting, when referring to an event. This usage is not exclusive to Coloured people and can be heard in other forms of English, such asIrish EnglishandManchester English.
  • Dutchman/ Dutchie/(ma)Bhunu- A pejorative term for awhite South Africanespecially anAfrikaner.Also used negatively to refer to Afrikaners by other South Africans, but complete absent from other forms of Zimbabwean English.
  • Gammon-Victorian eraEnglish word forpretend.Still used by some people to mean joking generally as in gammoning. Though virtually unknown by other Zimbabweans it is surprisingly common in Australia, especially as used byAboriginal people.
  • Goffal-A Coloured or mixed-race Zimbabwean or Zambian. Largely unknown by other Zimbabweans who prefer the termcoloured.Does not refer to and is largely unknown byCape Coloureds
  • Humbug-Whereashumbugin broader English (seeCharles Dickens'sScroogecharacter) means nonsensical, or unimportant information, humbug in Coloured English means an annoying person who makes inane or repetitive requests. As in 'here comes that humbug again'.[23]
  • Kwacha-A worthless item, or an item rapidly losing value. From theZambian Kwacha.Once commonly used by black Zimbabweans but increasingly obsolete due to the troubles of Zimbabwe's own currency.
  • Lighty- a younger person, especially a younger male such as a younger brother or son. From the Afrikaans term,laaitie.Common in South Africa, but largely absent in other Zimbabwean dialects.
  • Late- Dead, a deceased person; An indirect or respectful way of referring to a person who has died, as 'his father is late'. In Coloured culture and black Zimbabwean culture more generally, a person is rarely referred to as deceased directly.[23]
  • Nyasas/ Nyasalanders- Malawian (and less commonly Zambian) immigrants and their descendants, may be considered pejorative. Also used by black Zimbabweans especially older speakers.
  • Moscans-Mozambique or Portuguese-speaking immigrants (though not Portuguese people). More common in eastern Zimbabwe, especiallyHarare,Mashonaland EastandManicaland.
  • Oan/ Own- A friend; especially male, as in the phrase 'That's my oan'. Absent in other Zimbabwean dialects, though sometimes used by black and white Zimbabweans who interact with Coloured people. Its origin is unclear but maybe connected to the South African termoke,which carries the same meaning but is virtually unused in Zimbabwean English.
  • Porkies- Lies, as in 'you're telling me porkies'. FromCockney rhyming slang,i.e. lies = pork pies, hence porkies.
  • Scheme- To think, or to do (e.g. "I scheme we should go home now"; usage evolved from the hyperbole "What are you scheming?" asked of a person deep in thought.). Also used in South African English
  • Yarn- English word for along story,often with incredible or unbelievable events. Originally a sailors' expression, "to spin a yarn", in reference to stories told while performing mundane tasks such as spinningyarn.[25]Among Coloured people, it has become a verb, to ramble or tell tall tales. Often,Yarning.

Differences from South African English

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Many of these relate to words used to refer to common items, often based on which major brands becomeeponyms.

Zimbabwe South Africa Translation to Standard English
Location, high-density suburb Township An impoverished formally designated residential area, largely populated by the poor, working class and immigrants on the margins of urban areas.[26]
A Levels Matric School-leaving certificate or the final year of high school or a student in the final year. Matric short for matriculation. A levels is short for Advanced level certificate as Zimbabwean education follows British convention.[27]
Cottage
crib[note 1] 		Shack,Langhuis (long house mostlyWestern Cape)[28] a small, often very modest, guesthouse orholiday property,often near mountains or at the seaside. In South Africa a shack can also mean a poorly built home usually made from corrugated iron,malocationis aShona/English hybrid for the same term in Zimbabwe.
Tuck shop Cafe, tea room (Durbanmostly), spaza (informal) Convenience store, a small store selling mainly food[29]
vagrant,benzi (from Shona, considered derogatory) Bergie A homeless or vagrant person.[30]
cinema bioscope, bio (increasingly dated)[31] cinema; movie theatre
sandals,slippers Flip-flops Flip-flops
hut rondeval a hut; a round or conic-shaped building, usually with athatched roof.[32]
stand,plot erf (fromAfrikaans) a plot of land in an urban area
mbanje (from Shona); marijuana dagga marijuana
sunshower monkey's wedding A sunshower
make a plan. find a way To be resourceful in the face of a challenge. The phrasemake a planis mostly used by urban or middle-class people in Zimbabwe, and is rarely encountered in rural parts of the country.[33]
tennis shoesmatennis(Shona/English hybrid, informal), increasingly trainers(fromBritons of Zimbabwean descent) tackies, takkies, tekkies sneakers, trainers. Tennis shoes is understood by South Africans, but considered overly formal.
Hoover, to hoover Vacuum cleaner,to vacuum Similar to the UK and Ireland the term "hoover" (properly as a common noun) has long been colloquially synonymous with "vacuum cleaner" and the verb "to vacuum" in Zimbabwe (e.g., "you were hoovering the carpet" ), referring to theHoover Company's dominance there during the early to mid 20th century.[34]
no through road no exit Signage for a road with a dead end, acul-de-sac
swimming costume,swimming trunks Swimsuit, swimwear, swimming trunks. Swimwear or other clothes designed to be worn in water. The termswimming costumeis considered outdated in South Africa
Maize Mielies an ear of maize (from Afrikaans mielie)
Motorway,dual-carriageway Freeway, Highway, less commonly Motorway The terms "freeway", "highway", and "motorway" are used synonymously in South Africa, while the termsfreewayandhighwaycan cause confusion in Zimbabwe, as they are not widely understood.[35]
Sadza (from Shona); Mealie Meal Pap Porridge-like dish made from cornmeal.
Magic marker; felt pen
felt tips
highlighter 		Koki; marker; marker pen,highlighter Amarker pen
Pickup truck/ Open truck Bakkie a single or double cab utility vehicle with or without a canopy.[36]
hiking; bushwalking; bush ranging
 trekking; bushwalking
(or less commonly) hiking[37] 		Travel through open, woodland or forest areas on foot
Notes
  1. ^Guesthouse or holiday home.

See also

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References

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  1. ^abEnglishatEthnologue(25th ed., 2022)
  2. ^abcdeGrainger, Karen; Mills, Sara (1 December 2016). Grainger, Karen; Mills, Sara (eds.).Directness and Indirectness Across Cultures.Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 74–101.doi:10.1057/9781137340399_4– via Springer Link.
  3. ^"Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Zimbabwe | Data".data.worldbank.org.
  4. ^Weller, Anthony (15 June 2003)."Celebration Bermuda".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved7 February2023.
  5. ^Kadenge, Maxwell (September 2009)."African Englishes: the indigenization of English vowels by Zimbabwean native Shona speakers".Journal of Pan African Studies.3(1) – viaGale Academic Onefile.
  6. ^Cecilia Cutler, Stephanie Hackert and Chanti Seymour, "Bermuda and Bahamas", in Ulrich Ammon (ed.),Sociolinguistics. An International Handbook.2nd ed. Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter, 2006.ISBN3-11-018418-4.p. 2066.
  7. ^Tom McArthur (ed.),Oxford Companion to the English Language.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.ISBN0-19-214183-X.pp. 116, 352.
  8. ^abSusan Fitzmaurice, "History, Social Meaning, and Identity in the Spoken English of White Zimbabweans." Developments in English: Expanding Electronic Evidence, ed. by Irma Taavitsainen et al. Cambridge University Press, 2015
  9. ^abPeter Trudgill, "Lesser-Known Varieties of English." Alternative Histories of English, ed. by R. J. Watts and P. Trudgill. Routledge, 2002
  10. ^Hendrich, Gustav (2010).""Help ons bou" – Die Daisyfield-inrigting en die impak van sendingwerk en godsdienstige bearbeiding in 'n weeshuisomgewing in Rhodesië (1910–1948) "[ "Help us build" – The Daisyfield Institution and its impact of missionary work and religious worship in a orphanage environment in Rhodesia (1910–1948)](PDF).dspace.nwu.ac.za.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 5 March 2016.Retrieved16 May2021.
  11. ^Chateta, Gerald (11 October 2014)."Religion in Zimbabwe: Reformed Church of Zimbabwe Eaglesvale struggles to renovate run down school".relzim.org.Archived fromthe originalon 2 December 2014.Retrieved16 May2021.
  12. ^Davis, Geoffrey V.; Malaba, Mbongeni Z., eds. (2007).Zimbabwean Transitions: Essays on Zimbabwean Literature in English, Ndebele and Shona (Matatu) (English, North Ndebele and Shona Edition)(Multilingual ed.).Rodopi.ISBN9789042023765.
  13. ^abcHickey, Raymond (2014).A Dictionary of Varieties of English(1 ed.). p. 119.doi:10.1002/9781118602607.ISBN9781118602607.
  14. ^"BBC – Bradford and West Yorkshire – Voices – Tyke: It's all the Vikings' fault (sort of)".BBC.
  15. ^Sathiyanathan, Lakshine (1 July 2017)."Some Canadians used to speak with a quasi-British accent called Canadian Dainty".cbc.ca.Retrieved16 May2021.
  16. ^Moyo, Doreen Tarirai (1 January 2000)."The impact of the English language in Zimbabwe: A phenomenological and historical study, 1980–1999".ETD Collection for University of Nebraska – Lincoln:1–216.
  17. ^Kadenge, Maxwell; Nkomo, Dion (November 2011)."The politics of the English language in Zimbabwe".Language Matters.42(2). University of South Africa Press: 248–263.doi:10.1080/10228195.2011.581679.ISSN1753-5395.S2CID144957487– viaResearchGate.
  18. ^abcdSusan Fitzmaurice, "L1 Rhodesian English." The Lesser-Known Varieties of English, ed. by D. Schreier et al. Cambridge University Press, 2010
  19. ^abMavaza, Masimba (29 August 2020)."Zimbabwean English Names Make Diasporans Laughing Stock".allAfrica.
  20. ^Nordquist, Richard."Definition and Examples of Zimbabwean English".Thoughtco.Retrieved16 May2021.
  21. ^abcdeMakoni, Sinfree (August 1993)."Is Zimbabwean English a Type of New English?".African Study Monographs.14(2).University of Western Cape:97–107 – viaResearchGate.
  22. ^Fitzmaurice, Susan (16 May 2020). "White Zimbabwean English".The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English.
  23. ^abcdefgAdhikari, Mohamed, ed. (2009).Burdened by Race – Coloured Identities in Southern Africa(PDF).Cape Town, South Africa: UCT Press.ISBN9781919895147.Retrieved16 May2021.
  24. ^abAtkinson, Norman (1982)."Racial Integration in Zimbabwean Schools, 1979–1980".Comparative Education.18(1): 77–89.doi:10.1080/0305006820180108.JSTOR3098502.
  25. ^"yarn | Origin and meaning of yarn by Online Etymology Dictionary".etymonline.
  26. ^"TOWNSHIP | Definition of TOWNSHIP by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico also meaning of TOWNSHIP".Lexico Dictionaries | English.Archived fromthe originalon 12 August 2020.
  27. ^"MATRIC | Definition of MATRIC by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico also meaning of MATRIC".Lexico Dictionaries | English.[dead link‍]
  28. ^Nixon, Kate (3 January 2011)."Queensland beach shack".Homes.ninemsn.au. Archived fromthe originalon 5 November 2011.Retrieved21 September2011.
  29. ^"SPAZA | Definition of SPAZA by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico also meaning of SPAZA".Lexico Dictionaries | English.Archived fromthe originalon 17 August 2021.
  30. ^"BERGIE | Definition of BERGIE by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico also meaning of BERGIE".Lexico Dictionaries | English.[dead link‍]
  31. ^"BIOSCOPE | Definition of BIOSCOPE by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico also meaning of BIOSCOPE".Lexico Dictionaries | English.Archived fromthe originalon 11 April 2021.
  32. ^"RONDAVEL | Definition of RONDAVEL by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico also meaning of RONDAVEL".Lexico Dictionaries | English.[dead link‍]
  33. ^"Holiday in Harare, part 5: Make a Plan".Ethan Zuckerman.24 September 2006.
  34. ^Nkhwazi, Sangwani (2009)."Post registration maintenance of a registered Trademark"(PDF).mancunium-ip.co.uk.Retrieved16 May2021.
  35. ^"Zimbabwe".Financial Times.27 September 2015.
  36. ^"What do South Africans call a pick up truck?".[dead link‍]
  37. ^Kenny, Stuart (22 November 2019)."Hiking vs. Trekking: What's the Difference?".muchbetteradventures.Retrieved16 May2021.
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