Analects

Analects

A page from theAnalects
Author	Disciples ofConfucius
Original title	Luận ngữ
Language	Classical Chinese
Publication place	China
Original text	Luận ngữat ChineseWikisource
Translation	Analectsat Wikisource

Analects
"Analects" written usingseal script(top), as well as moderntraditional(middle) andsimplified(bottom)regular scriptcharacter forms
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	Luận ngữ
Simplified Chinese	Luận ngữ
Hanyu Pinyin	Lúnyǔ
Literal meaning	'Selected sayings','Edited conversations'
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lúnyǔ Bopomofo ㄌㄨㄣˊ ㄩˇ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Luenyeu Wade–Giles Lun2-yü3 Yale Romanization Lwúnyǔ MPS2 Luényǔ IPA [lwə̌n.ỳ] Wu Romanization Lén-nyû Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Lèuhn-yúh Jyutping Leon4-jyu5 IPA [lɵn˩.jy˩˧] Southern Min HokkienPOJ Lūn-gú Tâi-lô Lūn-gú Middle Chinese Middle Chinese lwin-ngjó Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) *[r]u[n]ŋ(r)aʔ
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet	Luận ngữ
Chữ Hán	Luận ngữ
Korean name
Hangul	논어
Hanja	Luận ngữ
Transcriptions Revised Romanization Noneo
Japanese name
Kanji	Luận ngữ
Kana	ろんご
Transcriptions Romanization Rongo

TheAnalects,also known as theSayings of Confucius,is an ancientChinese philosophicaltext composed of sayings and ideas attributed toConfuciusand his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. The consensus among scholars is that large portions of the text were composed during theWarring States period(475–221 BC), and that the work achieved its final form during the mid-Han dynasty(206 BC – 220 AD). During the early Han, theAnalectswas merely considered to be a commentary on theFive Classics.However, by the dynasty's end the status of theAnalectshad grown to being among the central texts ofConfucianism.

During the lateSong dynasty(960–1279 AD) the importance of theAnalectsas aChinese philosophywork was raised above that of the older Five Classics, and it was recognized as one of the "Four Books".TheAnalectshas been one of the most widely read and studied books in China for more than two millennia; its ideas continue to have a substantial influence on East Asian thought and values.

Confucius believed that the welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people, beginning from the nation's leadership. He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate an all-encompassing sense of virtue throughren,and that the most basic step to cultivatingrenwasfilial piety—primarily the devotion to one's parents and older siblings. He taught that one's individual desires do not need to be suppressed, but that people should be educated to reconcile their desires viali,rituals and forms of propriety, through which people could demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society. Confucius also believed that a ruler's sense ofde,or 'virtue', was his primary prerequisite for leadership. His primary goal in educating his students was to produceethically well-cultivated menwho would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things.

History

Creation of the text

Fragment from the manuscript ofAnalects,text byKong Anguowith commentary byZheng Xuan.This fragmentary manuscript has been found atMogao Caves.It is dated era Longji, 2nd year (i.e. 890 AD), but it could be copied in the middle of the 8th century.Bibliothèque nationale de France

TheAnalects,fromÖstasiatiska Museetin Stockholm

According toBan Gu,writing in theBook of Han,theAnalectsoriginated as individual records kept by Confucius's disciples of conversations between the Master and them, which were then collected and jointly edited by the disciples after Confucius' death in 479 BC. The work was titledLunyuduring the Han dynasty: in this context the character forlunmeans 'discuss' or 'dispute',whileyumeans 'speech' or 'sayings'.Lunyutherefore may mean 'edited conversations',or 'selected speeches' (thus "analects").This broadly forms the traditional account of the genesis of the work accepted by later generations of scholars, for example theSong dynastyneo-Confucian scholarZhu Xistated thatAnalectsis the records of Confucius's first- and second-generation pupils.

This traditional view has been challenged by Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars. The Qing dynastyphilologistCui Shu argued on linguistic ground that the last five books were produced much later than the rest of the work.Itō Jinsaiclaimed that, because of differences he saw in patterns of language and content in theAnalects,a distinction in authorship should be made between the "upperAnalects"(Books 1–10) and" lowerAnalects"(Books 11–20).Arthur Waleyspeculated that Books 3–9 represent the earliest parts of the book. E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks reviewed previous theories of the chapters' creation and produced a "four stratum theory" of the text's creation.Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years, some time during theWarring States period(476–221 BC), with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings.Because no manuscript dated earlier thanc. 70 BChas been discovered, and because theAnalectswas not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han dynasty, some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140 BC for the text's final compilation.

Regardless of how early the text of theAnalectsexisted, mostAnalectsscholars believe that by the early Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) the book was widely known and transmitted throughout China in a mostly complete form, and that the book acquired its final, complete form during the Han dynasty. However, Han dynasty writerWang Chongclaimed that all copies of theAnalectsthat existed during the Han dynasty were incomplete and formed only a part of a much larger work.This is supported by the fact that a larger collection of Confucius's teachings did exist in the Warring States period than has been preserved directly in theAnalects:75% of Confucius's sayings cited by his second-generation student,Mencius,do not exist in the received text of theAnalects.

Textual history

According to the Han dynasty scholarLiu Xiang,there were two versions of theAnalectsthat existed at the beginning of the Han dynasty: the "Luversion "and the"Qiversion ". The Lu version contained twenty chapters, and the Qi version contained twenty-two chapters, including two chapters not found in the Lu version. Of the twenty chapters that both versions had in common, the Lu version had more passages. Each version had its own masters, schools, and transmitters.

In the reign ofEmperor Jing of Han(r. 157–141 BC), a third "Old Text"version was discovered hidden in a wall of the home believed at the time to have been Confucius's, when the home was in the process of being destroyed by King Gong of Lu (r. 153–128 BC) in order to expand the king's palace. The new version did not contain the two extra chapters found in the Qi version, but it split one chapter found in the Lu and Qi versions in two, so it had twenty-one chapters, and the order of the chapters was different.

The old text version got its name because it was written in characters not used since the earlier Warring States period (before 221 BC), when it was assumed to have been hidden.According to the Han dynasty scholarHuan Tan,the old text version had four hundred characters different from the Lu version—from which the received text is mostly based—and it seriously differed from the Lu version in 27 places. Of these twenty-seven differences, the received text only agrees with the old text version in two places.

Over a century later,Zhang Yu,the tutor of theAnalectstoEmperor Cheng of Han,(d. 5 BC), synthesized the Lu and Qi versions by taking the Lu version as authoritative and selectively adding sections from the Qi version, and produced a composite text of theAnalectsknown as the "Zhang Hou Lun". This text was recognized by Zhang Yu's contemporaries and by subsequent Han scholars as superior to either individual version, and is the text that is recognized as theAnalectstoday.No complete copies of either the Lu version or the old text version of theAnalectsexist today,though fragments of the old text version were discovered atDunhuang.The Qi version was lost for about 1,800 years, but was rediscovered during the excavation of the tomb ofMarquis of Haihunin 2011.

Before the late twentieth century the oldest existing copy of theAnalectsknown to scholars was found in the "Stone Classics of the Xinping Era", a copy of the Confucian classics written in stone in the old Eastern capital ofLuoyangc. 175 AD.Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of theAnalectsthat were writtenc. 50 BC,during the Western Han dynasty. They are known as the "DingzhouAnalects",and the"PyongyangAnalects",after the location of the tombs in which they were found. The DingzhouAnalectswas discovered in 1973, but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997. The PyongyangAnalectswas discovered in 1992. Academic access to the PyongyangAnalectshas been highly restricted, and no academic study on it was published until 2009.

The DingzhouAnalectswas damaged in a fire shortly after it was entombed in the Han dynasty. It was further damaged inan earthquakeshortly after it was recovered, and the surviving text is just under half the size of the received text of theAnalects.Of the sections that survive, the DingzhouAnalectsis shorter than the receivedAnalects,implying that the text of theAnalectswas still in the process of expansion when the DingzhouAnalectswas entombed. There was evidence that "additions" may have been made to the manuscript after it had been completed, indicating that the writer may have become aware of at least one other version of theAnalectsand included "extra" material for the sake of completeness.

The content of the PyongyangAnalectsis similar to the DingzhouAnalects.Because of the secrecy and isolationism of theNorth Koreangovernment, only a very cursory study of it has been made available to international scholars, and its contents are not completely known outside of North Korea. Scholars do not agree about whether either the DingzhouAnalectsor the PyongyangAnalectsrepresent the Lu version, the Qi version, the old text version, or a different version that was independent of these three traditions.

To date, the oldest extant manuscript of theAnalectsare the discovered texts found in the Haihunhou Tomb in 2011; the HaihunhouAnalects"circulated at least seventeen years" before the Dingzhou and Pyongyang ones.

Importance within Confucianism

During most of the Han period theAnalectswas not considered one of the principal texts of Confucianism. During the reign ofHan Wudi(141–87 BC), when the Chinese government began promoting Confucian studies, only theFive Classicswere considered by the government to be canonical (jing). They were considered Confucian because Confucius was assumed to have partially written, edited, and/or transmitted them. TheAnalectswas considered secondary as it was thought to be merely a collection of Confucius's oral "commentary" (zhuan) on the Five Classics.

The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout the Han dynasty, and by theEastern HantheAnalectswas widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy, and often read before the Five Classics themselves. During the Eastern Han, the heir apparent was provided a tutor specifically to teach him theAnalects.The growing importance of theAnalectswas recognized when the Five Classics was expanded to the "Seven Classics": the Five Classics plus theAnalectsand theClassic of Filial Piety,and its status as one of the central texts of Confucianism continued to grow until the lateSong dynasty(960–1279), when it was identified and promoted as one of theFour Booksby Zhu Xi and generally accepted as being more insightful than the older Five Classics.

The writing style of theAnalectsalso inspired future Confucian writers. For example, theSui dynastywriterWang Tong'sExplanation of the Mean(Trung thuyết)was purposely written to emulate the style of theAnalects,a practice praised by theMing dynastyphilosopherWang Yangming.

Commentaries

A copy of He Yan's commentary on theAnalects,with a sub-commentary byXing Bing,printed during theMing dynasty

Since the Han dynasty, Chinese readers have interpreted theAnalectsby reading scholars' commentaries on the book. There have been many commentaries on theAnalectssince the Han dynasty, but the two which have been most influential have been theCollected Explanations of the Analects(Lunyu Jijie) byHe Yan(c. 195–249) and several colleagues, and theCollected Commentaries of the Analects(Lunyu Jizhu) byZhu Xi(1130–1200). In his work, He Yan collected, selected, summarized, and rationalized what he believed to be the most insightful of all preceding commentaries on theAnalectswhich had been produced by earlier Han andWei dynasty(220–265 AD) scholars.

He Yan's personal interpretation of theLunyuwas guided by his belief thatDaoismand Confucianism complemented each other, so that by studying both in a correct manner a scholar could arrive at a single, unified truth. Arguing for the ultimate compatibility of Daoist and Confucian teachings, he argued that "Laozi [in fact] was in agreement with the Sage" (sic). TheExplanationsthat was written in 248 AD, was quickly recognized as authoritative, and remained the standard guide to interpreting theAnalectsfor nearly 1,000 years, until the earlyYuan dynasty(1271–1368). It is the oldest complete commentary on theAnalectsthat still exists.

He Yan's commentary was eventually displaced as the definitive, standard commentary by Zhu Xi's commentary. Zhu Xi's work also brought together the commentaries of earlier scholars (mostly from the Song dynasty), along with his own interpretations. Zhu's work took part in the context of a period of renewed interest in Confucian studies, in which Chinese scholars were interested in producing a single "correct" intellectual orthodoxy that would "save" Chinese traditions and protect them from foreign influences, and in which scholars were increasingly interested in metaphysical speculation.

In his commentary Zhu made a great effort to interpret theAnalectsby using theories elaborated in the other Four Books, something that He Yan had not done. Zhu attempted to give an added coherence and unity to the message of theAnalects,demonstrating that the individual books of the Confucian canon gave meaning to the whole, just as the whole of the canon gave meaning to its parts. In his preface, Zhu Xi stated, "[T]heAnalectsand theMenciusare the most important works for students pursuing theWay[...] The words of theAnalectsare all inclusive; what they teach is nothing but the essentials of preserving the mind and cultivating [one's] nature. "

From the first publication of theCommentaries,Zhu continued to refine his interpretation for the last thirty years of his life. In the fourteenth century, the Ming state endorsed Zhu's commentary. Until 1905 it was read and memorized along with theAnalectsby all Chinese aspiring to literacy and employment as government officials.

Contents

Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides that of the Analects. The principal biography available to historians is included inSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian,but because the history contains a significant amount of material unverifiable in other sources and possibly legendary, the biographical material on Confucius found in theAnalectsmakes theAnalectsarguably the most reliable source of biographical information about Confucius.Confucius viewed himself as a "transmitter" of social and political traditions originating in the earlyZhou dynasty(c. 1000–800 BC), and claimed not to have originated anything (§7.1), but Confucius's social and political ideals were not popular in his time.

Social philosophy

Confucius' discussions on the nature of the supernatural (§3.12; §6.20; §11.11) indicate his belief that while "ghosts" and "spirits" should be respected, they are best kept at a distance. Instead human beings should base their values and social ideals on moral philosophy, tradition, and a natural love for others. Confucius' social philosophy largely depended on the cultivation ofrenby every individual in a community.

Later Confucian philosophers explainedrenas the quality of having a kind manner, similar to the English words "humane", "altruistic", or "benevolent", but, of the sixty instances in which Confucius discussesrenin theAnalects,very few have these later meanings. Confucius instead used the termrento describe an extremely general and all-encompassing state of virtue, one which no living person had attained completely. (This use of the termrenis peculiar to theAnalects.)

Throughout theAnalects,Confucius's students frequently request that Confucius definerenand give examples of people who embody it, but Confucius generally responds indirectly to his students' questions, instead offering illustrations and examples of behaviours that are associated withrenand explaining how a person could achieve it. According to Confucius, a person with a well-cultivated sense ofrenwould speak carefully and modestly (§12.3); be resolute and firm (§12.20), courageous (§14.4), free from worry, unhappiness, and insecurity (§9.28; §6.21); moderate their desires and return to propriety (§12.1); be respectful, tolerant, diligent, trustworthy and kind (§17.6); and love others (§12.22). Confucius recognized his followers' disappointment that he would not give them a more comprehensive definition ofren,but assured them that he was sharing all that he could (§7.24).

To Confucius, the cultivation ofreninvolved depreciating oneself through modesty while avoiding artful speech and ingratiating manners that would create a false impression of one's own character (§1.3). Confucius said that those who had cultivatedrencould be distinguished by their being "simple in manner and slow of speech." He believed that people could cultivate their sense ofrenthrough exercising the invertedGolden Rule:"Do not do to others what you would not like done to yourself"; "a man withren,desiring to establish himself, helps others establish themselves; desiring to succeed himself, helps others to succeed "(§12.2; §6.28).

Confucius taught that the ability of people to imagine and project themselves into the places of others was a crucial quality for the pursuit of moral self-cultivation (§4.15; see also §5.12; §6.30; §15.24).Confucius regarded the exercise ofdevotion to one's parentsand older siblings as the simplest, most basic way to cultivateren.(§1.2).

Confucius believed thatrencould best be cultivated by those who had already learned self-discipline, and that self-discipline was best learned by practicing and cultivating one's understanding ofli:rituals and forms of propriety through which people demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society (§3.3). Confucius said that one's understanding oflishould inform everything that one says and does (§12.1). He believed that subjecting oneself tolidid not mean suppressing one's desires but learning to reconcile them with the needs of one's family and broader community.

By leading individuals to express their desires within the context of social responsibility, Confucius and his followers taught that the public cultivation ofliwas the basis of a well-ordered society (§2.3).Confucius taught his students that an important aspect ofliwas observing the practical social differences that exist between people in daily life. In Confucian philosophy these "five relationships" include: ruler to ruled; father to son; husband to wife; elder brother to younger brother; and friend to friend.

Renandlihave a special relationship in theAnalects:limanages one's relationship with one's family and close community, whilerenis practiced broadly and informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius did not believe that ethical self-cultivation meant unquestioned loyalty to an evil ruler. He argued that the demands ofrenandlimeant that rulers could oppress their subjects only at their own peril: "You may rob the Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion" (§9.26). Confucius said that a morally well-cultivated individual would regard his devotion to loving others as a mission for which he would be willing to die (§15.8).

Political philosophy

Confucius' political beliefs were rooted in his belief that a good ruler would be self-disciplined, would govern his subjects through education and by his own example, and would seek to correct his subjects with love and concern rather than punishment and coercion. "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord" (§2.3; see also §13.6). Confucius' political theories were directly contradictory to theLegalisticpolitical orientations of China's rulers, and he failed to popularize his ideals among China's leaders within his own lifetime.

Confucius believed that the social chaos of his time was largely due to China's ruling elite aspiring to, and claiming, titles of which they were unworthy. When the ruler of the large state ofQiasked Confucius about the principles of good government, Confucius responded: "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son" (§12.11).

The analysis of the need to raise officials' behavior to reflect the way that they identify and describe themselves is known as therectification of names,and he stated that the rectification of names should be the first responsibility of a ruler upon taking office (§13.3). Confucius believed that, because the ruler was the model for all who were under him in society, the rectification of names had to begin with the ruler, and that afterwards others would change to imitate him (§12.19).

Confucius judged a good ruler by his possession ofde('virtue'): a sort of moral force that allows those in power to rule and gain the loyalty of others without the need for physical coercion (§2.1). Confucius said that one of the most important ways that a ruler cultivates his sense ofdeis through a devotion to the correct practices ofli.Examples of rituals identified by Confucius as important to cultivate a ruler'sdeinclude: sacrificial rites held at ancestral temples to express thankfulness and humility; ceremonies ofenfeoffment,toasting, and gift exchanges that bound nobility in complex hierarchical relationships of obligation and indebtedness; and, acts of formal politeness and decorum (i.e. bowing and yielding) that identify the performers as morally well-cultivated.

Education

The importance of education and study is a fundamental theme of theAnalects.For Confucius, a good student respects and learns from the words and deeds of his teacher, and a good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of antiquity (§7.22). Confucius emphasized the need to find balance between formal study and intuitive self-reflection (§2.15). When teaching he is never cited in theAnalectsas lecturing at length about any subject, but instead challenges his students to discover the truth throughasking direct questions,citing passages from the classics, and using analogies (§7.8).He sometimes required his students to demonstrate their understanding of subjects by making intuitive conceptual leaps before accepting their understanding and discussing those subjects at greater levels of depth. (§3.8)

His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things (§12.11; see also §13.3). He was willing to teach anyone regardless of social class, as long as they were sincere, eager, and tireless to learn (§7.7; §15.38). He is traditionally credited with teaching three thousand students, though only seventy are said to have mastered what he taught. He taughtpractical skills,but regarded moral self-cultivation as his most important subject.

Chapters

The traditional titles given to each chapter are mostly an initial two or threeincipits.In some cases a title may indicate a central theme of a chapter, but it is inappropriate to regard a title as a description or generalization of the content of a chapter. Chapters in theAnalectsare grouped by individual themes, but the chapters are not arranged in a way as to carry a continuous stream of thoughts or ideas. The themes of adjacent chapters are completely unrelated to each other. Central themes recur repeatedly in different chapters, sometimes in exactly the same wording and sometimes with small variations.

Chapter 10 contains detailed descriptions of Confucius's behaviors in various daily activities.VoltaireandEzra Poundbelieved that this chapter demonstrated how Confucius was a mere human.Simon Leys,who recently translated theAnalectsinto English and French, said that the book may have been the first in human history to describe the life of an individual, historic personage.Elias Canettiwrote: "Confucius'sAnalectsis the oldest complete intellectual and spiritual portrait of a man. It strikes one as a modern book; everything it contains and indeed everything it lacks is important. "

Chapter 20, "Yao Yue",particularly the first verse, is bizarre in terms of both language and content. In terms of language, the text appears to be archaic (or a deliberate imitation of the archaic language of the Western Zhou) and bears some similarity with the language of the speeches in theShujing.In terms of the content, the passage appears to be an admonition byYaotoShunon the eve of Yao's abdication, which seems to be only tangentially related to Confucius and his philosophy. Moreover, there appear to be some problems with the text's continuity, and scholars have speculated that parts of the text were lost in the process of transmission and possibly transmitted with errors in the order.The fragmentary nature of the final chapter of the received Lu text has been explained by the "accretion theory", in which the text of theAnalectswas gradually accreted over a 230-year period, beginning with the death of Confucius and ending suddenly with the conquest of Lu in 249 BC.

Within these incipits, a large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaicziyue,"The Master said," but without punctuation marks in classical Chinese, this does not confirm whether what followsziyueis direct quotation of actual sayings of Confucius, or simply to be understood as "the Master said that.." and the paraphrase of Confucius by the compilers of the Analects.

List of chapters in theAnalects

No.	Title	Translation	Notes
1	Học nhi(Xué ér)	"Studying and Practicing"
2	Vi chính(Wéi zhèng)	"The practice of government"	This chapter explores the theme that political order is best gained through thenon-coercive influenceof moral self-cultivation rather than through force or excessive government regulation.
3	Bát dật(Bā yì)	"Eight lines of eight dancers apiece"	Ba Yi was a kind of ritual dance practiced in the court of the Zhou king. In Confucius' time, lesser nobles also began staging these dances for themselves. The main themes of this chapter are: criticism of ritual impropriety (especially among China's political leadership), and the need to combine learning with nature in the course moral self-cultivation. Chapters 3–9 may be the oldest in theAnalects.
4	Lí nhân(Lǐ rén)	"Living in brotherliness"	This chapter explores the theme ofren,its qualities, and the qualities of those who have it. A secondary theme is the virtue of filial piety.
5	Công dã trường(Gōngyě cháng)	"Gongye Chang"	The main theme of this chapter is Confucius' examination of others' qualities and faults in order to illustrate the desirable course of moral self-cultivation.This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples ofZigong,a student of Confucius.Gongye Changwas Confucius' son-in-law.
6	Ung dã(Yōng yě)	"There is Yong"	Refers toRan Yong,also called Zhou Gong, a disciple of Confucius.
7	Thuật nhi(Shù ér)	"Transmission"	Transmission, not invention [of learning].
8	Thái bá(Tàibó)	"Taibo"	Wu Taibowas the legendary founder of thestate of Wu.He was the oldest son ofKing Taiand the uncle ofKing Wenof theZhou dynasty.
9	Tử hãn(Zǐ hǎn)	"The Master shunned"	Confucius seldom spoke of advantage.
10	Hương đảng(Xiāng dǎng)	"Among the Xiang and the Dang"	A "xiang" was a group of 12,500 families, while a "dang" is a group of 500. The chapter is a collection of maxims related to ritual.
11	Tiên tiến(Xiānjìn)	"Those of former eras"	The former generations. This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples ofMin Sun,a student of Confucius.
12	Nhan uyên(Yán Yuān)	"Yan Yuan"	Yan Huiwas a common name of Zi Yuan, the favorite disciple of Confucius.
13	Tử lộ(Zǐlù)	"Zilu"	Ziluwas a student of Confucius.
14	Hiến vấn(Xiàn wèn)	"Xian asked"	This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples ofYuan Xian,also called both Yuan Si and Zisi, a student of Confucius.
15	Vệ linh công(Wèi líng gōng)	"Duke Ling of Wey"	Duke Ling ruled from 534 to 493 BC in thestate of Wey.
16	Quý thị(Jì shì)	"Chief of the Ji Clan"	Jisunwas an official from one of the most important families in Lu. This chapter is generally believed to have been written relatively late;possibly compiled from the extra chapters of the Qi version of theAnalects.
17	Dương hóa(Yáng huò)	"Yang Huo"	Yang was an official of the Ji clan, an important family in Lu.
18	Vi tử(Wēizǐ)	"Weizi"	Weizi was the older half-brother ofZhou,the last king of theShang dynasty,and was founder of thestate of Song.The writer of this chapter was critical of Confucius.
19	Tử trương(Zǐzhāng)	"Zizhang"	Zizhang (Zhuansun Shi) was a student of Confucius. This chapter consists entirely of sayings by Confucius' disciples.
20	Nghiêu viết(Yáo yuē)	"Yao spoke"	Yaowas one of the traditionalThree Sovereigns and Five Emperorsof ancient China. This chapter consists entirely of stray sentences resembling the style and content of theShujing.

Notable translations

A Vietnamese translation of the Analects translated byTự Đứcin Tự Đức thánh chế luận ngữ thích nghĩa ca tự đức thánh chế luận ngữ thích nghĩa ca.

English

• Legge, James, trans.(1861).Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean.The Chinese Classics. Vol. I. London: Trübner.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Revised second edition(1893), Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted by Cosimo in 2006.ISBN978-1-60520-643-1
• Lyall, Leonard A., trans. (1909).The Sayings of Confucius.London: Longmans, Green and Co.OCLC1435673.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Soothill, William Edward, trans.(1910).The Analects of Confucius.Yokohama: Fukuin Printing.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link);rpt. London: Oxford University Press (1937).
• Waley, Arthur, trans.(1938).The Analects.London: George Allen and Unwin. Archived fromthe originalon 2015-06-16.Retrieved2011-09-21.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Rpt. (2000), New York: Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN978-0-375-41204-2
• Lau, D. C., trans.(1979).Confucius, The Analects (Lun yü).Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link);rpt. with Chinese text, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press (1979).
• Huang, Chi-chung, trans. (1997).The Analects of Confucius.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195112764.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Leys, Simon, trans.(1997).The Analects of Confucius.New York: W.W. Norton and Co.ISBN978-0393316995.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Ames, Roger T.;Rosemont, Henry, trans. (1999).The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation.New York: Ballantine Books (Penguin Random House).ISBN978-0345434074.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Brooks, E. Bruce; Brooks, Taeko, trans. (2001).The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Followers.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0231104302.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Slingerland, Edward, trans.(2003).Analects of Confucius: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries.Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.ISBN978-0872206359.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Watson, Burton, trans.(2007).The Analects of Confucius.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-14164-2.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

French

• Couvreur, Séraphin, trans.(1930).Entretiens de Confucius[Conversations of Confucius]. Les Quatre Livres (in French) (3rd ed.). Sien Hsien: Mission Catholique.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Cheng, Anne, trans.(1981).Entretiens de Confucius[Conversations of Confucius] (in French). Paris: Éditions du Seuil.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Ryckmans, Pierre, trans.(1987).Les Entretiens de Confucius[The Conversations of Confucius] (in French). Paris: Gallimard.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)English version published as Simon Leys, trans. (1997),The Analects of Confucius(New York: W. W. Norton).

Japanese

• Yoshikawa, Kōjirō cát xuyên hạnh thứ lang (1978).RongoLuận ngữ [Lunyu], 3 vols. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbun. Rpt. 2 vols, Asahi Shinbun (1996).

See also

• Kongzi Jiayu,sayings of Confucius not included in theAnalects
• Sacred text
• Virtue jurisprudence
• Disciples of Confucius
• Hadith
• Mahāvākyas
• The Maxims of Ptahhotep

References

Sources

• Canetti, Elias (1984).The Conscience of Words.Translated by Neugroschel, Joachim. Farrar Straus Giroux.ISBN0374518815.
• Cheng, Anne (1993). "Lun yüLuận ngữ ". InLoewe, Michael(ed.).Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide.Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 313–323.ISBN978-1-55729-043-4.
• Gardner, Daniel K (2003).Zhu Xi's Reading of the Analects: Canon, Commentary, and the Classical Tradition.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-12865-0.
• China Daily."Qi Version of 'Analects of Confucius' Discovered in Haihunhou Tomb".Chinese Archaeology.January 13, 2017. Retrieved April 17, 2019.
• van Els, Paul (2012)."Confucius' sayings entombed: On Two Han DynastyAnalectsManuscripts "(PDF).Analects Studies.Leiden: Brill. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2015-10-03.
• Kern, Martin (2010). "Early Chinese literature, Beginnings through Western Han". In Owen, Stephen (ed.).The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–115.ISBN978-0-521-11677-0.
• Kim, Tae Hyun; Csikszentmihalyi, Mark (2010)."Chapter 2".In Olberding, Amy (ed.).Dao Companion to the Analects.Springer. pp. 21–36.ISBN978-9400771123.
• Knechtges, David R.;Shih, Hsiang-ling (2010)."LunyuLuận ngữ ".In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping (eds.).Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part One.Leiden: Brill. pp. 645–650.ISBN978-90-04-19127-3.
• Lau, D.C. (2002). "Introduction".The Analects.Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.ISBN962-201-980-3.
• Legge, James (2009). "Prolegomena".The Confucian Analects, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean.New York: Cosimo.ISBN978-1-60520-644-8.
• Van Norden, Bryan (2002).Confucius and the Analects: New Essays.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-535082-1.OCLC466432745.
• Riegel, Jeffrey (Spring 2012). "Confucius". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
• Kim, Tae Hyun; Csikszentmihalyi, Mark (2013)."Chapter 2".In Olberding, Amy (ed.).Dao Companion to the Analects.Springer. pp. 21–36.ISBN978-9400771123.
• Slingerland, Edward (2003).Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries.Indianapolis:Hackett.ISBN978-1-60384-345-4.
• Waley, Arthur. "Terms". InThe Analects of Confucius.Trans. Arthur Waley. New York: Vintage Books. 1938.

Further reading

• Van Norden, Bryan W.Confucius and the Analects: New Essays.Oxford University Press,2001.ISBN978-0195350821.
• TheAnalectsat the Database of Religious History.

External links

• ConfucianismatCurlie
• The Analects of Confuciuspublic domain audiobook atLibriVox
• Bilingual excerpts and children's audio in Chinese and Japanese.
• Chinese-English bilingual text (Legge's translation)with links toZhu Xi's commentary, atChinese Text Project.
• English translation by A. Charles Muller, with Chinese text.
• English translation at Confucius.org, one page per verse.
• English translation at MIT Classics
• Latin translation (Zottoli, 1879)
• Legge's English translation from the University of Adelaide Library(no section numbers)
• Multilingual edition of theAnalectsin Chinese, English and French
• Translations of theAnalectsin over 20 languages, with footnotes.