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1824 illustration fromLipník nad Bečvou

Thebrit milah(Hebrew:בְּרִית מִילָה‎,Modern Israeli:[bʁitmiˈla],Ashkenazi:[bʁisˈmilə];"covenantofcircumcision") orbris(Yiddish:ברית‎,Yiddish:[bʁɪs]) isthe ceremonyofcircumcisioninJudaismandSamaritanism,during which theforeskinis surgically removed.[1]According to theBook of Genesis,Godcommanded thebiblical patriarchAbrahamto be circumcised, an act to be followed by his male descendants on the eighth day of life, symbolizingthe covenantbetweenGodand theJewish people.[1]Today, it is generally performed by amohelon the eighth day after the infant's birth and is followed by a celebratory meal known asseudat mitzvah.[2]

Brit Milahis considered among themost important and central commandments in Judaism,and the rite has played a central role inthe formation and historyofJewish civilization.TheTalmud,when discussing the importance ofBrit Milah,considers it equal to all othermitzvot(commandments).[3]Jews who voluntarily fail to undergoBrit Milah,barring extraordinary circumstances, are believed to sufferKarethin Jewish theology: the extinction of thesouland denial of a share in theworld to come.[4][5][6][7]Judaism does not see circumcision as auniversal moral law.Rather, the commandment is exclusive to followers of Judaism and the Jewish people;Gentileswho follow theNoahide Lawsare believed to have a portion in the World to Come.[8]

Historical conflicts between Jews and European civilizations have occurred several times overBrit Milah,including multiple campaigns of Jewish ethnic, cultural, and religious persecution, with subsequent bans and restrictions on the practice as an attempted means of forceful assimilation, conversion, andethnocide,most famously in theMaccabean Revoltby theSeleucid Empire.[7][9][10]"In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution ".[10]These periods have generally been linked to suppression of Jewish religious, ethnic, and cultural identity and subsequent "punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision".[9]TheMaccabeevictory in the Maccabean Revolt — ending the prohibition against circumcision — is celebrated inHanukkah.[7][11]Circumcision rates are near-universal among Jews.[12]

Brit Milahalso has immense importance in other religions. TheGospel of Lukerecords thatMaryandJoseph,the parents ofJesus,had himundergo circumcision.

Origins (unknown to 515 BCE)

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Further information:History of circumcision
"Isaac's Circumcision", Regensburg Pentateuch,c. 1300

The origin ofcircumcisionis not known with certainty; however, artistic and literary evidence from ancient Egypt suggests it was practiced in the ancient Near East from at least theSixth Dynasty(c. 2345–2181 BCE).[13]According to some scholars, it appears that it only appeared as a sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile.[14][15][16]Scholars who posit the existence of a hypotheticalJ source(likely composed during theseventh century BCE) of thePentateuchinGenesis 15hold that it would not have mentioned acovenantthat involves the practice of circumcision. Only in theP source(likely composed during the sixth century BCE) ofGenesis 17does the notion of circumcision become linked to a covenant.[14][15][16][17]

Some scholars have argued that it originated as a replacement forchild sacrifice.[15][17][18][19][20]

Biblical references

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Main article:Religious male circumcision
See also:Covenant (biblical) § Abrahamic covenant

According to theHebrew Bible,Adonaicommanded thebiblical patriarchAbrahamto be circumcised, an act to be followed by his descendants:

This is My covenant, which ye shall keep, between Me and you and thy seed after thee: every male among you shall be circumcised. And ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of a covenant betwixt Me and you. And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every male throughout your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any foreigner, that is not of thy seed. He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised; and My covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant. And the uncircumcised male who is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken My covenant.

— Genesis 17:10–14[21]

Leviticus12:3 says: "And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised."[22]

According to the Hebrew Bible, it was "a reproach" for anIsraeliteto be uncircumcised.[23]The plural termarelim( "uncircumcised" ) is usedopprobriously,denoting thePhilistinesand other non-Israelites[24]and used in conjunction withtameh(unpure) for heathen.[25]The wordarel( "uncircumcised" [singular]) is also employed for "impermeable";[26]it is also applied to the first three years' fruit of a tree, which is forbidden.[27]

However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after theExodusfrom Egypt were not circumcised.Joshua5:2–9, explains, "all the people that came out" ofEgyptwere circumcised, but those "born in the wilderness" were not. Therefore, Joshua, before the celebration of thePassover,had them circumcised atGilgalspecifically before they entered Canaan. Abraham, too, was circumcised when he moved into Canaan.

The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior, seeNoahide Law.Thus, Jeremiah 9:25–26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for "all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart".

The penalty of willful non-observance iskareth(making oneself liable to extirpation or excommunication), as noted in Genesis 17:1-14.[28][29][30]Conversion to Judaismfor non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision, otherwise one could not partake in thePassoveroffering.[31]Today, as in the time of Abraham, it is required of converts inOrthodox,ConservativeandReform Judaism.[32]

As found in Genesis 17:1–14,brit milahis considered to be so important that should the eighth day fall onthe Sabbath,actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise.[33]TheTalmud,when discussing the importance of Milah, compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on thegematriaforbritof 612.[3]

Covenants in ancient times were sometimes sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate. In Hebrew, the verb meaning "to seal a covenant" translates literally as "to cut". It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant.[34]

Reasons for biblical circumcision include to show off "patrilineal descent, sexual fertility, male initiation, cleansing of birth impurity, and dedication to God".[35]

Ceremony

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Jewish circumcision in Venice around 1780,Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme

Mohalim

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Mohalimare Jews trained in the practice ofbrit milah,the "covenant of circumcision". According to traditional Jewish law, in the absence of a grown free Jewish male expert, anyone who has the required skills is also authorized to perform the circumcision, if they are Jewish.[36][37]Yet, most streams of non-Orthodox Judaism allow women to bemohalot(Hebrew:מוֹהֲלוֹת‎,plural ofמוֹהֶלֶת‎mohelet,feminine ofmohel), without restriction. In 1984, Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reformmohelet;she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism.[38]

Circumcision bench, 18th century.Jewish Museum of Switzerland.

Time and place

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Chair of Elijahused during thebrit milahceremony,Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme

It is customary for the brit to be held in a synagogue, but it can also be held at home or any other suitable location. The brit is performed on the eighth day from the baby's birth, taking into consideration that according to the Jewish calendar, the day begins at the sunset of the day before. If the baby is born on Sunday before sunset, the brit will be held the following Sunday. However, if the baby is born on Sunday night after sunset, the brit is on the following Monday. The brit takes place on the eighth day following birth even if that day is Shabbat or a holiday; however, if the baby is born on Friday night between sunset and nightfall, the Berit is delayed until the following Sunday.[39]Furthermore, the berit is performed on the Sabbath only if it is a natural birth; if the birth is aCaesarean section,the berit is delayed until Sunday.[40]A brit is traditionally performed in the morning, but it may be performed any time during daylight hours.[41]

Postponement for health reasons

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Family circumcision set and trunk,c.eighteenth century. Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.

The Talmud explicitly instructs that a boy must not be circumcised if he had two brothers who died due to complications arising from their circumcisions,[42]andMaimonidessays that this excluded paternal half-brothers. This may be due to a concern abouthemophilia.[42]

An Israeli study found a high rate ofurinary tract infectionsif the bandage is left on too long.[43]

If the child is bornprematurelyor has other serious medical problems, the brit milah will be postponed until the doctors and mohel deem the child strong enough for his foreskin to be surgically removed.

Adult circumcision

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In recent years, the circumcision of adult Jews who were not circumcised as infants has become more common than previously thought.[44]In such cases, the brit milah will be done at the earliest date that can be arranged. The actual circumcision will be private, and other elements of the ceremony (e.g., the celebratory meal) may be modified to accommodate the desires of the one being circumcised.

Circumcision for the dead

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According to Halacha, a baby who dies before they had time to circumcise him must be circumcised before burial. Several reasons were given for this commandment.[45]Some have written that there is no need for this circumcision.

Anesthetic

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Most prominentacharonimrule that themitzvahof brit milah lies in the pain it causes, and anesthetic, sedation, or ointment should generally not be used.[46]However, it is traditionally common to feed the infant a drop of wine or other sweet liquid to soothe him.[47]

Eliezer Waldenberg,Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg,Shmuel Wosner,Moshe Feinsteinand others agree that the child should not be sedated, although pain relieving ointment may be used under certain conditions;Shmuel Wosnerparticularly asserts that the act ought to be painful, perPsalm44:23.[46]

In a letter to the editor published inThe New York Timeson January 3, 1998,Rabbi Moshe David Tendlerdisagrees with the above and writes, "It is a biblical prohibition to cause anyone unnecessary pain." Rabbi Tendler recommends the use of ananalgesiccream.[48]Lidocaineshould not be used, however, because lidocaine has been linked to several pediatric near-death episodes.[49][50]

Kvatter

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The title ofkvater(Yiddish:קוואַטער) amongAshkenazi Jewsis for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the father, who in turn carries him to themohel.This honor is usually given to a couple without children, as a merit orsegula(efficacious remedy) that they should have children of their own. The origin of the term isMiddle High Germangevater/gevatere( "godfather" ).[51]

Seudat Mitzah at a brit (1824 Czechia)

Seudat mitzvah

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After the ceremony, acelebratory mealtakes place. At thebirkat hamazon,according to the Eastern Asheknazic rite, additional introductory lines, known asNodeh Leshimcha,are added. These lines praise God and request the permission of God, theTorah,Kohanimand distinguished people present to proceed with the grace. When the four main blessings are concluded, specialha-Rachamanprayers are recited. They request various blessings by God that include:

  1. the parents of the baby, to help them raise him wisely;
  2. thesandek(companion of child);
  3. the baby boy to have strength and grow up to trust in God and perceive Himthree times a year;
  4. themohelfor unhesitatingly performing the ritual;
  5. to send theMessiah in Judaismspeedily in the merit of thismitzvah;
  6. to sendElijahthe prophet, known as "The Righteous Kohen", so that God's covenant can be fulfilled with the re-establishment of the throne of KingDavid.

According to the Western Ashkenazic rite,Nodeh Leshimchais not recited.Elohim tzivita li-yedidcha bechirachais recited during the second blessing, and a set ofha-Rachamanprayers, different from the ones in the Eastern Ashkenazic rite, are recited.[52]

Ritual components

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Uncovering,priah

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Infant after brit
Circumcision cushion,Jewish Museum of Switzerland

At the neonatal stage, the inner preputialepitheliumis still linked with the surface of theglans.[53] Themitzvahis executed only when this epithelium is either removed, or permanently peeled back to uncover the glans.[54] On medical circumcisions performed by surgeons, the epithelium is removed along with the foreskin,[55]to prevent post operative penile adhesion and its complications.[56] However, on ritual circumcisions performed by a mohel, the epithelium is most commonly peeled off only after the foreskin has been amputated. This procedure is calledpriah(Hebrew:פריעה), which means 'uncovering'. The main goal of "priah" (also known as "bris periah" ), is to remove as much of the inner layer of the foreskin as possible and prevent the movement of the shaft skin, what creates the look and function of what is known as a "low and tight" circumcision.[57]

According to Rabbinic interpretation of traditional Jewish sources,[58]the 'priah' has been performed as part of the Jewish circumcision since theIsraelitesfirst inhabited theLand of Israel.[59]

TheOxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religionstates that many Hellenistic Jews attempted to restore their foreskins, and that similar action was taken during the Hadrianic persecution, a period in which a prohibition against circumcision was issued. The writers of the dictionary hypothesize that the more severe method practiced today was probably begun in order to prevent the possibility of restoring the foreskin after circumcision, and therefore the rabbis added the requirement of cutting the foreskin in periah.[60]

According toShaye J. D. Cohen,the Torah only commands milah.[61]David Gollaherhas written that the rabbis added the procedure of priah to discourage men from trying to restore their foreskins: "Once established, priah was deemed essential to circumcision; if the mohel failed to cut away enough tissue, the operation was deemed insufficient to comply with God's covenant", and "Depending on the strictness of individual rabbis, boys (or men thought to have been inadequately cut) were subjected to additional operations."[2]

Engraving of a brit (1657)

Metzitzah

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note: alternate spellings Metzizah[62]or Metsitsah[63]are also used to refer to this.

In the Metzitzah (Hebrew:מְצִיצָה), the guard is slid over the foreskin as close to theglansas possible to allow for maximum removal of the former without any injury to the latter. Ascalpelis used to detach the foreskin. A tube is used formetzitzah In addition tomilah(the initial cut amputating the akroposthion) andp'riahand subsequent circumcision, mentioned above, theTalmud(MishnahShabbat 19:2) mentions a third step,metzitzah,translated as suction, as one of the steps involved in the circumcision rite. The Talmud writes that a "Mohel(Circumciser) who does not suck creates a danger, and should be dismissed from practice ".[64][65]Rashion that Talmudic passage explains that this step is in order to draw some blood from deep inside the wound to prevent danger to the baby.[66] There are other modern antiseptic and antibiotic techniques—all used as part of thebrit milahtoday—which many say accomplish the intended purpose ofmetzitzah,however, sincemetzitzahis one of the four steps to fulfill Mitzvah, it continues to be practiced by Orthodox, Ultraorthodox and Hassidic Jews.[67]

Metzitzah B'Peh(oral suction)

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The traditional method of performingmetzitzah b'peh(Hebrew:מְצִיצָה בְּפֶה,abbreviated as MBP[68])—or oral suction[69][70]—has become controversial. The process has themohelplace his mouth directly on the infant's genital wound to draw blood away from the cut. Many circumcision ceremonies no longer use metzitzah b'peh,[71]but Haredi Jews continue to perform it, while traditionalKaraitesandBeta Israelnever practiced it.[72][73][62]The practice poses a serious risk of spreadingherpesto the infant.[74][75][76][77]Proponents maintain that there is no conclusive evidence that links herpes toMetzitza,[78]and that attempts to limit this practice infringe on religious freedom.[79][80][81]

The practice has become a controversy in both secular andJewish medical ethics.The ritual ofmetzitzahis found inMishnahShabbat 19:2, which lists it as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite. RabbiMoses Sofer,also known as the Chatam Sofer (1762–1839), observed that the Talmud states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child. As such, the Chatam Sofer issued a ruling to performmetzitzahwith a sponge instead of oral suction in order to safeguard the child from potential risks. He also cited a passage in Nedarim 32a as a warrant for the position that metzitzah b’peh was not an obligatory part of the circumcision ceremony.[82][83]It relates the story that a mohel (who was suspected of transmitting herpes via metzizah to infants) was checked several times and never found to have signs of the disease and that a ban was requested because of the "possibility of future infections".[84]Moshe Schick(1807–1879), a student of Moses Sofer, states in his book of Responsa,She’eilos u’teshuvos Maharam Schick(Orach Chaim 152,) that Moses Sofer gave the ruling in that specific instance only because the mohel refused to step down and had secular government connections that prevented his removal in favor of another mohel, and the Heter may not be applied elsewhere. He also states (Yoreh Deah244) that the practice is possibly a Sinaitic tradition, i.e.,Halacha l'Moshe m'Sinai.Other sources contradict this claim, with copies of Moses Sofer's responsa making no mention of the legal case or of his ruling applying in only one situation. Rather, that responsa makes quite clear that "metzizah" was a health measure and should never be employed where there is a health risk to the infant.[85]

Chaim Hezekiah Medini,after corresponding with the greatest Jewish sages of the generation, concluded the practice to beHalacha l'Moshe m'Sinaiand elaborates on what prompted Moses Sofer to give the above ruling.[86]He tells the story that a student of Moses Sofer,Lazar Horowitz,Chief Rabbi of Viennaat the time and author of the responsaYad Elazer,needed the ruling because of a governmental attempt to ban circumcision completely if it includedmetztitzah b'peh.He therefore asked Sofer to give him permission to dobrit milahwithoutmetzitzah b'peh.When he presented the defense in secular court, his testimony was erroneously recorded to mean that Sofer stated it as a general ruling.[87]TheRabbinical Council of America(RCA), which claims to be the largest American organization of Orthodox rabbis, published an article by mohel Yehudi Pesach Shields in its summer 1972 issue ofTraditionmagazine, calling for the abandonment of Metzitzah b'peh.[88]Since then the RCA has issued an opinion that advocates methods that do not involve contact between the mohel's mouth and the infant's genitals, such as the use of a sterile syringe, thereby eliminating the risk of infection.[72]According to theChief Rabbinate of Israel[89]and theEdah HaChareidis[90]metzitzah b'pehshould still be performed.

The practice ofmetzitzah b'pehposed a serious risk in the transfer ofherpesfrommohelimto eight Israeli infants, one of whom suffered brain damage.[74][91]When three New York City infants contracted herpes aftermetzizah b'pehby onemoheland one of them died, New York authorities took out a restraining order against themohelrequiring use of a sterile glass tube, or pipette.[62][92]The mohel's attorney argued that the New York Department of Health had not supplied conclusive medical evidence linking his client with the disease.[92][93]In September 2005, the city withdrew the restraining order and turned the matter over to a rabbinical court.[94]Thomas Frieden, the Health Commissioner of New York City, wrote, "There exists no reasonable doubt that 'metzitzah b'peh' can and has caused neonatal herpes infection....The Health Department recommends that infants being circumcised not undergo metzitzah b'peh."[95]In May 2006, the Department of Health for New York State issued a protocol for the performance of metzitzah b'peh.[96]Antonia Novello,Commissioner of Health for New York State, together with a board of rabbis and doctors, worked, she said, to "allow the practice of metzizah b'peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health's responsibility to protect the public health".[97]Later in New York City in 2012 a 2-week-old baby died of herpes because of metzitzah b'peh.[98]

In three medical papers done in Israel, Canada, and the US, oral suction following circumcision was suggested as a cause in 11 cases of neonatal herpes.[74][99][100]Researchers noted that prior to 1997, neonatal herpes reports in Israel were rare, and that the late incidences[spelling?]were correlated with the mothers carrying the virus themselves.[74]Rabbi DoctorMordechai Halperinimplicates the "better hygiene and living conditions that prevail among the younger generation", which lowered to 60% the rate of young Israeli Haredi mothers who carry the virus. He explains that an "absence of antibodies in the mothers' blood means that their newborn sons received no such antibodies through the placenta, and therefore are vulnerable to infection by HSV-1".[101]

Barriers

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Because of the risk of infection, some rabbinical authorities have ruled that the traditional practice of direct contact should be replaced by using a sterile tube between the wound and themohel's mouth, so there is no direct oral contact. TheRabbinical Council of America,the largest group ofModern Orthodoxrabbis, endorses this method.[102]The RCA paper states: "Rabbi Schachter even reports that Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik reports that his father, Rav Moshe Soloveitchik, would not permit a mohel to perform metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, and that his grandfather, Rav Chaim Soloveitchik, instructed mohelim in Brisk not to do metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact. However, although Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik also generally prohibited metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, he did not ban it by those who insisted upon it." The sefer Mitzvas Hametzitzah[103]by Rabbi Sinai Schiffer of Baden, Germany, states that he is in possession of letters from 36 major Russian (Lithuanian) rabbis that categorically prohibit Metzitzah with a sponge and require it to be done orally. Among them is Rabbi Chaim Halevi Soloveitchik of Brisk.

In September 2012, theNew York Department of Healthunanimously ruled that the practice of metztizah b'peh should require informed consent from the parent or guardian of the child undergoing the ritual.[104]Prior to the ruling, several hundred rabbis, including Rabbi David Niederman, the executive director of the United Jewish Organization of Williamsburg, signed a declaration stating that they would not inform parents of the potential dangers that came with metzitzah b'peh, even if informed consent became law.[105]

In a motion for preliminary injunction with intent to sue, filed against New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, affidavits byAwi Federgruen,[106][107]Brenda Breuer,[108][109]and Daniel S. Berman[110][111]argued that the study on which the department passed its conclusions is flawed.[112][113][114][115]

The "informed consent" regulation was challenged in court. In January 2013 the U.S. District court ruled that the law did not specifically target religion and therefore must not passstrict scrutiny.The ruling was appealed to the Court of Appeals.[116]

On August 15, 2014, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision by the lower court, and ruled that the regulation does have to be reviewed understrict scrutinyto determine whether it infringes on Orthodox Jews' freedom of religion.[117]

On September 9, 2015, after coming to an agreement with the community the New York City Board of Health voted to repeal the informed consent regulation.[118]

Hatafat dam brit

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A brit milah is more than circumcision; it is a sacred ritual in Judaism, as distinguished from its non-ritual requirement inIslam.One ramification is that the brit is not considered complete unless a drop of blood is actually drawn. The standard medical methods ofcircumcisionthrough constriction do not meet the requirements of thehalakhahfor brit milah, because they are done withhemostasis,i.e.,they stop the flow of blood. Moreover, circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah. Therefore, in cases involving a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, an already-circumcised convert, or anaposthetic(born without a foreskin) individual, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood (Hebrew:הטפת דם,hatafat-dam) from the penis at the point where the foreskin would have been or was attached.[119]

Milah L'shem Giur

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Set of brit milah implements,Göttingencity museum

Amilah l'shem giuris a "circumcision for the purpose of conversion". InOrthodox Judaism,this procedure is usually done by adoptive parents for adopted boys who are being converted as part of the adoption or by families with young children converting together. It is also required for adult converts who were not previously circumcised, e.g., those born in countries where circumcision at birth is not common. The conversion of a minor is valid in bothOrthodoxandConservative Judaismuntil a child reaches the age of majority (13 for a boy, 12 for a girl); at that time the child has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered retroactively invalid. He must be informed of his right to renounce his conversion if he wishes. If he does not make such a statement, it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish.Orthodoxrabbis will generally not convert a non-Jewish child raised by a mother who has not converted to Judaism.[120]

The laws of conversion and conversion-related circumcision inOrthodox Judaismhave numerous complications, and authorities recommend that a rabbi be consulted well in advance.

InConservative Judaism,the milah l'shem giur procedure is also performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish. This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed byConservativeinterpretations ofhalakha.Conservative Rabbis will authorize it only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household. Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in themikvehwith the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish. If the mother does not convert, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child's conversion to Judaism. This can be done before the child is even one year old. If the child did not immerse in themikveh,or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish at age 13 as aBar Mitzvah,and complete the conversion then.[121]

  • The ceremony, when performed l'shem giur, does not have to be performed on a particular day, and does not overrideShabbatandJewish Holidays.[122][123]
  • In Orthodox Judaism, there is a split of authorities on whether the child receives aHebrew nameat the Brit ceremony or upon immersion in theMikvah.According toZichron Brit LeRishonim,naming occurs at the Brit with a different formula than the standard Brit Milah. The more common practice amongAshkenazicJews follows RabbiMoshe Feinstein,with naming occurring at immersion.

Where the procedure was performed but not followed by immersion or other requirements of the conversion procedure (e.g., inConservative Judaism,where the mother has not converted), if the boy chooses to complete the conversion atBar Mitzvah,amilah l'shem giurperformed when the boy was an infant removes the obligation to undergo either a full brit milah orhatafat dam brit.

Visible symbol of a covenant

[edit]

Rabbi Saadia Gaonconsiders something to be "complete" if it lacks nothing, but also has nothing that is unneeded. He regards the foreskin as an unneeded organ that God created in man, and so by amputating it, the man is completed.[124]The author ofSefer ha-Chinuch[125]provides three reasons for the practice of circumcision:

  1. To complete the form of man, by removing what he claims to be a redundant organ;
  2. To mark the chosen people, so that their bodies will be different as their souls are. The organ chosen for the mark is the one responsible for the sustenance of the species;
  3. The completion effected by circumcision is not congenital, but left to the man. This implies that as he completes the form of his body, so can he complete the form of his soul.

Talmud professorDaniel Boyarinoffered two explanations for circumcision. One is that it is a literal inscription on the Jewish body of the name of God in the form of the letter "yud"(from" yesod "). The second is that the act of bleeding represents a feminization of Jewish men, significant in the sense that the covenant represents a marriage between Jews and (a symbolically male) God.[126]

Other reasons

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InOf the Special Laws, Book 1,the Jewish philosopherPhiloadditionally gave other reasons for the practice of circumcision.[127]

He attributes four of the reasons to "men of divine spirit and wisdom". These include the idea that circumcision:

  1. Protects against disease,
  2. Secures cleanliness "in a way that is suited to the people consecrated to God",
  3. Causes the circumcised portion of the penis to resemble a heart, thereby representing a physical connection between the "breath contained within the heart [that] is generative of thoughts, and the generative organ itself [that] is productive of living beings", and
  4. Promotes prolificness by removing impediments to the flow of semen.
  5. "Is a symbol of a man's knowing himself".

Judaism, Christianity, and the Early Church (4 BCE – 150 CE)

[edit]
Further information:Religious male circumcision § Christianity

The 1st-century Jewish authorPhiloJudaeus defended Jewish circumcision on several grounds. He thought that circumcision should be done as early as possible as it would not be as likely to be done by someone's ownfree will.He claimed that the foreskin preventedsemenfrom reaching thevaginaand so should be done as a way to increase the nation's population. He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure.[128][129][130][131]

There was also division inPharisaic JudaismbetweenHillel the ElderandShammaion the issue ofcircumcision of proselytes.[132]

According to theGospel of Luke,Jesus was circumcisedon the 8th day.

After eight days had passed, it was time to circumcise the child; and he was called Jesus, the name given by the angel before he was conceived in the womb.

— Luke 2:21[133]

According to saying 53 of theGospel of Thomas,[134][135]

His disciples said to him, "is circumcision useful or not?". He said to them, "If it were useful, their father would produce children already circumcised from their mother. Rather, the true circumcision in spirit has become profitable in every respect."

Foreskin was considered a sign ofbeauty,civility,andmasculinitythroughout theGreco-Roman world;it was custom to spend an hour a day or so exercisingnudein thegymnasiumand inRoman baths;many Jewish men did not want to be seen in public deprived of theirforeskins,where matters of business and politics were discussed.[136]To expose one's glans in public was seen as indecent, vulgar, and a sign ofsexual arousaland desire.[15][137][136]

Classical,Hellenistic,andRoman culturewidely found circumcision to be barbaric, cruel, and utterly repulsive in nature.[15][137][138][139]By the period of theMaccabees,many Jewish menattempted to hide their circumcisionsthrough the process ofepispasmdue to the circumstances of the period, although Jewish religious writers denounced these practices as abrogating the covenant of Abraham in1 Maccabeesand theTalmud.[15][136]After Christianity and Second Temple Judaismsplit apart from oneanother,Milahwas declared spiritually unnecessary as acondition of justificationby Christian writers such asPaul the Apostleand subsequently in theCouncil of Jerusalem,while it further increased in importance for Jews.[15]

In the mid-2nd century CE, theTannaim,the successors of the newly ideologically dominantPharisees,introduced and made mandatory a secondary step of circumcision known as thePeriah.[15][140][1][2]Without it circumcision was newly declared to have no spiritual value.[1]This new form removed as much of theinner mucosaas possible, thefrenulumand its correspondingdeltafrom thepenis,and prevented the movement of shaft skin, in what creates a "low and tight" circumcision.[15][57]It was intended to make it impossible to restore the foreskin.[15][140][1]This is the form practiced among the large majority of Jews today, and, later, became a basis for the routine neonatal circumcisions performed in theUnited States.[15][140]

The steps, justifications, and imposition of the practice have dramatically varied throughout history; commonly cited reasons for the practice have included it being a way to controlmale sexualityby reducingsexual pleasureanddesire,as a visual marker of thecovenant of the pieces,as ametaphor for mankind perfecting creation,and as a means to promotefertility.[14][2][15][141][128]The original version inJudaic historywas either a ritual nick or cut done by a father to theacroposthion,the part of theforeskinthat overhangs theglans penis.This form ofgenital nicking or cutting,known as simplymilah,became adopted among Jews by theSecond Temple periodand was the predominant form until the second century CE.[15][140][1][142]The notion ofmilahbeing linked to abiblical covenantis generally believed to have originated in the 6th century BCE as a product of theBabylonian captivity;the practice likely lacked this significance amongJewsbefore the period.[14][15][16][17]

Reform Judaism

[edit]

The Reform societies established in Frankfurt and Berlin regarded circumcision as barbaric and wished to abolish it. However, while prominent rabbis such asAbraham Geigerbelieved the ritual to be barbaric and outdated, they refrained from instituting any change in this matter. In 1843, when a father in Frankfurt refused to circumcise his son, rabbis of all shades in Germany stated it was mandated by Jewish law; evenSamuel Holdheimaffirmed this.[143]By 1871, Reform rabbinic leadership in Germany reasserted "the supreme importance of circumcision in Judaism", while affirming the traditional viewpoint that non-circumcised Jews are Jews nonetheless. Although the issue of circumcision of converts continues to be debated, the necessity of Brit Milah for Jewish infant boys has been stressed in every subsequent Reform rabbis manual or guide.[144]While the Reform movement does not require the circumcision of adult male converts, it is increasingly acknowledged and practiced by many Reform communities as an important part of the conversion process.[145]Since 1984Reform Judaismhas trained and certified over 300 of their own practicingmohalimin this ritual.[146][147]By 2001, theCentral Conference of American Rabbisbegan to recommend that male converts who are already circumcized undergo hatafat dam brit.[148]

In Samaritanism

[edit]

Samaritanbrit milahoccurs on the eighth day following the child's birth at the father's home. In addition to special prayers and readings from the Torah pertaining to the ritual, an old hymn that invokes blessings for parents and children is sung.[149]

According to 19th century British explorerConder,in their circumcision hymn, Samaritans express their gratitude for a certain Roman soldier by the name of Germon, who was sent by an unknown Roman Emperor as a sentinel over the home of theSamaritan High Priestfor his kindness in allowing the process of circumcision to take place. They tried to give him money, but he refused, just requesting to be included in their future prayers instead.[149]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^abcdefHirsch, Emil;Kohler, Kaufmann;Jacobs, Joseph;Friedenwald, Aaron;Broydé, Isaac (1906)."Circumcision: The Cutting Away".The Jewish Encyclopedia.RetrievedOctober 13,2020.In order to prevent the obliteration of the "seal of the covenant" on the flesh, as circumcision was henceforth called, the Rabbis, probably after the war of Bar Kokba (see Yeb. l.c.; Gen. R. xlvi.), instituted the "peri'ah" (the laying bare of the glans), without which circumcision was declared to be of no value (Shab. xxx. 6).
  2. ^abcdGollaher, David(2001).Circumcision: A History Of The World's Most Controversial Surgery.United States:Basic Books.pp. 1–30.ISBN978-0-465-02653-1.
  3. ^abTractateNedarim32a
  4. ^Harlow, Daniel; Collins, John (2010). "Circumcision".The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism.William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.ISBN978-1-4674-6609-7.
  5. ^Hamilton, Victor(1990).The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1-17.Eerdmans Publishing Company.p. 473.ISBN978-0-8028-2521-6.In fact, circumcision is only one of two performative commands, the neglect of which bring the kareth penalty. (The other is the failure to be cleansed from corpse contamination, umb. 19:11-22.)
  6. ^Mark, Elizabeth (2003). "Frojmovic/Travelers to the Circumcision".The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite.Brandeis University Press.p. 141.ISBN978-1-58465-307-3.Circumcision became the single most important commandment... the one without which... no Jew could attain the world to come.
  7. ^abcRosner, Fred (2003).Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics.Feldheim Publishers.p. 196.ISBN978-1-58330-592-8.Several eras in subsequent Jewish history were associated with forced conversions and with prohibitions against ritual circumcision... Jews endangered their lives during such times and exerted strenuous efforts to nullify such edicts. When they succeeded, they celebrated by declaring a holiday. Throughout most of history, Jews never doubted their obligation to observe circumcision... [those who attempted to reverse it or failed to perform the ritual were called] voiders of the covenant of Abraham our father, and they have no portion in the World to Come.
  8. ^Oliver, Isaac W. (2013-05-14)."Forming Jewish Identity by Formulating Legislation for Gentiles".Journal of Ancient Judaism.4(1): 105–132.doi:10.30965/21967954-00401005.ISSN1869-3296.
  9. ^abWilson, Robin (2018).The Contested Place of Religion in Family Law.Cambridge University Press.p. 174.ISBN978-1-108-41760-0.Jews have a long history of suffering punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision. Muslims have also experienced suppression of their identities through suppression of this religious practice.
  10. ^abLivingston, Michael(2021).Dreamworld or Dystopia: The Nordic Model and Its Influence in the 21st Century.Cambridge University Press.p. 87.ISBN978-1-108-75726-3.In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution.
  11. ^"What Is Hanukkah?".Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center.In the second century BCE, the Holy Land was ruled by the Seleucids (Syrian-Greeks), who tried to force the people of Israel to accept Greek culture and beliefs instead of mitzvah observance and belief in G‑d. Against all odds, a small band of faithful but poorly armed Jews, led by Judah the Maccabee, defeated one of the mightiest armies on earth, drove the Greeks from the land, reclaimed the Holy Temple in Jerusalem and rededicated it to the service of G‑d.... To commemorate and publicize these miracles, the sages instituted the festival of Chanukah.
  12. ^Cohen-Almagor, Raphael (9 November 2020)."Should liberal government regulate male circumcision performed in the name of Jewish tradition?".SN Social Sciences.1(1): 8.doi:10.1007/s43545-020-00011-7.ISSN2662-9283.S2CID228911544.Protagonists and critics of male circumcision agree on some things and disagree on many others... They also do not underestimate the importance of male circumcision for the relevant communities.... Even the most critical voices of male circumcision do not suggest putting a blanket ban on the practice as they understand that such a ban, very much like the 1920–1933 prohibition laws in the United States, would not be effective... Protagonists and critics of male circumcision debate whether the practice is morally acceptable... They assign different weights to harm as well as to medical risks and to non-medical benefits. The different weights to risks and benefits conform to their underlying views about the practices... Protagonists and critics disagree about the significance of medical reasons for circumcision...
  13. ^Gollaher, David, 1949- (2000).Circumcision: a history of the world's most controversial surgery.New York:Basic Books.p. 2.ISBN0-465-04397-6.OCLC42040798.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^abcdKarris, Robert (1992).The Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament.United States:Liturgical Press.p. 57.ISBN978-0-8146-2210-0.Circumcision only became an important sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile; it is doubtful that it always had this significance for Israel.
  15. ^abcdefghijklmnGlick, Leonard(2005).Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America.United States:Oxford University Press.pp. 1–3, 15–35.ISBN978-0-19-517674-2.
  16. ^abcEilberg-Schwartz, Howard (1990).The Savage in Judaism: An Anthropology of Israelite Religion and Ancient Judaism.United States:Indiana University Press.p. 172.ISBN978-0-253-31946-3.
  17. ^abcGlick, Nansi S. (2006),"Zipporah and the Bridegroom of Blood: Searching for the Antecedents of Jewish Circumcision",Bodily Integrity and the Politics of Circumcision,Dordrecht:Springer Netherlands,pp. 37–47,doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4916-3_3,ISBN978-1-4020-4915-6,retrievedDecember 21,2020
  18. ^Stavrakopoulou, Francesca(2012).King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities.Germany:Walter de Gruyter.pp. 198–200, 282–283, 305–306, et al.ISBN978-3-11-089964-1.
  19. ^Barker, Margaret(2012).The Mother of the Lord: Volume 1: The Lady in the Temple.T&T Clark.p. 130.ISBN978-0-567-36246-9.It seems that in the biblical tradition... child sacrifice was replaced by circumcision...
  20. ^Edinger, Edward(1986).The Bible and the Psyche: Individuation Symbolism in the Old Testament.Inner City Books. p. 30.ISBN978-0-919123-23-6.
  21. ^Genesis 17:10–14
  22. ^Leviticus 12:3
  23. ^Joshua5:9.
  24. ^I Samuel14:6, 31:4; II Samuel 1:20
  25. ^Isaiah52:1
  26. ^Leviticus26:41, "their uncircumcised hearts"; compareJeremiah9:25;Ezekiel44:7, 9
  27. ^Leviticus19:23
  28. ^Genesis 17:1–14
  29. ^Zechariah ha-Rofé(1990). Havazelet, Meir (ed.).Midrash ha-Ḥefez(in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Jerusalem:Mossad Harav Kook.p. 137.OCLC23773577.
  30. ^"Genesis 17: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers".Biblehub.2023.
  31. ^Exodus 12:48
  32. ^Genesis 34:14–16
  33. ^"Tractate Shabbat: Chapter 19: Regulations ordained by R. Eliezer concerning circumcision on the Sabbath".Jewish Virtual Library.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-04-25.Retrieved2022-07-23.
  34. ^"Circumcision." Mark Popovsky. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. Ed. David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden and Stanton Marlan. New York: Springer, 2010. pp. 153–54.
  35. ^Hendel, Ronald (2005).Remembering Abraham: Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible.Oxford University Press. pp. 3–30.ISBN9780199784622.
  36. ^Talmud Avodah Zarah 26b; Menachot 42a; Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, Milah, ii. 1;Shulkhan Arukh,Yoreh De'ah, l.c.
  37. ^Lubrich, Naomi, ed. (2022).Birth Culture. Jewish Testimonies from Rural Switzerland and Environs(in German and English). Basel: Schwabe. pp. 54–123.ISBN978-3-7965-4607-5.
  38. ^"Home".Berit Mila Program of Reform Judaism.2013-10-07. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-10-07.Retrieved2022-07-23.
  39. ^Shulchan Aruch YD 266:8.
  40. ^Shulchan Aruch YD 266:10.
  41. ^"The Circumcision Procedure and Blessings – Performing the Bris Milah – The Handbook to Circumcision".Chabad.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-01-16.Retrieved2012-04-25.
  42. ^abThis article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Singer, Isidore;et al., eds. (1901–1906)."Morbidity".The Jewish Encyclopedia.New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
  43. ^Ilani, Ofri (2008-05-12)."Traditional circumcision raises risk of infection, study shows".Haaretz.Archivedfrom the original on 20 August 2009.Retrieved15 August2009.
  44. ^Kreimer, Susan (2004-10-22)."In New Trend, Adult Emigrés Seek Ritual Circumcision".The Jewish Daily Forward.Retrieved24 August2015.
  45. ^Reiner, Rami (2022)."A baby boy who dies before reaching eight [days] is circumcised with a flint or reed at his grave" (Shulḥan 'Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 263:5): From Women's Custom to Rabbinic Law ".Journal of the Goldstein-Goren International Center for Jewish Thought.Retrieved3 January2023.
  46. ^abRabbi Yaakov Montrose.Halachic World – Volume 3: ContemporaryHalachictopics based on theParshah."Lech Lecha – No Pain, No Bris?" Feldham Publishers 2011, pp. 29–32
  47. ^Harris, Patricia (June 11, 1999)."Study confirms that wine drops soothe boys during circumcision".J. The Jewish News of Northern California.Archived fromthe originalon 13 August 2016.Retrieved22 June2016.
  48. ^"Pain and Circumcision".The New York Times.January 3, 1998.Archivedfrom the original on July 14, 2014.RetrievedJune 11,2014.
  49. ^Berger, Itai; Steinberg, Avraham (May 2002)."Neonatal mydriasis: intravenous lidocaine adverse reaction".J Child Neurol.17(5): 400–01.doi:10.1177/088307380201700520.PMID12150593.S2CID2169066.[dead link]
  50. ^Rezvani, Massoud; Finkelstein, Yaron (2007). "Generalized seizures following topical lidocaine administration during circumcision: establishing causation".Paediatr Drugs.9(2): 125–27.doi:10.2165/00148581-200709020-00006.PMID17407368.S2CID45481923.
  51. ^Beider, Alexander (2015).Origins of Yiddish Dialects.Oxford University Press. p. 153.
  52. ^Western Ashkenazic version of Seder Avodat Yisrael,page 739(the link is to Otzar HaChochmah, available only to subscribers).
  53. ^Øster, Jakob (April 1968)."Further Fate of the Foreskin".Archives of Disease in Childhood.43:200–02.Archivedfrom the original on 2010-06-29.Retrieved2010-11-14.
  54. ^Mishnah Shabbat 19:6.circumcised but did not perform priah, it is as if he did not circumcise. TheJerusalem Talmudthere adds: "and is punishedkareth!".
  55. ^Circumcision Policy StatementArchived2009-03-20 at theWayback Machineof TheAmerican Academy of Pediatricsnotes that "there are three methods of circumcision that are commonly used in the newborn male", and that all three include "bluntly freeing the inner preputial epithelium from the epithelium of the glans", to be later amputated with the foreskin.
  56. ^Gracely-Kilgore, Katharine A. (May 1984)."Further Fate of the Foreskin".Nurse Practitioner.5(2): 4–22. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-06-28.Retrieved2010-11-14.
  57. ^ab"Styles – Judaism and Islam".Circlist. 2014-03-07. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-05-15.Retrieved2014-06-11.
  58. ^Glick, Leonard B. (2005-06-30).Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America.Oxford University Press. pp. 46–47.ISBN978-0-19-517674-2.the rabbis go on to dedicate all of chapter 19 to circumcision..milah,peri'ah,andmetsitsah.This is the first text specifying peri'ah as an absolute requirement. The same chapter is where we first find mention of the warning that leaving even "shreds" of foreskin renders the procedure "invalid".(note: section 19.2 from Moed tractateShabbat (Talmud)is quoted)
  59. ^Rabbah b. Isaac in the name of Rab. "71b".Talmud BavliTractate Yebamoth.The commandment of uncovering the corona at circumcision was not given to Abraham; for it is said, At that time the Lord said unto Joshua: 'Make thee knives of flint etc.'. But is it not possible [that this applied to] those who were not previously circumcised; for it is written, For all the people that came out were circumcised, but all the people that were born etc.? — If so, why the expression. 'Again!'. Consequently it must apply to the uncovering of the corona.
  60. ^Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi; Wigoder, Geoffrey (1997).The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion.Oxford University Press.
  61. ^Cohen, Shaye J.D (2005-09-06).Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised?: Gender and Covenant in Judaism.University of California Press. p. 25.ISBN978-0-520-21250-3.These mishniac requirements have three sources: the Torah, which requires circumcision (milah); the rabbis themselves, who added the requirement of completely uncovering the corona (peri'ah); and ancient medical beliefs about the treatment of wounds (suctioning, bandaging, cumin). The Torah demands circumcision but does not specify exactly what should be cut or how much.
  62. ^abcHartog, Kelly (February 18, 2005)."Death Spotlights Old Circumcision Rite".The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles.Archivedfrom the original on December 13, 2006.Retrieved2006-11-22.Metzizah b'peh — loosely translated as oral suction — is the part of the circumcision ceremony where the mohel removes the blood from the baby's member; these days the removal of the blood is usually done using a sterilized glass tube, instead of with the mouth, as the Talmud suggests.
  63. ^

    In the first half of the nineteenth century, various European governments considered regulating, if not banning,berit milahon the grounds that it posed potential medical dangers. In the 1840s, radical Jewish reformers inFrankfurtasserted that circumcision should no longer be compulsory. This controversy reachedRussiain the 1880s. Russian Jewish physicians expressed concern over two central issues: the competence of those carrying out the procedure and the method used formetsitsah.Many Jewish physicians supported the idea of procedural and hygienic reforms in the practice, and they debated the question of physician supervision during the ceremony. Most significantly, many advocated carrying outmetsitsahby pipette, not by mouth. In 1889, a committee on circumcision convened by the Russian Society for the Protection of Health, which included leading Jewish figures, recommended educating the Jewish public about the concerns connected with circumcision, in particular, the possible transmission of diseases such astuberculosisandsyphilisthrough the custom ofmetsitsahby mouth. Veniamin Portugalov, who—alone among Russian Jewish physicians—called for the abolition of circumcision, set off these discussions. Portugalov not only denied all medical claims regarding the sanitary advantages of circumcision but disparaged the practice as barbaric, likening it to pagan ritual mutilation. Ritual circumcision, he claimed, stood as a self-imposed obstacle to the Jews’attainment of true equality with the other peoples of Europe.

    — Epstein, Lisa,"Circumcision",The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe,Yale University Press.
  64. ^Tractate Shabbos 133b
  65. ^Rambam – Maimonides in his "book of laws" Laws of Milah Chapter 2, paragraph 2: "...and afterwards he sucks the circumcision until blood comes out from far places, in order not to come to danger, and anyone who does not suck, we remove him from practice."
  66. ^Rashi and others on Tractate Shabbos 173a and 173b
  67. ^"Denouncing City's Move to Regulate Circumcision".The New York Times.September 12, 2012.Archivedfrom the original on January 27, 2013.Retrieved2013-03-01.
  68. ^Goldberger, Frimet (18 February 2014)."Why My Son Underwent Metzitzah B'Peh".Forward.com.MBP is believed to be a commandment from God.. Chasam Sofer clearly stated his position on MBP.. I do not know all the answers, but banning MBP is not one of them.
  69. ^Nussbaum Cohen, Debra (October 14, 2005)."City Risking Babies' Lives With Brit Policy: Health Experts".The Jewish Week.Archived fromthe originalon 2007-05-22.
  70. ^Nussbaum Cohen, Debra; Cohler-Esses, Larry (December 23, 2005)."City Challenged On Ritual Practice".The Jewish Week.Archived fromthe originalon 2006-11-20.Retrieved2007-04-19.
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  96. ^"Circumcision Protocol Regarding the Prevention of Neonatal Herpes Transmission".Department of Health, New York State. November 2006. Archived fromthe originalon February 5, 2007.Retrieved2006-11-23.The person performing metzizah b'peh must do the following: wipe around the outside of the mouth thoroughly, including the labial folds at the corners, with a sterile alcohol wipe, and then discard in a safe place. Wash hands with soap and hot water for 2–6 minutes. Within 5 minutes before metzizah b'peh, rinse mouth thoroughly with a mouthwash containing greater than 25% alcohol (for example, Listerine) and hold the rinse in mouth for 30 seconds or more before discarding it.
  97. ^Novello, Antonia C. (May 8, 2006)."Dear Rabbi Letter".Department of Health, New York State. Archived fromthe originalon February 18, 2007.Retrieved2006-11-23.The meetings have been extremely helpful to me in understanding the importance of metzizah b'peh to the continuity of Jewish ritual practice, how the procedure is performed, and how we might allow the practice of metzizah b'peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health's responsibility to protect the public health. I want to reiterate that the welfare of the children of your community is our common goal and that it is not our intent to prohibit metzizah b'peh after circumcision, rather our intent is to suggest measures that would reduce the risk of harm, if there is any, for future circumcisions where metzizah b'peh is the customary procedure and the possibility of an infected mohel may not be ruled out. I know that successful solutions can and will be based on our mutual trust and cooperation.
  98. ^Susan Donaldson James (March 12, 2012)."Baby Dies of Herpes in Ritual Circumcision By Orthodox Jews".abcnews.go.com.Archivedfrom the original on April 19, 2017.
  99. ^Rubin LG, Lanzkowsky P. Cutaneous neonatal herpes simplex infection associated with ritual circumcision. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal. 2000. 19(3) 266–67.
  100. ^Distel R, Hofer V, Bogger-Goren S, Shalit I, Garty BZ. Primary genital herpes simplex infection associated with Jewish ritual circumcision. Israel Medical Association Journal.2003 Dec;5(12):893-4ArchivedOctober 21, 2012, at theWayback Machine
  101. ^Halperin, Mordechai(Winter 2006)."Metzitzah B'peh Controversy: The View from Israel".Jewish Action.67(2). Translated by Lavon, Yocheved: 25, 33–39. Archived fromthe originalon March 6, 2012.RetrievedFebruary 15,2007.The mohel brings the baby's organ into his mouth immediately after the excision of the foreskin and sucks blood from it vigorously. This action lowers the internal pressure in the tissues of the organ, in the blood vessels of the head of the organ and in the exposed ends of the arterioles that have just been cut. Thus, the difference between the pressure in the blood vessels in the base of the organ and the pressure in the blood vessels at its tip is increased. This requirement has deep religious significance as well as medical benefits....Immediately after incising or injuring an artery, the arterial walls contract and obstruct, or at least reduce, the flow of blood. Since the arterioles of the orlah, or the foreskin, branch off from the dorsal arteries (the arteries of the upper side of the organ), cutting away the foreskin can result in a temporary obstruction in these dorsal arteries. This temporary obstruction, caused by arterial muscle contraction, continues to develop into a more enduring blockage as the stationary blood begins to clot. The tragic result can be severe hypoxia (deprivation of the supply of blood and oxygen) of the glans penis.28 If the arterial obstruction becomes more permanent, gangrene follows; the baby may lose his glans, and it may even become a life-threatening situation. Such cases have been known to occur. Only by immediately clearing the blockage can one prevent such clotting from happening. Performing metzitzah immediately after circumcision lowers the internal pressure within the tissues and blood vessels of the glans, thus raising the pressure gradient between the blood vessels at the base of the organ and the blood vessels at its distal end—the glans as well as the excised arterioles of the foreskin, which branch off of the dorsal arteries. This increase in pressure gradient (by a factor of four to six!) can resolve an acute temporary blockage and restore blood flow to the glans, thus significantly reducing both the danger of immediate, acute hypoxia and the danger of developing a permanent obstruction by means of coagulation. How do we know when a temporary blockage has successfully been averted? When the "blood in the further reaches [i.e., the proximal dorsal artery] is extracted", as Rambam has stated.
  102. ^"Metzitza Be'Peh – Halachic Clarification Regarding Metzitza Be'Peh, RCA Clarifies Halachic Background to Statement of March 1, 2005".Rabbis.org. Archived fromthe originalon January 17, 2012.Retrieved2012-04-25.
  103. ^The book was originally published in German,Die Ausübung der Mezizo,Frankfurt a.M. 1906; It was subsequently translated into Hebrew, reprinted in Jerusalem in 1966 under the title "Mitzvas Hametzitzah"and appended to the back of Dvar Sinai, a book written by the author's grandson, Sinai Adler.
  104. ^admin (September 13, 2012)."New York, NY – City Approves Metzitzah B'Peh Consent Form (full video NYC DOH debate)".VINnews.Archivedfrom the original on December 31, 2015.Retrieved2022-07-23.
  105. ^Witty, Allison C. (September 2, 2012)."New York – Rabbis Say They'll Defy Law On Metzitzah B'peh".VINnews.Archivedfrom the original on March 6, 2016.Retrieved2022-07-23.
  106. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2013-05-15.Retrieved2013-04-17.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  107. ^"Docket for Central Rabbinical Congress of the USA & Canada v. New York City Department of Health & Mental..., 1:12-cv-07590".CourtListener.Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2018.Retrieved8 May2018.
  108. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2013-05-15.Retrieved2013-04-17.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  109. ^"Docket for Central Rabbinical Congress of the USA & Canada v. New York City Department of Health & Mental..., 1:12-cv-07590".CourtListener.Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2018.Retrieved8 May2018.
  110. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2013-05-15.Retrieved2013-04-17.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  111. ^"Docket for Central Rabbinical Congress of the USA & Canada v. New York City Department of Health & Mental..., 1:12-cv-07590".CourtListener.Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2018.Retrieved8 May2018.
  112. ^"No Conclusive Evidence on Circumcision Rite and Herpes".forward.com.Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2015.Retrieved8 May2018.
  113. ^Maimon, Debbie (26 December 2012)."Bris Milah Lawsuit: Court To Rule On Temporary Injuction Against Anti-MBP Law".yated.com.Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2018.Retrieved8 May2018.
  114. ^"Judge Rejects Injunction in Landmark Milah Suit".hamodia.com.Jewish News – Israel News – Israel Politics. 10 January 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 26 October 2017.Retrieved8 May2018.
  115. ^Federgruen, Dr. Daniel Berman and Prof. Brenda Breuer and Prof. Awi."Consent Forms ForMetzitzah B'Peh– Empowering Parents Or Interfering In Religious Practice? ".jewishpress.com.Archived fromthe originalon 22 November 2017.Retrieved8 May2018.
  116. ^"Central Rabbinical Congress v. New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene".becketlaw.org.Archived fromthe originalon 18 March 2018.Retrieved8 May2018.
  117. ^"U.S. Court revives challenge to New York City circumcision law".Reuters.2014-08-15.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-09-30.Retrieved2017-06-30.
  118. ^Grynbaum, Michael M. (9 September 2015)."New York City Health Board Repeals Rule on Consent Forms for Circumcision Ritual".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2017 – via NYTimes.com.
  119. ^Shulchan Aruch,Yoreh De'ah,263:4
  120. ^Rabbi Paysach J. Krohn,Bris MilahMesorah Publications Ltd,1985, pp. 103–105.
  121. ^Rabbi Avram Israel Reisner, On the conversion of adoptive and patrilineal childrenArchived2010-11-27 at theWayback Machine,Rabbinical AssemblyCommittee on Jewish Law and Standards,1988
  122. ^"Can a brit take place on Yom Kippur? – holidays general information holiday information life cycle circumcision the brit".Askmoses.com. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-21.Retrieved2012-04-25.
  123. ^"The Mitzvah of Brit Milah (Bris)".Ahavat Israel. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-04.Retrieved2012-04-25.
  124. ^Gaon, Saadia;Rosenblatt, Samuel (trans.) (1958). "article III chapter 10".the Book of Beliefs and Opinions.Yale Judaica.ISBN978-0-300-04490-4.
  125. ^2nd commandment
  126. ^Boyarin, Daniel."'This We Know to Be the Carnal Israel': Circumcision and the Erotic Life of God and Israel ", Critical Inquiry. (Spring, 1992), 474–506.
  127. ^Philo of Alexandria;Colson, F.H. (trans.) (1937).Of the special laws, Book I (i and ii), in Works of Philo.Vol. VII. Loeb Classical Library: Harvard University Press. pp. 103–05.ISBN978-0-674-99250-4.
  128. ^abBruce, Frederick(1990).The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary.William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.p. 329.ISBN978-0-8028-0966-7.
  129. ^Darby, Robert (2013).A Surgical Temptation:The Demonization of the Foreskin and the Rise of Circumcision in Britain.University of Chicago Press.p. 205.ISBN978-0-226-10978-7.The view that circumcision had the effect of reducing sexual pleasure, and had even been instituted with this objective in mind, was both widely held in the nineteenth century and in accordance with traditional religious teaching. Both Philo and Maimondies had written to this effect, andHerbert Snowquoted the contemporary Dr. Asher... as stating that chastity was the moral objective of the alteration.
  130. ^Borgen, Peder;Neusner, Jacob (1988).The Social World of Formative Christianity and Judaism.Fortress Press.p. 127.ISBN978-0-8006-0875-0.
  131. ^Earp, Brian(June 7, 2020)."Male and Female Genital Cutting: Controlling Sexuality".YouTube.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-11-23.RetrievedOctober 30,2020.It is agreed among scholars that the original purpose within Judaism... was precisely to dull the sexual organ.
  132. ^"The Proselyte Who Comes".Jewish Ideas.RetrievedNovember 26,2020.
  133. ^Luke 2:21
  134. ^Dominic Crossan, John(1999).The Birth of Christianity.Bloomsbury Academic.p. 327.ISBN978-0-567-08668-6.
  135. ^Pagels, Elaine(2004).Beyond Belief: The Secret Gospel of Thomas.Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.p. 234.ISBN978-1-4000-7908-7.
  136. ^abcHall, Robert (August 1992)."Epispasm: Circumcision in Reverse".Bible Review.8(4): 52–57.
  137. ^ab

    Circumcisedbarbarians,along with any others who revealed theglans penis,were the butt of ribaldhumor.ForGreek artportrays the foreskin, often drawn in meticulous detail, as an emblem of male beauty; and children with congenitally short foreskins were sometimes subjected to a treatment, known asepispasm,that was aimed at elongation.

    — Neusner, Jacob,Approaches to Ancient Judaism, New Series: Religious and Theological Studies(1993), p. 149, Scholars Press.
  138. ^Rubin, Jody P. (July 1980)."Celsus' Decircumcision Operation: Medical and Historical Implications".Urology.16(1).Elsevier:121–4.doi:10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4.PMID6994325.Retrieved4 January2020.
  139. ^Fredriksen, Paula(2018).When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation.London:Yale University Press.pp. 10–11.ISBN978-0-300-19051-9.
  140. ^abcdKimmel, Michael(2005).The Gender of Desire: Essays on Male Sexuality.United States:State University of New York Press.p. 183.ISBN978-0-7914-6337-6.
  141. ^Pangle, Thomas(2007).Political Philosophy and the God of Abraham.Johns Hopkins University Press.pp. 151–152.ISBN978-0-8018-8761-1.
  142. ^Baky Fahmy, Mohamed (2020).Normal and Abnormal Prepuce.Springer International Publishing.p. 13.ISBN978-3-030-37621-5....Brit Milah is just [ritually] nicking or amputating the protruding tip of the prepuce...
  143. ^Judith Bleich, "The Circumcision Controversy in Classical Reform in Historical Context", KTAV Publishing House, 2007. pp. 1–28.
  144. ^"Circumcision of Infants".Central Conference of American Rabbis.1982. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-15.Retrieved2010-09-12.
  145. ^"B'rit Milah: The Circumcision Ritual".Union for Reform Judaism.Retrieved2023-09-16.
  146. ^Niebuhr, Gustav (June 28, 2001)."Reform Rabbis' Vote Reflects Expanding Interest in Rituals".The New York Times.Archived fromthe originalon January 30, 2013.Retrieved2007-10-03.
  147. ^"Berit Mila Program of Reform Judaism".National Association of American Mohalim. 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-10-07.Retrieved2010-01-23.
  148. ^"Reimagining the Mikveh".ReformJudaism.org.Retrieved2024-03-26.
  149. ^abConder, C. R. (1887-10-01)."Samaritan Customs".Palestine Exploration Quarterly.19(4): 233–236.doi:10.1179/peq.1887.19.4.233.ISSN0031-0328.
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