Afghanistan
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan | |
|---|---|
| Motto:لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh "There is no god butGod;Muhammadis the messenger of God. "(Shahadah) | |
| Anthem:دا د باتورانو کور "Dā Də Bātorāno Kor" "This Is the Home of the Brave"[2] | |
  | |
| Status | UN member stateunder anunrecognized government |
| Capital and largest city | Kabul 34°31′N69°11′E/ 34.517°N 69.183°E[3] |
| Official languages | |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Religion (2015) | |
| Demonym(s) | Afghan[b][11][12] |
| Government | Unitarytotalitarian[13]provisionaltheocraticIslamicemirate[14] |
| Hibatullah Akhundzada | |
| Hasan Akhund(acting) | |
| Abdul Hakim Haqqani | |
| Legislature | None[c] |
| Formation | |
| 1709–1738 | |
| 1747–1823 | |
| 1823–1839 | |
| 1839–1842 | |
| 1842–1926 | |
| 27 May 1863 | |
| 26 May 1879 | |
| 19 August 1919 | |
| 9 June 1926 | |
| 17 July 1973 | |
| 27–28 April 1978 | |
| 28 April 1992 | |
| 27 September 1996 | |
| 26 January 2004 | |
| 15 August 2021 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 652,867[19]km2(252,073 sq mi) (40th) |
• Water (%) | negligible |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate |  41,128,771[20](37th) |
• Density | 48.08/km2(124.5/sq mi) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2020 estimate |
• Total | $81.007 billion[21] |
• Per capita | $2,459[21] |
| GDP(nominal) | 2020 estimate |
• Total | $20.136 billion[21] |
• Per capita | $611[21] |
| HDI(2022) |  0.462[22][23]low(182nd) |
| Currency | Afghani(افغانى) (AFN) |
| Time zone | UTC+4:30 Lunar Calendar[24](Afghanistan Time) |
| DSTis not observed[25] | |
| ISO 3166 code | AF |
| Internet TLD | .af |
![Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate[1]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AArms_of_the_Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan.svg&t=hv)
Afghanistan,[d]officially theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan,[e]is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia,[26]it is bordered byPakistanto theeast and south,[f]Iranto thewest,Turkmenistanto thenorthwest,Uzbekistanto thenorth,Tajikistanto thenortheast,and China to thenortheast and east.Occupying 652,864 square kilometers (252,072 sq mi) of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with plainsin the northandthe southwest,which are separated by theHindu Kushmountain range.Kabulis the country's largest city and serves as its capital. According to the World Population review, as of 2023[update],Afghanistan's populationis 43 million.[6]TheNational Statistics Information Authority of Afghanistanestimated the population to be 32.9 million as of 2020[update].[28]
Human habitation in Afghanistandates to theMiddle Paleolithicera. Popularly referred to as thegraveyard of empires,[29]the land has historically been home to various peoples andhas witnessed numerous military campaigns,including those bythe Persians,Alexander the Great,theMaurya Empire,Arab Muslims,theMongols,theBritish,theSoviet Union,anda US-led coalition.Afghanistan also served as the source from which theGreco-Bactriansand theMughals,among others, rose to form major empires.[30]The various conquests and periods in both theIranianandIndiancultural spheres.[31][32]the area was a center forZoroastrianism,Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam.[33]The modern state of Afghanistan began with theDurrani Afghan Empirein the 18th century,[34]althoughDost Mohammad Khanis sometimes considered to be the founder of the firstmodern Afghan state.[35]Dost Mohammad died in 1863, days afterhis last campaign to unite Afghanistan,and Afghanistan was consequentlythrown back into civil war.During this time, Afghanistan became abuffer statein theGreat Gamebetween theBritish Empireand theRussian Empire.From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in theFirst Anglo-Afghan War.However, theSecond Anglo-Afghan Warsaw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence. Following theThird Anglo-Afghan Warin 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independentKingdom of Afghanistanin June 1926 underAmanullah Khan.This monarchy lasted almost half a century, untilZahir Shahwasoverthrown in 1973,following which theRepublic of Afghanistanwas established.
Since the late 1970s Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, includingcoups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars.The conflict began in 1978 when acommunist revolutionestablished asocialist state,and subsequent infighting prompted theSoviet Union to invade Afghanistanin 1979.Mujahideenfought against the Soviets in theSoviet–Afghan Warandcontinuedfightingamong themselvesfollowing theSoviets' withdrawal in 1989.TheIslamic fundamentalistTalibancontrolled most of the country by 1996, but theirIslamic Emirate of Afghanistanreceived little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001US invasion of Afghanistan.The Taliban returned to power in 2021 aftercapturing Kabuland overthrowing the government of theIslamic Republic of Afghanistan,ending the2001–2021 war.[36]In September 2021 the Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.[37]The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.[38]
Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, includinglithium,iron,zinc,and copper. It is the second-largest producer ofcannabis resin,[39]and third largest of bothsaffron[40]andcashmere.[41]The country is a member of theSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperationand a founding member of theOrganization of Islamic Cooperation.Due to the effects of war in recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of terrorism,poverty,and child malnutrition. Afghanistan remains among the world's least developed countries, ranking 180th in theHuman Development Index.Afghanistan's gross domestic product (GDP) is $81 billion bypurchasing power parityand $20.1 billion by nominal values. Per capita, its GDP is among the lowest of any country as of 2020[update].
Etymology
Some scholars suggest that therootnameAfghānis derived from theSanskritwordAśvakan,which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of theHindu Kush.[42]Aśvakanliterally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "cavalrymen"(fromaśva,theSanskritandAvestanwords for "horse" ).[43]
Historically, the ethnonymAfghānwas used to refer to ethnicPashtuns.[44]The Arabic and Persian form of the name,Afġān,was first attested in the 10th-century geography bookHudud al-'Alam.[45]The last part of the name, "-stan",is a Persian suffix meaning" place of ". Therefore," Afghanistan "translates to" land of the Afghans ", or" land of the Pashtuns "in a historical sense. According to the third edition of theEncyclopedia of Islam:[46]
The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns,afāghina,sing.afghān) can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of theKartidrealm. This name was later used for certain regions in theṢafavidandMughalempires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite ofAbdālī / DurrānīAfghans, theSadūzāʾī Durrānī politythat came into being in 1160 / 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the nineteenth century.
The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognizedDost Mohammad Khanas king ofAfghanistan.[47]
History
Prehistory and antiquity
Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares toEgyptin the historical value of its archaeological sites.[48][49]Artifacts typical of thePaleolithic,Mesolithic,Neolithic,Bronze,andIron Ageshave been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city ofMundigak(nearKandaharin the south of the country) was a center of theHelmand culture.More recent findings established that theIndus Valley Civilizationstretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on theOxus RiveratShortugaiin northern Afghanistan.[50][51][52]
After 2000 BCE successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were manyIndo-European-speakingIndo-Iranians.These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of theCaspian Sea.The region at the time was referred to asAriana.[48][53]By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew theMedesand incorporatedArachosia,Aria,andBactriawithin its eastern boundaries. Aninscriptionon the tombstone ofDarius I of Persiamentions theKabul Valleyin a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.[54]The region ofArachosia,aroundKandaharin modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta toPersiaand is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".[55][56][57]
Alexander the Greatand his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeatingDarius III of Persiaa year earlier in theBattle of Gaugamela.Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of theSeleucid Empirecontrolled the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to theMaurya Empireas part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of theHindu Kushuntil they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years afterAshoka's rule ended, leading to theHellenisticreconquest by theGreco-Bactrians.Much of it soon broke away and became part of theIndo-Greek Kingdom.They were defeated and expelled by theIndo-Scythiansin the late 2nd century BCE.[58][59] TheSilk Roadappeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities ofBukhara,Samarkand,andKhivain present-day Uzbekistan.[60]Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and tradinglapis lazulistones[61]mainly from theBadakhshanregion.
During the first century BCE, theParthian Empiresubjugated the region but lost it to theirIndo-Parthianvassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vastKushan Empire,centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, makingBuddhismflourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by theSassanidsin the 3rd century CE, though theIndo-Sassanidscontinued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by theKidariteswho, in turn, was replaced by theHephthalites.They were replaced by theTurk Shahiin the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was calledHindu Shahi.[62]Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated byBuddhistculture.[63][64]
Medieval period
ArabMuslimsbrought Islam toHeratandZaranjin 642 CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before thearrival of Islam,the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting inSyncretismbetween the dominant religions[65][66]such asZoroastrianism,[55][56][57]BuddhismorGreco-Buddhism,Ancient Iranian religions,[67]Hinduism,Christianity,[68][69]and Judaism.[70][71]An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such asAhura Mazda,Lady Nana,AnahitaorMihr (Mithra)and portrayedGreek godsas protectors of Buddha.[72][67][73]TheZunbilsand Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by theSaffaridMuslims of Zaranj. Later, theSamanidsextended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. TheGhaznavidsrose to power in the 10th century.[74][75][76]
By the 11th centuryMahmud of Ghaznihad defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectivelyIslamizedthe wider region,[77]with the exception ofKafiristan.[78]Mahmud madeGhazniinto an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historianAl-Biruniand the poetFerdowsi.[79]TheGhaznavid dynastywasoverthrown by the Ghurids in 1186,whose architectural achievements included the remoteMinaret of Jam.The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by theKhwarazmian dynastyin 1215.[80]
In 1219 CEGenghis Khanand hisMongol army overran the region.His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities ofHeratandBalkhas well asBamyan.[81]The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.[82]Mongol rule continued with theIlkhanatein the northwest while theKhalji dynastyadministered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion ofTimur(aka Tamerlane), who established theTimurid Empirein 1370. Under the rule ofShah Rukhthe city of Herat[83]served as the focal point of theTimurid Renaissance,whose glory matchedFlorenceof theItalian Renaissanceas the center of a cultural rebirth.[84][85]
In the early 16th centuryBaburarrived fromFerghanaand captured Kabul from theArghun dynasty.[86]Baburwould go on to conquer the AfghanLodi dynastywho had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in theFirst Battle of Panipat.[87]Between the 16th and 18th century, the UzbekKhanate of Bukhara,IranianSafavids,and IndianMughalsruled parts of the territory.[88]During the medieval period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional nameKhorasan,which was commonly used up to the 19th century among natives to describe their country.[89][90][91][92]
Hotak dynasty
In 1709Mirwais Hotak,a localGhilzaitribal leader, successfully rebelled against theSafavids.He defeatedGurgin Khan,the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom.[93]Mirwais died in 1715 and was succeeded by his brotherAbdul Aziz,who was soon killed by Mirwais's sonMahmudfor possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital ofIsfahan,and captured the city after theBattle of Gulnabadand proclaimed himself King of Persia.[93]The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia byNader Shahafter the 1729Battle of Damghan.
In 1738Nader Shahand hisforcescaptured Kandahar in thesiege of Kandahar,the last Hotak stronghold, from ShahHussain Hotak.Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forcesinvaded India,Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old commander,Ahmad Shah Durraniwho had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.[94][95]
Durrani empire
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747Ahmad Shah Durranihad returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000Pashtuns.The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against theMughal empire,Maratha empire,and then-recedingAfsharid empire.Ahmad Shah had capturedKabulandPeshawarfrom the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conqueredHeratin 1750, and had also capturedKashmirin 1752.[96]Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns intoKhorasan,1750–1751 and 1754–1755.[97]His first campaign had seen the siege ofMashhad,however, he was forced to retreat after four months. In November 1750, he moved to siegeNishapur,but he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751.Ahmad Shah returned in 1754;he capturedTun,and on 23 July, he siegedMashhadonce again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, butShahrokhwasreappointedin 1755. He was forced to give upTorshiz,Bakharz,Jam,Khaf,andTurbat-e Haidarito the Afghans, as well as accept Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah siegedNishapuronce again, and captured it.
Ahmad Shahinvaded India eight timesduring his reign,[98]beginning in 1748. Crossing the Indus River, his armies sacked and absorbedLahoreinto theDurrani Realm.He met Mughal armies at theBattle of Manupur (1748),where he was defeated and forced to retreat back to Afghanistan.[99]He returned the next year in 1749 and captured the area aroundLahoreandPunjab,presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign.[100]From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah led six more invasions, the most important being the last; theThird Battle of Panipatcreated a power vacuum in northern India, haltingMarathaexpansion.
Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed, with his named successor,Timur Shah Durranisucceeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.[101]Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders inKabulandKandahar.One of Timur Shah's reforms was to move the capital of theDurrani EmpirefromKandahartoKabul.Timur Shah fought multiple series of rebellions to consolidate the empire, and he also led campaigns intoPunjabagainst the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully. The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in thePunjabregion[102]The Durranis lostMultanin 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death. Following this victory, Timur Shah was able to lay siege toMultanand recapture it,[103]incorporating it into the Durrani Empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until theSiege of Multan (1818).Timur Shah was succeeded by his sonZaman Shah Durraniafter his death in May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which plunged the empire in civil war over succession crises.[104]
Zaman Shah Durranisucceeded to theDurrani Thronefollowing the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. His brothersMahmud Shah Durraniand Humayun Mirza revolted against him, with Humayun centered inKandaharand Mahmud Shah centered inHerat.[105]Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani.[105]Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah led three campaigns intoPunjab.The first two campaigns capturedLahore,but he retreated due to intel about a possibleQajarinvasion. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign forPunjabin 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh.[106]However, he was forced to withdraw, and Zaman Shah's reign was ended by Mahmud Shah Durrani.[106]However, just under two years into his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani was deposed by his brotherShah Shuja Durranion 13 July 1803.[107]Shah Shuja attempted to consolidate theDurrani Realmbut was deposed by his brother at theBattle of Nimla (1809).[108]Mahmud Shah Durrani defeated Shah Shuja and forced him to flee, usurping the throne again. His second reign began on 3 May 1809.[109]
Barakzai dynasty and British wars
By the early 19th century the Afghan empire was under threat from thePersiansin the west and theSikh Empirein the east.Fateh Khan,leader of theBarakzai tribe,installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. Fateh Khan wasbrutally murderedin 1818 byMahmud Shah.As a result, the brothers of Fateh Khan and theBarakzaitribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states, including thePrincipality of Qandahar,Emirate of Herat,Khanate of Qunduz,Maimana Khanate,and numerous other warring polities. The most prominent state was theEmirate of Kabul,ruled byDost Mohammad Khan.[110][111]
With the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of theSadozai Dynastyto be left to rule inHerat,Punjab and Kashmir were lost toRanjit Singh,ruler of theSikh Empire,who invadedKhyber Pakhtunkhwain March 1823 and captured the city ofPeshawarfollowing theBattle of Nowshera.In 1834, Dost Mohammad Khan led numerous campaigns, firstlycampaigning to Jalalabad,and then allying with his rival brothers inKandaharto defeatShah Shuja Durraniand the British in theExpedition of Shuja ul-Mulk.[112]In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan attempted to conquer Peshawar and sent a large force under his sonWazir Akbar Khan,leading to theBattle of Jamrud.Akbar Khanand the Afghan army failed to capture theJamrud Fortfrom theSikh Khalsa Army,but killed Sikh CommanderHari Singh Nalwa,thus ending theAfghan-Sikh Wars.By this time the British were advancing from the east, capitalizing off of the decline of the Sikh Empire after it had its own period of turbulence following the death ofRanjit Singh,which engaged theEmirate of Kabulin thefirst major conflictduring "The Great Game".[113]
In 1839 aBritishexpeditionary force marched into Afghanistan, invading thePrincipality of Qandahar,and in August 1839, seizedKabul.Dost Mohammad Khan defeated the British in theParwan campaign,but surrendered following his victory. He was replaced with the former Durrani rulerShah Shuja Durranias the newrulerofKabul,a de facto puppet of the British.[114][115]Following an uprising that saw the assassination ofShah Shuja,the1842 retreat from Kabulof British-Indian forces and theannihilationofElphinstone's army, and the punitive expedition ofThe Battle of Kabulthat led to its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try and subjugate Afghanistan, allowing Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler. Following this, Dost Mohammad pursued a myriad of campaigns to unite most of Afghanistan in his reign, launching numerous incursions including against the surrounding states such as theHazarajat campaign,conquest of Balkh,conquest of Kunduz,and theconquest of Kandahar.Dost Mohammad led his final campaign againstHerat,conquering it and re-uniting Afghanistan. During his campaigns of re-unification, he held friendly relations with the British despite the First Anglo-Afghan War, and affirmed their status in theSecond Anglo-Afghan treatyof 1857, whileBukharaand internal religious leaders pressured Dost Mohammad to invade India during theIndian Rebellion of 1857.[116]
Dost Mohammad died in June 1863, a few weeks after his successfulcampaignto Herat. Following his death, a civil war ensued among his sons, prominentlyMohammad Afzal Khan,Mohammad Azam Khan,andSher Ali Khan.Sher Ali won the resultingAfghan Civil War (1863–1869)and ruled Afghanistan until his death in 1879. In his final years, the British returned to Afghanistan in theSecond Anglo-Afghan Warto fight perceived Russian influence in the region. Sher Ali retreated to northern Afghanistan, intending to create a resistance there similar to his predecessors, Dost Mohammad Khan, and Wazir Akbar Khan. His untimely death however, sawYaqub Khandeclared the new Amir, leading to Britain gaining control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of theTreaty of Gandamakof 1879, making it an officialBritish Protected State.[117][118]An uprisinghowever, re-started the conflict, and Yaqub Khan was deposed. During this tumultuous period,Abdur Rahman Khanbegan his rise to power, becoming an eligible candidate to become Amir after he seizedmuch of Northern Afghanistan.Abdur Rahman marched onKabul,and was declared Amir, being recognized by the British as well. Another uprising byAyub Khanthreatened the British, where rebels confronted and defeated British forces in theBattle of Maiwand.Following up on his victory, Ayub Khan unsuccessfullybesieged Kandahar,and his decisive defeat saw the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War, with Abdur Rahman secured firmly as Amir.[119]In 1893, Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnicPashtunandBalochterritories were divided by theDurand Line,which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan.Shia-dominatedHazarajatand paganKafiristanremained politically independent until beingconqueredby Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.[120]He died in 1901, succeeded by his son,Habibullah Khan.
How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?
During theFirst World War,when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the central powers in theNiedermayer–Hentig Expedition.They called on Afghanistan to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of theHindu–German Conspiracy.The effort to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among the population about maintaining neutrality with the British. Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919, andAmanullah Khaneventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan invaded British India, beginning theThird Anglo-Afghan War,and entering British India via theKhyber Pass.[123]
After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of theTreaty of Rawalpindion 19 August 1919,EmirAmanullah Khan declared theEmirate of Afghanistanasovereignand fullyindependent state.He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with theSoviet Unionand theWeimar Republic.[124][125]He proclaimed himselfKing of Afghanistanon 9 June 1926, forming theKingdom of Afghanistan.He introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms wasMahmud Tarzi,an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923constitution,which made elementary education compulsory.Slaverywas abolished in 1923.[126]King Amanullah's wife,Queen Soraya,was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression.[127]
Some of the reforms, such as the abolition of the traditionalburqafor women and the opening of co-educational schools, alienated many tribal and religious leaders, leading to theAfghan Civil War (1928–1929).King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell toSaqqawistforces led byHabibullah Kalakani.[128]Mohammed Nadir Shah,Amanullah's cousin, defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.[129]He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 byAbdul Khaliq.[130]
Mohammed Zahir Shah succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from 1933 to 1973. During thetribal revolts of 1944–1947,King Zahir's reign was challenged byZadran,Safi,Mangal,andWazirtribesmen led byMazrak Zadran,Salemai,andMirzali Khan,among others – many of whom wereAmanullah loyalists.Afghanistan joined theLeague of Nationsin 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of anational bank,and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry.[131]The country built close relationships with theAxis powers,withNazi Germanyhaving the largest share in Afghan development at the time.[132]
Until 1946 King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post ofprime ministerand continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another uncle,Shah Mahmud Khan,became prime minister in 1946 and experimented with allowing greater political freedom. He was replaced in 1953 byMohammed Daoud Khan,aPashtunnationalist who sought the creation of aPashtunistan,leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.[133]Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with theSoviet Union.Afterward, the1964 constitutionwas formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in.[131]
Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. Afghanistan was neither a participant inWorld War IInor aligned with either power bloc in theCold War.However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Sovietdevelopment aidthan any other country. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched abloodless coupand became the firstpresident of Afghanistan,abolishing the monarchy.
Democratic Republic and Soviet war
In April 1978, the communistPeople's Democratic Party of Afghanistan(PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-PresidentMohammed Daoud Khan,in what is called theSaur Revolution.The PDPA declared the establishment of theDemocratic Republic of Afghanistan,with its first leader named asPeople's Democratic PartyGeneral SecretaryNur Muhammad Taraki.[134]This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism.[135]The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state ofcivil warby 1979, waged by guerrillamujahideen(and smallerMaoistguerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into aproxy waras the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United Statessupportedthem through Pakistan'sInter-Services Intelligence(ISI),[136]and theSoviet Unionsent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime.[137]Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominantKhalqand the more moderateParcham.[138]
In October 1979 PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by then-prime ministerHafizullah Amin,who became the new general secretary of thePeople's Democratic Party.The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people went missing.[139]Displeased with Amin's government, theSoviet Armyinvaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin.[140]A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham'sBabrak Karmalbut inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of theSoviet–Afghan War.[141]Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000[142]and 2 million Afghans,[143][144][145][146][147][148][149][excessive citations]and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly toPakistanandIran.[150]Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions oflandmineswere planted,[151]and some cities such asHeratandKandaharwere also damaged from bombardment. After theSoviet withdrawal,thecivil war ensueduntil the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leaderMohammad Najibullahcollapsed in 1992.[152][153][154]
The Soviet–Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups, and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter.[155]The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerfulwarlords.[156]
Post–Cold War conflict
Another civil war broke out after thecreationof a dysfunctional coalitiongovernmentbetween leaders of variousmujahideenfactions. Amid a state of anarchy and factional infighting,[157][158][159]variousmujahideenfactions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion,[158][160][161]while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting.[161]Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders.[162]TheTalibanemerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (talib) from Islamicmadrassas (schools) in Pakistan,[161][163]who soon had military support from Pakistan.[164]Taking control ofKandaharcity that year,[161]they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government ofRabbanifrom Kabul in 1996,[165][166]where they established anemirate.[167]The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamicsharialaw, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especiallywomen.[168][169]During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy ofscorched earth,burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.[170][171][172][173][174][175][excessive citations]
After the fall of Kabulto the Taliban,Ahmad Shah MassoudandAbdul Rashid Dostumformed theNorthern Alliance,later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during theBattles of Mazar-i-Sharifin 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff,Pervez Musharraf,began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.[176][164][177][178][179][excessive citations]By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arabsuicide attackersinPanjshir Valley.Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.[180]
US invasion and Islamic Republic
In October 2001, theUnited States invaded Afghanistanto remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand overOsama bin Laden,the prime suspect of theSeptember 11 attacks,who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating hisal-Qaedanetwork in Afghanistan.[181][182][183]The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion.[184][185]During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.[186]
In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, theAfghan Interim AdministrationunderHamid Karzaiwas formed. TheInternational Security Assistance Force(ISAF) was established by theUN Security Councilto help assist theKarzai administrationand provide basic security.[187][188]By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acutefamineat the time, Afghanistan had one of the highestinfantand child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry,[189][190][191]and infrastructure was in ruins.[192]Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.[193][194]As coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help therebuilding process,[195][196]theTaliban began an insurgencyto regain control. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment,government corruption,and the Taliban insurgency.[197][198]
The Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the nameIslamic Republic of Afghanistan.Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train theAfghan National Security Forces.Following 2002, nearly five millionAfghanswere repatriated.[199]The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,[200]dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.[201]In September 2014Ashraf Ghanibecame president after the2014 presidential electionwhere for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.[202][203][204]On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-ledOperation Resolute Supportwas formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.[205][206]Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces[207]and continue their fight against the Taliban.[208]A report titledBody Countconcluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[209]
On 19 February 2020, theUS–Taliban dealwas made in Qatar. The deal was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of theAfghan National Security Forces(ANSF);[210]following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting theTaliban insurgency,leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.[211]
Second Taliban era
NATO Secretary GeneralJens Stoltenbergannounced on 14 April 2021 that the alliance had agreed to startwithdrawing its troops from Afghanistanby 1 May.[212]Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, theTalibanlaunched anoffensive against the Afghan governmentand quickly advanced in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.[213][214]The Talibancaptured the capital city of Kabulon 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan. Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani,[215]were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them.[216]On 17 August, first vice presidentAmrullah Salehproclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the formation of ananti-Taliban frontwith a reported 6,000+ troops[217][218]in thePanjshir Valley,along withAhmad Massoud.[219][220]However, by 6 September, the Taliban had taken control of most ofPanjshir province,with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains.[221]Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September.[222]
According to theCosts of War Project,176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021.[223]According to theUppsala Conflict Data Program,at least 212,191 people were killed in the conflict.[224]Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions[225][226][227]amidfighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State,as well as an anti-TalibanRepublican insurgency.[228]
The Taliban government is led bysupreme leaderHibatullah Akhundzada[229]and acting prime ministerHasan Akhund,who took office on 7 September 2021.[230][231]Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban[232]and was a deputy prime minister of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners.[233]Anew, all-male cabinetwas formed, which includedAbdul Hakim Haqqanias minister of justice.[234][235]On 20 September 2021,United Nations Secretary-GeneralAntónio Guterresreceived a letter from actingminister of foreign affairsAmir Khan Muttaqito formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman inDoha,Suhail Shaheen.The United Nations did not recognize the previous Taliban government and chose to work with the then government-in-exile instead.[236]
Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; theWorld BankandInternational Monetary Fundalso halted their payments.[237][238]More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acutefood shortagein October 2021.[239]Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespreadfaminedue to an economic and banking crisis.[240]TheTalibanhave significantly tackled corruption, now being placed as 150th on the corruption watchdog perception index. The Taliban have also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.[241]At the same time, the human rights situation in the country has deteriorated.[242]Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan;[243]however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.[244]
In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered theexpulsion of Afghans from Pakistan.[245]Iran also decided to deportAfghannationals back to Afghanistan.[246]Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act".[247]Afghanistan faced a humanitarian crisis in late 2023.[248]
Geography
Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.[249][250][251][252][253]The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia",[254]and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia.[255]The renownedUrdupoetAllama Iqbalonce wrote about the country:
Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.
At over 652,864 km2(252,072 sq mi),[256]Afghanistan is the world's41st largest country,[257]slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan islandlocked.Afghanistan shares its longest land border (theDurand Line) with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the northeast, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the far northeast; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administeredKashmir.[258]Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders with theSistan and Baluchestan Province,South Khorasan Province andRazavi Khorasan Provinceof Iran;Ahal Region,Mary RegionandLebap Regionof Turkmenistan;Surxondaryo Regionof Uzbekistan;Khatlon RegionandGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Regionof Tajikistan;Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Regionof China; and theGilgit-Baltistan territory,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinceandBalochistan provinceof Pakistan.[259]
The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.[260]It is dominated by theHindu Kushrange, the western extension of theHimalayasthat stretches to easternTibetvia thePamir MountainsandKarakoram Mountainsin Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "Roof of the World".The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely theTurkestanPlains and theSistan Basin;these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively.[261]Forests exist in the corridor betweenNuristanandPaktikaprovinces (seeEast Afghan montane conifer forests),[262]andtundrain the northeast. The country's highest point isNoshaq,at 7,492 m (24,580 ft) above sea level.[263]The lowest point lies inJowzjan Provincealong the Amu River bank, at 258 m (846 ft) above sea level.
Despite having numerous rivers andreservoirs,large parts of the country are dry. TheendorheicSistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.[264]TheAmu Daryarises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearbyHari Rudflows west towardsHerat,and theArghandab Riverfrom the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of theIndus River,[260]such as theHelmand River.TheKabul Riverflows in an easterly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean.[265]Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in theHindu KushandPamir Mountains,and the melting snow in the spring season enters therivers, lakes, and streams.[266][267]However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries ofIran,Pakistan, andTurkmenistan.As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.[268]
The northeastern Hindu Kushmountain range,in and around theBadakhshan Provinceof Afghanistan, is in ageologically activearea where earthquakes may occur almost every year.[269]They can be deadly and destructive, causinglandslidesin some parts oravalanchesduring the winter.[270]In June 2022, adestructive 5.9 earthquakestruck near the border with Pakistan, killing at least 1,150 people and sparking fears of a major humanitarian crisis.[271]On 7 October 2023, a6.3 magnitude earthquakestruck northwest of Herat, killing over 1,400 people.[272]
Climate
Afghanistan has acontinental climatewith harsh winters in thecentral highlands,the glaciated northeast (aroundNuristan), and theWakhan Corridor,where the average temperature in January is below −15 °C (5 °F) and can reach −26 °C (−15 °F),[260]and hot summers in the low-lying areas of theSistan Basinof the southwest, theJalalabadbasin in the east, and theTurkestanplains along theAmu Riverin the north, where temperatures average over 35 °C (95 °F) in July[263][274]and can go over 43 °C (109 °F).[260]The country is generallyaridin the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside themonsoonzone,[260]except theNuristan Provincewhich occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.[275]
Biodiversity
Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan.Snow leopards,Siberian tigersandbrown bearslive in the high elevationalpine tundraregions. TheMarco Polo sheepexclusively live in theWakhan Corridorregion of north-east Afghanistan. Foxes,wolves,otters,deer,wild sheep,lynxand other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds,hedgehogs,gophers,and large carnivores such asjackalsandhyenas.[276]
Gazelles,wild pigsand jackals populate thesteppeplains of the south and west, whilemongooseand cheetahs exist in the semi-desert south.[276]Marmotsandibexalso live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, andpheasantsexist in some parts of the country.[277]TheAfghan houndis a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west.[278]
Endemicfauna of Afghanistan includes theAfghan flying squirrel,Afghan snowfinch,Paradactylodon(or the "Paghmanmountain salamander "),Stigmella kasyi,Vulcaniella kabulensis,Afghan leopard gecko,Wheeleria parviflorellus,among others. Endemic flora includeIris afghanica.Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.[278]
The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such aspine trees,spruce trees,fir treesandlarches,whereas the steppe grassland regions consist ofbroadleaf trees,short grass,perennial plantsandshrublands.The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants.[276]Several regions are designatedprotected areas;there are threenational parks:Band-e Amir,WakhanandNuristan.Afghanistan had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries.[279]
Government and politics
Following the effective collapse of theIslamic Republic of Afghanistanduring the2021 Taliban offensive,the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September.[280]As of 8 September 2021[update],no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as thede juregovernment of Afghanistan.[281]According to theV-Dem Democracy indicesAfghanistan in 2023 was the third leastelectoral democratic country in Asia.[282]
A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is theloya jirga(grand assembly), aPashtunconsultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a newhead of state,adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war.[283]Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,[284]with the most recent one occurring in August 2020.[285][286]
Development of Taliban government
On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliatedHezb-e-Islami Gulbuddinparty,Gulbuddin Hekmatyar,met with bothHamid Karzai,the formerPresident of Afghanistan,andAbdullah Abdullah,the former chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and formerChief Executive,inDoha,Qatar,with the aim of forming anational unity government.[287][288]PresidentAshraf Ghani,having fled the country during the Taliban advance to eitherTajikistanorUzbekistan,emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan.[289][290]Many figures within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the2004 Constitution of Afghanistanmay, if correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their objections to the former government were political, and not religious.[291]
Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September afterJumu'ah.It was added thatHibatullah Akhundzadawould be officially namedEmir,with cabinet ministers being revealed at theArgin an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be namedhead of governmentasPrime Minister,while other important positions would go toSirajuddin HaqqaniandMullah Yaqoob.Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to thecabinet.[292]
In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Hibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role ofSaayid Ali Khamenei,and would be based out ofKandahar.Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government asPrime minister.The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over anexecutive bodyknown as the Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members.Abdul Hakim Haqqaniis likely to be promoted toChief justice.According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended1964 Constitution of Afghanistan.[293]Government formation was delayed due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.[294]It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. Reports claimed that this culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan, however this was denied by Baradar himself.[295][296]
As of early September 2021 the Taliban were planning the cabinet to be men-only. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women,protestedinHeratand Kabul, calling for women to be included.[297]Theacting Cabinetannounced on 7 September was men-only, and theMinistry of Women's Affairswas abolished.[280]
As of June 2024, no country has recognized theTalibangovernment as the legitimate authorities of Afghanistan, with the U.N adding that recognition was impossible so long as restrictions on female education and employment remained.[298][299]
Administrative divisions
Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat).[300]Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincialdistricts,each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.
Theprovincial governorsare now appointed by thePrime Minister of Afghanistan,and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.[301]The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years.[302]The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.[303]
The 34 provinces in alphabetical order are:
Foreign relations
Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.[304]Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; andIndia,with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950.[305]Relations withPakistanhave often been tense for various reasons such as theDurand Lineborder issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.
The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationallyunrecognized,but has had notable unofficial ties withChina,Pakistan, and Qatar.[306][307]Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number ofNATOand allied nations, particularly theUnited States,Canada,United Kingdom,Germany,Australia, andTurkey.In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed theirStrategic Partnership Agreementin which Afghanistan became amajor non-NATO ally.[308]Such qualification was rescinded by US PresidentJoe Bidenin July 2022.[309]
Military
TheArmed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistancaptured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from theAfghan National Security Forcesfollowing the2021 Taliban offensiveand theFall of Kabul.The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion.[310][311]
Human rights
Homosexuality istabooin Afghan society;[312]according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison.[313]UnderSharia lawoffenders can bepunished by death.[314][315]However, an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) calledbacha bazipersists.
Religious minorities such as Sikhs,[316]Hindus,[317]and Christians have reportedly faced persecution.[318][319]
Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-body coverings when in public (either aburqaor anabayapaired with aniqāb,which leaves only the eyes uncovered).[320][321]FirstDeputy LeaderSirajuddin Haqqaniclaimed the decree is only advisory and no form ofhijabis compulsory in Afghanistan,[322]though this contradicts the reality.[323]It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights between hardliners, including leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly present a united front.[324]Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during broadcasts.[325]Since the Taliban takeover, suicides among women have become more common, and the country could now be one of the few where the rate of suicide among women surpasses that among men.[326][327][328]
In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.[329]
Economy
Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1 billion in 2020, or $81 billion bypurchasing power parity(PPP).[21]ItsGDP per capitais $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by nominal.[21]Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits,[330]it remains one of the world'sleast developed countries.Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.[260]The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits andnuts.It has $2.8 billion inexternal debt.[263]The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).[331]
Da Afghanistan Bankserves as the central bank of the nation[332]and theAfghani(AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar.[333]A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including theAfghanistan International Bank,New Kabul Bank,Azizi Bank,Pashtany Bank,Standard Chartered Bank,and theFirst Micro Finance Bank.
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 millionexpatriates,who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country.[334]Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and theGhazi Amanullah Khan Townnear Jalalabad.[335][336][337]Similar development projects have also begun inHerat,Mazar-e-Sharif,and other cities.[338]An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.[339]
Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion intelecominvestment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.[340]Afghan rugsare becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.[341]
Afghanistan is a member ofWTO,SAARC,ECO,andOIC.It holds an observer status inSCO.In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.[342]
Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States hasfrozen about $9 billionin assets belonging to theAfghan central bank,[343]blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts.[344][345]
TheGDP of Afghanistanis estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power. Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, and UN aid. In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.[346]In the third quarter of 2023, theAfghanirose to be the best performing currency in the world, climbing over 9% against theUS dollar.[347]
Agriculture
Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy[348]and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018.[349]The country is known for producingpomegranates,grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. Afghanistan also became the world's top producer ofcannabisin 2010.[350]In March 2023, however, cannabis production was banned by a decree from Hibatullah Akhundzada.[351]
Saffron,the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularlyHerat Province.In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers are using to try to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute.[352][353]Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.[354]
The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and Pakistan, and in the 2010s, of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in expansion of agriculture and population in the southwestern deserts of Afghanistan inKandahar,HelmandandNimruzprovinces in the 2010s. Wells have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major crop, but as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, to suppress opium production, was systematically suppressing water pumping.[355][356]In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward opium. This included a 99% reduction of opium growth in theHelmand Province.[357]In November 2023, a U.N report showed that in the entirety of Afghanistan, poppy cultivation dropped by over 95%, removing it from its place as being the world's largest opium producer.[358][359]
Mining
The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore,lithium,uranium,rare earth elements,chromite,gold,zinc,talc,barite,sulfur,lead,marble,precious andsemi-precious stones,natural gas, and petroleum.[360][361]In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by theUS Geological Surveyare worth at least$1 trillion.[362]
Michael E. O'Hanlonof theBrookings Institutionestimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from itsmineral deposits,itsgross national productwould double and provide long-term funding for critical needs.[363]TheUnited States Geological Survey(USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 460 million m3(2.9 billion bbl) ofcrude oil,440 billion m3(15.7 trillion cu ft) of natural gas, and 67 billion L (562 million US bbl) ofnatural gas liquids.[364]In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract withChina National Petroleum Corporation(CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.[365]
The country has significant amounts oflithium,copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and otherminerals.[360][361][366]TheKhanashincarbonatitein Helmand Province contains 1,000,000 tonnes (980,000long tons;1,100,000short tons) ofrare earth elements.[367]In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for theAynakcopper mine to theChina Metallurgical Groupfor $3 billion,[368]making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.[369]The state-runSteel Authority of Indiawon the mining rights to develop the hugeHajigakiron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[370]Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least$1 trillion.[362]One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".[371]The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones ofBolivia,which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves.[372]Other larger deposits are the ones ofbauxiteandcobalt.[372]
Access tobiocapacityin Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares[373]of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[374]In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person—theirecological footprintof consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.[373]
In September 2023, theTalibansigned mining contracts worth$6.5 billion,with extractions based on gold, iron, lead, and zinc in the provinces of Herat, Ghor, Logar, and Takhar.[375]
Energy
According to theWorld Bank,98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.[376]Overall the figure stands at 98.7%.[377]As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400megawattsof power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states.[378]The majority of electricity production is viahydropower,helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains.[379]However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul.[380]In recent years an increasing number ofsolar,biomassand wind power plants have been constructed.[381]Currently under development are theCASA-1000project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and theTurkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India(TAPI) gas pipeline.[380]Power is managed by theDa Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat(DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company).
Important dams include theKajaki Dam,Dahla Dam,and theSardeh Band Dam.[265]
Tourism
Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016.[382]In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesqueBamyanValley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.[383][384]Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as theWakhanValley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities.[385]From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famoushippie trail,attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities includingHerat,KandaharandKabulbefore crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, andNepal.[386][387]Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.[388]
The city ofGhaznihas significant history and historical sites, and together withBamyancity have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively.[389]The cities ofHerat,Kandahar,Balkh,andZaranjare also very historic. TheMinaret of Jamin theHari Rivervalley is aUNESCO World Heritage Site.A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophetMuhammadis kept in theShrine of the Cloakin Kandahar, a city founded byAlexander the Greatand the first capital of Afghanistan. Thecitadel of Alexanderin the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is theShrine of Ali,believed by many to be the location whereAliwas buried.[390]TheNational Museum of Afghanistanin Kabul hosts a large number of Buddhist,BactrianGreek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.[391]
Unexpectedly, tourism has seen development in Afghanistan following the Taliban takeover. Active efforts by the Taliban has seen tourism increase from 691 tourists in 2021, to 2,300 in 2022. A sharp increase of over 120% was observed from 2022 to 2023, reaching nearly 5,200 tourists, with some estimates of between 7,000 and 10,000.[392][393][394]This is however, threatened fromISIS-K,who held responsibility for attacks on tourists such as the2024 Bamyan shooting.[395]
Communication
Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided byAfghan Telecom,Afghan Wireless,Etisalat,MTN Group,andRoshan.The country uses its own spacesatellitecalledAfghansat 1,which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.[396]
Transportation
Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network isHighway 1,often called the "Ring Road", which extends for 2,210 kilometres (1,370 mi) and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif,[397]with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.[398]
The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy.[399]A key portion of the Ring Road is theSalang Tunnel,completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan.[400]It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to theIndian subcontinent.[401]Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on theKabul–Kandaharand theKabul–Jalalabad Road.[402]Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities.[403]
Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier,Ariana Afghan Airlines,[404]and by the private companyKam Air.Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These includeAir India,Emirates,Gulf Air,Iran Aseman Airlines,Pakistan International Airlines,andTurkish Airlines.The country has four international airports:Hamid Karzai International Airport(formerly Kabul International Airport),Kandahar International Airport,Herat International Airport,andMazar-e Sharif International Airport.Including domestic airports, there are 43.[263]Bagram Air Baseis a major military airfield.
The country has three rail links: one, a 75-kilometre (47 mi) line fromMazar-i-Sharifto theUzbekistan border;[405]a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) long line fromToraghundito theTurkmenistanborder (where it continues as part ofTurkmen Railways); and a short link fromAqinaacross the Turkmen border toKerki,which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan.[406]These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line betweenKhaf,Iran andHerat,western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, was under construction as of 2019.[407][408]About 125 kilometres (78 mi) of the line will lie on the Afghan side.[409][410]
Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow and consist of both cars andauto rickshaws.[411]In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys,mulesor horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.[278]Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan.[412]
Demographics
The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority,[414]whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million.[415]In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5 million.[416]About 23.9% of them areurbanite,71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.[417]An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboringPakistanandIran,most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years.
The current population growth rate is 2.37%,[263]one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue.[418]The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.[419]Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.[420]Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.[citation needed]TheGini coefficientin 2008 was 27.8.[421]
Urbanization
As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher thanCambodia,NepalandSri Lanka.Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capitalKabul,due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.[422]Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.[423]
The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namelyKandaharin the south,Heratin the west,Mazar-i-Sharif,Kunduzin the north, andJalalabadin the east.[417]
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Kabul  Kandahar |
1 | Kabul | Kabul Province | 4,273,200 |  Herat  Mazar-i-Sharif | ||||
| 2 | Kandahar | Kandahar Province | 614,300 | ||||||
| 3 | Herat | Herat Province | 556,200 | ||||||
| 4 | Mazar-i-Sharif | Balkh Province | 469,200 | ||||||
| 5 | Jalalabad | Nangarhar Province | 356,500 | ||||||
| 6 | Kunduz | Kunduz Province | 263,200 | ||||||
| 7 | Taloqan | Takhar Province | 253,700 | ||||||
| 8 | Puli Khumri | Baghlan Province | 237,900 | ||||||
| 9 | Ghazni | Ghazni Province | 183,000 | ||||||
| 10 | Khost | Khost Province | 153,300 | ||||||
Ethnicity and languages
Afghansare divided into severalethnolinguisticgroups. According to research data by several institutions in 2019, thePashtunsare the largest ethnic group, comprising 42%, followed byTajiks,comprising 27%[4][5][6][425][8]of the country's population. The other two major ethnic groups are theHazarasandUzbeks,each at 9%. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in theAfghan National Anthem.[426]
DariandPashtoare theofficial languagesof Afghanistan;bilingualismis very common.[427]Dari, which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a variety of and mutually intelligible withPersian(and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like inIran), functions as thelingua francain Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country.[428]Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes calledFarsiwans.[429]Pashto is the native tongue of thePashtuns,although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.[430] According toCIA World Factbook,Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1+L2) and functions as the lingua franca, whilePashtois spoken by 50%,Uzbek10%, English 5%,Turkmen2%,Urdu2%,Pashayi1%,Nuristani1%,Arabic1%, andBalochi1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani.[263]
When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understandHindustani(Urdu-Hindi), partly due to returningAfghan refugeesfromPakistanand the popularity ofBollywoodfilms respectively.[431]English is also understood by some of the population,[432]and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s.[433]Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian, which wastaught in public schools during the 1980s.[431]
Religion
The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim[263]and most are thought to adhere to theSunniHanafischool.[434]According toPew Research Center,as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7%Shiaand 3%non-denominational.[435]TheCIAFactbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia.[263]
AfghanSikhsandHindusare also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)[436][437]accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.[438]According toDeutsche Wellein September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.[439]
There was a smallJewish community in Afghanistan,living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced to leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known exception, Herat-bornZablon Simintov.He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan.[440][441][442]
Afghan Christians,who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.[443][444]
Education
Education in Afghanistanis overseen by theMinistry of Educationand theMinistry of Higher Education.There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students from returning to secondary schools.[445][446]Over 174,000 students are enrolled in differentuniversities around the country.About 21% of these are females.[447]Former Education MinisterGhulam Farooq Wardakhad stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived offormal learning.[448]As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%).[449]
The top universities in Afghanistan are theAmerican University of Afghanistan(AUAF) followed byKabul University(KU), both of which are located in Kabul. TheNational Military Academy of Afghanistan,modeled after theUnited States Military Academyat West Point, was a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for theAfghan Armed Forces.TheAfghan Defense Universitywas constructed nearQarghain Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul includeKandahar Universityin the south,Herat Universityin the northwest,Balkh UniversityandKunduz Universityin the north,Nangarhar UniversityandKhost Universityin the east.
After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that secondary education would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed.[450]Despite the ban, six provinces,Balkh,Kunduz,Jowzjan,Sar-I-Pul,Faryab,and theDay Kundi,still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.[451][452]In December 2023, investigations were being held by the United Nations on the claim that Afghan girls of all ages were allowed to study at religious schools.[453]
Health
According to theHuman Development Index,Afghanistan is the15th least developed country in the world.The averagelife expectancyis estimated to be around 60 years.[454][455]The country'smaternal mortalityrate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and itsinfant mortalityrate is 66[455]to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births.[263]TheMinistry of Public Healthplans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000midwives,with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.[456]
There are over 100hospitals in Afghanistan,[457]with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. TheFrench Medical Institute for ChildrenandIndira Gandhi Children's Hospitalin Kabul are the leadingchildren's hospitalsin the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include theJamhuriat HospitalandJinnah Hospital.[458]In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility.[459]Thedisabilityrate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war.[460]It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.[461][462]Non-governmental charities such asSave the ChildrenandMahboba's Promiseassist orphans in association with governmental structures.[463]
Culture
Afghanshave both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country.[260]Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by apatriarch.[464]In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to thePashtun cultureby followingPashtunwali(the Pashtun way).[465]Key tenets of Pashtunwali includehospitality,the provision ofsanctuaryto those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.[466]The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and theIranian Plateau.The remaining Afghans are culturallyPersianandTurkic.Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process calledPashtunization,while some Pashtuns have beenPersianized.Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.[434]
Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor.[467]There are variousAfghan tribes,and an estimated 2–3 millionnomads.[468]Afghan culture is deeplyIslamic,[469]but pre-Islamic practices persist.[470]One example isbacha bazi,a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and adolescents or boys.[471]Child marriageis prevalent;[472]the legal age for marriage is 16.[473]The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one'sparallel cousin,and the groom is often expected to pay abride price.[474]
In the villages, families typically occupymudbrickhouses, or compounds with mudbrick orstone walledhouses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water distribution (mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest.[464]About 15% of the population arenomadic,locally calledkochis.[260]When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat andkerosenefrom the villagers; villagers buywooland milk from the nomads.[464]
Afghan clothingfor both men and women typically consists of various forms ofshalwar kameez,especiallyperahan tunbanandkhet partug.Women would normally wear achadorfor head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear theburqa,a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but theTalibanenforced this dress on women when they were in power.[475]Another popular dress is thechapanwhich acts as a coat. Thekarakulis a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by PresidentHamid Karzai.[476]Thepakolis another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leaderAhmad Shah Massoud.[477]TheMazari hatoriginates from northern Afghanistan.[478]
Architecture
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, includingGreekandBuddhiststupas, monasteries, monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are theGreat Mosque of Herat,theBlue Mosque,theMinaret of Jam,theChil Zena,the Qala-i Bost inLashkargah,the ancient Greek city ofAi-Khanoum.[479]However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars.[480]The two famousBuddhas of Bamiyanwere destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them asidolatrous.As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch atPaghmanand theDarul Aman Palacein Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s. Afghan architecture also rangesdeep into Indiasuch as the city ofAgra,[481]and thetomb of Sher Shah Suri,anAfghan Emperor of India.[482]
Art and ceramics
Carpetweavingis an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are stillhandmadeby tribal and nomadic people today.[423]Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women.[483]Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of theSoviet–Afghan War,"war rugs",a variant ofAfghan rugs,were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict.[484]Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs.[485]In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.[486]
Potteryhas been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village ofIstalif,north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery,[487]and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries.[488][489]Much oflapis lazulistones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used inChinese porcelainascobalt blue,later used in ancientMesopotamiaand Turkey.[490]
The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage ofoil paintingfound in cave murals in the country.[491][492]A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan isGandhara Art,produced by a fusion ofGreco-Romanart andBuddhist artbetween the 1st and 7th centuries CE.[493]Later eras saw increased use of thePersian miniaturestyle, withKamaleddin BehzadofHeratbeing one of the most notable miniature artists of theTimuridand earlySafavidperiods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art.Abdul Ghafoor Breshnawas a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.
Literature
ClassicPersianandPashto poetryare a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.[494]One of the poetic styles is calledlanday.A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology areDivs,monstrous creatures.[495]Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city ofHeratwhen men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.[496]
Three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely:Khwaja Abdullah Ansariof Herat, a great mystic andSufisaint in the 11th century,SanaiofGhazni,author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally,RumiofBalkh,in the 13th century, considered the greatest mystical poet of the Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres, movements and stylistic features imported from Europe.
Khushal Khan Khattakof the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets includeRabi'a Balkhi,Jami,Rahman Baba,Khalilullah Khalili,andParween Pazhwak.[497]
Music
Afghan classical music has close historical links withIndian classical musicand use the same Hindustani terminology and theories likeraga.Genres of this style of music includeghazal(poetic music) and instruments such as the Indiantabla,sitarandharmonium,and local instruments likezerbaghali,as well asdayerehandtanburwhich are also known in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East. Therubabis the country's national instrument and precurses the Indiansarodinstrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music includeUstad SarahangandSarban.[498]
Pop music developed in the 1950s throughRadio Kabuland was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at firstMermon Parwin.[498]Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre wasAhmad Zahir,who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979.[499][498]Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music includeNashenas,Ubaidullah Jan,Mahwash,Ahmad Wali,Farhad Darya,andNaghma.[500]
Attanis the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds.[501]The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.[502]
Media and entertainment
Afghanistan has around 350radio stationsand over 200 television stations.[503]Radio Television Afghanistan,originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such asTOLOandShamshad TV.The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873,[504]and there are hundreds of print outlets today.[503]By the 1920s,Radio Kabulwas broadcasting local radio services.[505]Voice of America,BBC,andRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty(RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio.[506]Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls.
Afghans have long been accustomed to watching IndianBollywoodfilms and listening to itsfilmisongs.[507]It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry.[508]The stereotypes ofAfghans in India(KabuliwalaorPathani) have also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors.[509]Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, includingSalman Khan,Saif Ali Khan,Aamir Khan,Feroz Khan,Kader Khan,Naseeruddin Shah,Zarine Khan,Celina Jaitly,and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, includingDharmatma,Khuda Gawah,Escape from Taliban,andKabul Express.
Cuisine
Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize,barleyand rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk,yogurt,andwhey.Kabuli palawis thenational dishof Afghanistan.[510]The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity.[511]Afghanistan is known for its high-qualitypomegranates,grapes, and sweet melons.[512]Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans. A typical Afghan diet consists ofnaan,yogurt, rice, and meat.[464]
Holidays and festivals
Afghanistan's official New Year starts withNowruz,an ancient tradition that started as aZoroastriancelebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at thevernal equinox.In Afghanistan,Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holdingbuzkashitournaments.[513]
Yaldā,another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,[514]commemorates the ancient goddessMithraand marks the longest night of the year on the eve of thewinter solstice(čelle ye zemestān;usually falling on 20 or 21 December),[515][516]during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruit.[517][518]
As a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such asRamadan,Eid al-FitrandAshuraare widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival ofVaisakhiis celebrated by the Sikh community[519]and the Hindu festivalDiwaliby the Hindu community.[520]
National Independence Dayis celebrated on 19 August to mark theAnglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919and the country's full independence.[263]Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such asInternational Workers' Day,[521]andInternational Women's Day.[522]Some regional festivals include theRed Flower Festival(during Nowruz) inMazar-i-Sharif,[523]and the Damboora Festival inBamyan Province.[524]
Sports
Sport in Afghanistan is managed by theAfghan Sports Federation.Cricketand association football are the two most popular sports in the country.[525][526]The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf,handball,boxing,taekwondo,weightlifting,bodybuilding,track and field,skating,bowling,snooker,chess,and other sports.
TheAfghanistan national basketball teamwon the first team sports title at the2010 South Asian Games.[527]In 2012, the country's3x3 basketball teamwon the gold medal at the2012 Asian Beach Games.In 2013, Afghanistan'sfootball teamfollowed as it won theSAFF Championship.[528]
TheAfghan national cricket team,which was formed in 2001, won the2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup.[529]It won theACC Twenty20 Cupin 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team played in the2015,2019,and2023 Cricket World Cups.[530]TheAfghanistan Cricket Board(ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. TheAlokozay Kabul International Cricket Groundserves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including theGhazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket StadiumnearJalalabad.Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces.
TheAfghanistan national football teamhas been competing in internationalfootballsince 1941.[531]The national team plays its home games at theGhazi Stadiumin Kabul, whilefootball in Afghanistanis governed by theAfghanistan Football Federation.The national team has never competed or qualified for theFIFA World Cupbut won an international football trophy in 2013.[528]The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.
The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan isbuzkashi,particularly popular in the north.[532]It is similar topolo,played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass.[533]TheAfghan Hound(a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was used inwolf hunting.[534]
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to theongoing conflictin the country, no official census has been conducted since.[4]
- ^Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,[9]Afghanese and Afghanistani (seeAfghansfor further details)[10]
- ^Afghanistan is a pureautocracy,with all law ultimately originating from the supreme leader. Consensus rule was initially used among the Taliban, but was phased out as the supreme leader monopolized control in the months following the 2021 return to power.[15][16][17]There is an advisoryLeadership Council,however its role is in question as the supreme leader has not convened it for many months (as of March 2023),[update]and increasingly rules by decree.[18]
- ^/æfˈɡænɪstæn,æfˈɡɑːnɪstɑːn/
- ^
- ^TheGovernment of Indiaregards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all ofKashmirto be part of India. However, this isdisputed,and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan asGilgit-Baltistan.[27]
References
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- ^Ellingwood, Anselma (11 March 2024)."International Women's Day: Afghan Women Endure Gender Apartheid".Feminist Majority Foundation.Retrieved1 July2024.
- ^"Nowruz celebration in Afghanistan".Mehr News Agency. 24 March 2022.Retrieved1 July2024.
- ^"Traditional Dambora Musical Festival organized in Bamyan province".Khaama Press.30 June 2018.Retrieved1 July2024.
- ^Uthra Ganesan (11 January 2016)."Cricket is now the biggest sport in Afghanistan".The Hindu.Retrieved4 July2019.
- ^"Sport in Afghanistan".Top End Sports.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2018.Retrieved4 July2019.
- ^"South Asian Games: Shooters, swimmers shine as India consolidate dominance".The Times of India.5 February 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 13 June 2019.Retrieved28 May2019.
- ^abLyse, Doucet (12 September 2013)."Precious moments of unity touch Afghans after football triumph".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 25 September 2013.Retrieved28 May2019.
- ^"2009–10 Intercontinental Cup".CricketEurope.Archived fromthe originalon 24 February 2013.Retrieved28 May2019.
- ^"Afghanistan Makes History in Cricket World Cup, Despite Debut Loss to Bangladesh".20 February 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 28 May 2019.Retrieved28 May2019.
- ^"Statistics: Iran".Team Melli.Archivedfrom the original on 3 November 2019.Retrieved28 May2019.
- ^"Afghanistan's buzkashi horses prepare for the game of courage".The Hindu.17 January 2018.
- ^Abi-Habib, Maria; Fazly, Walid (13 April 2011)."In Afghanistan's National Pastime, It's Better to Be a Hero Than a Goat".The Wall Street Journal.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2015.Retrieved13 April2011.
- ^Stewart, Rory(2007).The Places in Between.HMH Books. p. 100.ISBN978-0-15-603593-4.
General and cited sources
- Mehta, Jaswant Lal (January 2005).Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813.Sterling Publishers.ISBN9781932705546.
Further reading
- Barfield, Thomas (2012).Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-15441-1.
- Bleaney, C. H; Gallego, María Ángeles (2006).Afghanistan: a bibliography.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-14532-0.
- Clements, Frank (2003).Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-85109-402-8.
- Dupree, Louis(1997).Afghanistan(2nd ed.). Oxford Pakistan Paperbacks.ISBN978-0-19-577634-8.
- Ewans, Martin (2002).Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics.Curzon Press.ISBN0060505087.
- Fowler, Corinne (2007).Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afghanistan.Rodopi.ISBN978-90-420-2262-1.
- Griffiths, John C (2001).Afghanistan: a History of Conflict.Carlton Books.ISBN978-1-84222-597-4.
- Habibi, Abdul Hai(2003).Afghanistan: An Abridged History.Fenestra Books.ISBN978-1-58736-169-2.
- Hopkins, B.D. (2008).The Making of Modern Afghanistan.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-55421-4.
- Johnson, Robert (2011).The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-979856-8.
- Levi, Peter (1972).The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan.Collins.ISBN978-0-00-211042-6.
- Malleson, George Bruce(2005).History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878(Elibron Classic Replica ed.). Adamant Media Corporation.ISBN978-1-4021-7278-6.
- Olson, Gillia M (2005).Afghanistan.Capstone Press.ISBN978-0-7368-2685-3.
- Omrani, Bijan; Leeming, Matthew (2011).Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide(2nd ed.). Odyssey Publications.ISBN978-962-217-816-8.
- Reddy, L.R. (2002).Inside Afghanistan: End of the Taliban Era?.APH Publishing.ISBN978-81-7648-319-3.
- Runion, Meredith L. (2007).The History of Afghanistan.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-313-33798-7.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
- Afghanistan.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- Afghanistanweb resources provided by GovPubs at theUniversity of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- AfghanistanatCurlie
Wikimedia Atlas of Afghanistan- Research Guide to AfghanistanArchived23 August 2015 at theWayback Machine
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