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Industrial design

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OlivettiDivisumma 24calculator designed byMarcello Nizzoli(1956)
BraunSK 4"Snow White's coffin"radiogramdesigned byDieter Rams,Herbert Lindinger,andHans Gugelot(1956)

Industrial designis a process ofdesignapplied to physicalproductsthat are to be manufactured bymass production.[1][2]It is the creative act of determining and defining a product's form and features, which takes place in advance of the manufacture or production of the product. Industrial manufacture consists of predetermined, standardized and repeated, often automated, acts of replication,[3][4]whilecraft-based design is a process or approach in which the form of the product is determined personally by the product's creator largely concurrent with the act of its production.[5]

All manufactured products are the result of a design process, but the nature of this process can vary. It can be conducted by an individual or a team, and such a team could include people with varied expertise (e.g. designers, engineers, business experts, etc.). It can emphasize intuitivecreativityor calculatedscientific decision-making,and often emphasizes a mix of both. It can be influenced by factors as varied asmaterials,production processes,business strategy,and prevailing social, commercial, or aesthetic attitudes.[3]Industrial design, as anapplied art,most often focuses on a combination of aesthetics and user-focused considerations,[6]but also often provides solutions for problems of form, function,physical ergonomics,marketing, brand development, sustainability, and sales.[7]

History

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Precursors

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For several millennia before the onset ofindustrialization,design, technical expertise, and manufacturing was often done by individualcrafts people,who determined the form of a product at the point of its creation, according to their own manual skill, the requirements of their clients, experience accumulated through their own experimentation, and knowledge passed on to them through training orapprenticeship.[5]

Thedivision of labourthat underlies the practice of industrial design did haveprecedentsin the pre-industrial era.[1]The growth of trade in the medieval period led to the emergence of large workshops in cities such asFlorence,Venice,Nuremberg,andBruges,where groups of more specialized craftsmen made objects with common forms through the repetitive duplication of models which defined by their shared training and technique.[8]Competitive pressures in the early 16th century led to the emergence inItalyandGermanyofpattern books:collections ofengravingsillustrating decorative forms and motifs which could be applied to a wide range of products, and whose creation took place in advance of their application.[8]The use ofdrawingto specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed byarchitectsandshipwrightsduring theItalian Renaissance.[9]

In the 17th century, the growth ofartisticpatronage in centralized monarchical states such asFranceled to large government-operated manufacturing operations epitomized by theGobelins Manufactory,opened inParisin 1667 byLouis XIV.[8]Here teams of hundreds of craftsmen, including specialist artists, decorators and engravers, produced sumptuously decorated products ranging fromtapestriesandfurnituretometalworkandcoaches,all under the creative supervision of the King's leading artistCharles Le Brun.[10]This pattern of large-scale royal patronage was repeated in the court porcelain factories of the early 18th century, such as theMeissen porcelainworkshops established in 1709 by theGrand Duke of Saxony,where patterns from a range of sources, including court goldsmiths, sculptors, and engravers, were used as models for the vessels and figurines for which it became famous.[11]As long as reproduction remained craft-based, however, the form and artistic quality of the product remained in the hands of the individual craftsman, and tended to decline as the scale of production increased.[12]

Birth of industrial design

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The emergence of industrial design is specifically linked to the growth of industrialization and mechanization that began with theIndustrial Revolutionin Great Britain in the mid 18th century.[1][2]The rise of industrial manufacture changed the way objects were made,urbanizationchanged patterns ofconsumption,thegrowth of empiresbroadened tastes and diversified markets, and the emergence of a widermiddle classcreated demand for fashionable styles from a much larger and more heterogeneous population.[13]

The first use of the term "industrial design" is often attributed to the industrial designerJoseph Claude Sinelin 1919 (although he himself denied this in interviews), but the discipline predates 1919 by at least a decade.Christopher Dresseris considered among the first independent industrial designers.[14]Industrial design's origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. For instance, theDeutscher Werkbund(a precursor to theBauhausfounded in 1907 byPeter Behrensand others) was a state-sponsored effort to integrate traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive footing with Great Britain and the United States.

The earliest published use of the term may have been inThe Art-Union,15 September 1840.

Dyce's Report to the Board of Trade, on Foreign Schools of Design for Manufactures.

Mr. Dyce's official visit to France, Prussia, and Bavaria, for the purpose of examining the state of schools of design in those countries, will be fresh in the recollection of our readers. His report on this subject was ordered to be printed some few months since, on the motion of Mr. Hume; and it is the sum and substance of this Report that we are now about to lay before our own especial portion of the reading public.

The school of St. Peter, at Lyons, was founded about 1750, for the instruction of draftsmen employed in preparing patterns for the silk manufacture. It has been much more successful than the Paris school; and having been disorganized by the revolution, was restored by Napoleon and differently constituted, being then erected into an Academy of Fine Art: to which the study of design for silk manufacture was merely attached as a subordinate branch.

It appears that all the students who entered the school commence as if they were intended for artists in the higher sense of the word and are not expected to decide as to whether they will devote themselves to the Fine Arts or to Industrial Design, until they have completed their exercises in drawing and painting of the figure from the antique and from the living model. It is for this reason, and from the fact that artists for industrial purposes are both well-paid and highly considered (as being well-instructed men), that so many individuals in France engage themselves inbothpursuits.[15]

The Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial DesignbyJacques-Eugène Armengaudwas printed in 1853.[16]The subtitle of the (translated) work explains, that it wants to offer a "complete course of mechanical, engineering, and architectural drawing." The study of those types of technical drawing, according to Armengaud, belongs to the field of industrial design. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the field of drawing education in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Robert Lepperhelped to establish one of the USA's first industrial design degree programs in 1934 atCarnegie Institute of Technology.[17]

Education

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Product designand industrial design overlap in the fields ofuser interface design,information design,andinteraction design.Various schools of industrial design specialize in one of these aspects, ranging from pure art colleges and design schools (product styling), to mixed programs of engineering and design, to related disciplines such as exhibit design andinterior design,to schools that almost completely subordinated aesthetic design to concerns of usage and ergonomics, the so-calledfunctionalistschool.[18]Except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, the former is considered an applied art[6]while the latter is an applied science.[19]Educational programs in the U.S. for engineering require accreditation by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)[20]in contrast to programs for industrial design which are accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD).[21]Of course, engineering education requires heavy training in mathematics and physical sciences, which is not typically required in industrial design education.[22]

Institutions

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Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a vocational school or university. Relevant programs includegraphic design,interior design, industrial design, architectural technology, anddrafting.Diplomas and degrees in industrial design are offered at vocational schools and universities worldwide. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study. The study results in aBachelor of Industrial Design(B.I.D.),Bachelor of Science(B.Sc) orBachelor of Fine Arts(B.F.A.). Afterwards, the bachelor programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such asMaster of Design,Master of Fine Artsand others to aMaster of ArtsorMaster of Science.

Definition

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Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment. Generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships. Industrial designers don't usually design motors, electrical circuits, or gearing that make machines move, but they may affect technical aspects through usability design and form relationships. Usually, they work with other professionals such as engineers who focus on the mechanical and other functional aspects of the product, assuring functionality and manufacturability, and with marketers to identify and fulfill customer needs and expectations.

Industrial design (ID) is the professional service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both user and manufacturer.

Industrial Designers Society of America,[23]

Design, itself, is often difficult to describe to non-designers because the meaning accepted by the design community is not made of words. Instead, the definition is created as a result of acquiring a critical framework for the analysis and creation of artifacts. One of the many accepted (but intentionally unspecific) definitions of design originates fromCarnegie Mellon's School of Design:"Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones."[24][25]This applies to new artifacts, whose existing state is undefined, and previously created artifacts, whose state stands to be improved.

Industrial design can overlap significantly withengineering design,and in different countries the boundaries of the two concepts can vary, but in generalengineeringfocuses principally on functionality or utility of products, whereas industrial design focuses principally onaesthetic and user-interfaceaspects of products. In many jurisdictions this distinction is effectively defined bycredentials and/or licensurerequired to engage in the practice of engineering.[26]"Industrial design" as such does not overlap much with the engineering sub-discipline ofindustrial engineering,except for the latter's sub-specialty ofergonomics.

At the 29th General Assembly in Gwangju, South Korea, 2015, the Professional Practise Committee unveiled a renewed definition of industrial design as follows: "Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences." An extended version of this definition is as follows: "Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences. Industrial Design bridges the gap between what is and what's possible. It is a trans-disciplinary profession that harnesses creativity to resolve problems and co-create solutions with the intent of making a product, system, service, experience or a business, better. At its heart, Industrial Design provides a more optimistic way of looking at the future by reframing problems as opportunities. It links innovation, technology, research, business and customers to provide new value and competitive advantage across economic, social and environmental spheres. Industrial Designers place the human in the centre of the process. They acquire a deep understanding of user needs through empathy and apply a pragmatic, user centric problem solving process to design products, systems, services and experiences. They are strategic stakeholders in the innovation process and are uniquely positioned to bridge varied professional disciplines and business interests. They value the economic, social and environmental impact of their work and their contribution towards co-creating a better quality of life."[27]

Design process

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AFender Stratocasterwith sunburst finish, one of the most widely recognized electric guitars in the world
Model 1300 Volkswagen Beetle
Olivetti Valentinetypewriter

Although the process of design may be considered 'creative,' many analytical processes also take place. In fact, many industrial designers often use various design methodologies in their creative process. Some of the processes that are commonly used are user research, sketching, comparative product research, model making, prototyping and testing. These processes are best defined by the industrial designers and/or other team members. Industrial designers often utilize 3D software,computer-aided industrial designand CAD programs to move from concept to production. They may also build a prototype or scaled down sketch models through a3D printingprocess or using other materials such as paper, balsa wood, various foams, or clay for modeling. They may then useindustrial CT scanningto test for interior defects and generate a CAD model. From this the manufacturing process may be modified to improve the product.

Product characteristics specified by industrial designers may include the overall form of the object, the location of details with respect to one another,colors,texture, form, and aspects concerning theuse of the product.Additionally, they may specify aspects concerning the production process,choice of materialsand the way the product is presented to the consumer at thepoint of sale.The inclusion of industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added value by improvingusability,lowering production costs, and developing more appealing products.

Industrial design may also focus on technical concepts, products, and processes. In addition toaesthetics,usability, and ergonomics, it can also encompass engineering, usefulness, market placement, and other concerns—such as psychology, desire, and the emotional attachment of the user. Thesevaluesand accompanying aspects that form the basis of industrial design can vary—between different schools of thought, and among practicing designers.

Industrial design rights

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Main article:Industrial design rights

Industrial design rights areintellectual propertyrights that make exclusive the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. A design patent would also be considered under this category. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Under theHague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs,aWIPO-administered treaty, a procedure for an international registration exists. An applicant can file for a single international deposit with WIPO or with the national office in a country party to the treaty. The design will then be protected in as many member countries of the treaty as desired.

In 2022, about 1.1 million industrial design applications were filed worldwide. This represents a decrease of 3% on 2021, marking a first drop in filings since 2014.[28]

Hague top applicants

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TheHague System for the International Registration of Industrial Designs[29]provides an international mechanism that secures protection of up to 100 designs[29][30]in multiple countries or regions, through a single international application. International design applications are filed directly throughWIPO.[31]The domestic legal framework of each designated contracting party governs the design protection provided by the resulting international registrations.[32]The Hague System does not require the applicant to file a national or regional design application.[31]

Hague top applicants in 2023[33][34]
Applicant Origine Hague applications

in 2019

Hague applications

in 2020

Hague applications

in 2021

Hague applications

in 2022

Hague applications

in 2023

Samsung South Korea 166 170 862 451 544
Proctor & Gamble United States 65 57 665 687 525
Porsche Germany 45 117 352
LG Electronics South Korea 449 446 655 366 352
Xiaomi China 111 216 227 251 315
Volkswagen Germany 73 84 403 233 312
Philips Netherlands 85 95 678 633 294
Jellycat Limited United Kingdom 100 403 255
Hermès France 27 68 168 72 251
Kärcher Germany 35 47 102 47 189


Examples of industrial design

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Lurelle Guild.Vacuum Cleaner,c. 1937.Brooklyn Museum
Chair by Charles Eames
Russel Wright. Coffee Urn,c. 1935.Brooklyn Museum

A number of industrial designers have made such a significant impact on culture and daily life that their work is documented by historians of social science.Alvar Aalto,renowned as anarchitect,also designed a significant number of household items, such as chairs, stools, lamps, a tea-cart, and vases.Raymond Loewywas a prolific American designer who is responsible for theRoyal Dutch Shellcorporate logo, the originalBPlogo (in use until 2000), thePRR S1steam locomotive, theStudebaker Starlight(including the later bulletnose), as well asSchickelectric razors,Electroluxrefrigerators, short-wave radios,Le CreusetFrench ovens, and a complete line of modern furniture, among many other items.

Richard Teague,who spent most of his career with theAmerican Motors Corporation,originated the concept of using interchangeable body panels so as to create a wide array of different vehicles using the same stampings. He was responsible for such unique automotive designs as thePacer,Gremlin,Matador coupe,Jeep Cherokee,and the complete interior of theEagle Premier.

Milwaukee'sBrooks Stevenswas best known for hisMilwaukee RoadSkytop Loungecar andOscar MayerWienermobiledesigns, among others.

Viktor Schreckengostdesigned bicycles manufactured by Murray bicycles for Murray and Sears, Roebuck and Company. With engineer Ray Spiller, he designed the first truck with a cab-over-engine configuration, a design in use to this day. Schreckengost also founded The Cleveland Institute of Art's school of industrial design.

Oskar Barnackwas a German optical engineer, precision mechanic, industrial designer, and the father of 35mm photography. He developed theLeica,which became the hallmark for photography for 50 years, and remains a high-water mark for mechanical and optical design.[35]

Charles and Ray Eameswere most famous for their pioneering furniture designs,[36]such as theEames Lounge Chair WoodandEames Lounge Chair.Other influential designers includedHenry Dreyfuss,Eliot Noyes,John Vassos,andRussel Wright.

Dieter Ramsis a German industrial designer closely associated with the consumer products companyBraunand theFunctionalistschool of industrial design.

German industrial designerLuigi Colani,who designed cars for automobile manufacturers includingFiat,Alfa Romeo,Lancia,Volkswagen,andBMW,was also known to the general public for his unconventional approach to industrial design. He had expanded in numerous areas ranging from mundane household items, instruments and furniture to trucks, uniforms and entire rooms. A grandpianocreated by Colani, thePegasus,is manufactured and sold by theSchimmelpiano company.

Many ofApple's recent products were designed by SirJonathan Ive.

See also

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References

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  1. ^abcHeskett 1980,pp. 10–11.
  2. ^abKirkham 1999.
  3. ^abHeskett 1980,p. 10.
  4. ^Noblet 1993,pp. 21–22.
  5. ^abNoblet 1993,p. 21.
  6. ^ab"Usability glossary | Usability Body of Knowledge".usabilitybok.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-23.Retrieved2022-01-30.
  7. ^de Noblet, J.,Industrial Design,Paris: A.F.A.A. (1993)
  8. ^abcHeskett 1980,p. 11.
  9. ^Baynes 1991,p. 108.
  10. ^Heskett 1980,pp. 11–12.
  11. ^Heskett 1980,p. 12.
  12. ^Heskett 1980,pp. 12–13.
  13. ^Benton 2000,p. 380.
  14. ^"Christopher Dresser".Design Museum.Archived fromthe originalon 20 September 2014.Retrieved9 April2015.
  15. ^"Dyce's Report to the Board of Trade, on Foreign Schools of Design for Manufacture".The Art-Union: A Monthly Journal of the Fine Arts.2(20). London: William West: 144–143. 15 September 1840.
  16. ^"The practical draughtsman's book of industrial design: forming a complete course of mechanical, engineering, and architectural drawing by Armengaud, aîné (Jacques-Eugène), 1810–1891".Internet Archive.Retrieved14 April2015.
  17. ^"Newsbriefs: Lepper show runs at Warhol."Archived2016-10-11 at theWayback MachineCarnegie Mellon Magazine. Winter 2002. Retrieved January 17, 2014.
  18. ^Pulos, Arthur J.,The American Design Adventure 1940–1975,Cambridge, Mass:MIT Press (1988), p. 249 (ISBN9780262161060).
  19. ^"Engineering".ScienceDaily.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-05-19.Retrieved2020-05-26.
  20. ^"Accreditation | ABET".Archivedfrom the original on 2018-09-30.Retrieved2020-07-15.
  21. ^"Nasad.arts-accredit.org".Archived fromthe originalon August 12, 2015.
  22. ^"NASAD Competencies Summary – Degree: The BFA in Industrial Design, a professional undergraduate degree"(PDF).National Association of Schools of Art and Design.2014-01-08.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2023-09-29.Retrieved2020-07-15.upload 2015
  23. ^"Industrial Designers Society of America".Archived fromthe originalon January 24, 2010.Retrieved2010-01-25.
  24. ^Simon, Herbert A. (1988)."The Science of Design: Creating the Artificial".Design Issues.4(1/2): 67–82.doi:10.2307/1511391.JSTOR1511391.[permanent dead link]
  25. ^Simon, Herbert A. (2019).The sciences of the artificial.John Laird (Third edition [2019 edition] ed.). Cambridge:MIT Press.p. 111.ISBN978-0-262-35474-5.OCLC1099679934.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-09.Retrieved2022-06-18.
  26. ^"The Difference Between Industrial Design And Design Engineering".MCADC Cafe.Archived fromthe originalon 20 September 2014.Retrieved9 April2015.
  27. ^ICSID web: DEFINITION OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGNArchived2007-03-17 at theWayback Machine
  28. ^"World Intellectual Property Indicators 2023"(PDF).wipo.int.p. 109.
  29. ^ab"Hague – The International Design System".www.wipo.int.Retrieved2021-12-30.
  30. ^Hartwig, Henning (2021-05-18).Research Handbook on Design Law.Edward Elgar.ISBN978-1-78195-588-8.
  31. ^ab"WIPO Lex".wipolex.wipo.int.Retrieved2021-12-30.
  32. ^"Hague System Member Profiles".www.wipo.int.Retrieved2021-12-30.
  33. ^"WIPO Lex".www.wipo.int.Retrieved2024-06-25.
  34. ^"Hague Yearly Review 2024"(PDF).wipo.int.
  35. ^"Oskar Barnack".International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.Archivedfrom the original on 4 February 2017.Retrieved23 March2021.
  36. ^"Eames Expert Insights: Mastering the Art of Vintage Eames Furniture Ac".industrial Konzept Store.2023-09-01.Retrieved2023-10-20.

Sources

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  • Barnwell, Maurice.Design, Creativity and Culture,Black Dog, 2011,ISBN978 1 907317 408
  • Barnwell, Maurice.Design Evolution: Big Bang to Big Data,Toronto, 2014.ISBN978-0-9937396-0-6
  • Baynes, Ken (1991). "Forms of Representation". In Pirovano, Carlo (ed.).History of Industrial Design.Vol. 1. Milan: Electa. pp. 108–127.OCLC32885051.
  • Benton, Charlotte (2000). "Design and Industry". In Kemp, Martin (ed.).The Oxford History of Western Art.Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 380–383.ISBN0198600127.
  • Forty, Adrian.Objects of Desire: Design and Society Since 1750.Thames Hudson, May 1992.ISBN978-0-500-27412-5
  • Heskett, John (1980).Industrial Design.Thames & Hudson.ISBN0500201811.
  • Kirkham, Pat (1999).Industrial design.Grove Art Online.Oxford University Press.
  • Mayall, WH,Industrial Design for Engineers,London: Iliffe Books, 1967,ISBN978-0592042053
  • Mayall, WH,Machines and Perception in Industrial Design,London: Studio Vista, 1968,ISBN978-0289279168
  • Meikle, Jeffrey.Twentieth Century Limited: Industrial Design engineering in America, 1925 - 1939,Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979ISBN978-0877222460
  • Noblet, Jocelyn de (1993). "Design in Progress". In Noblet, Jocelyn de (ed.).Industrial design: reflection of a century.Paris: Flammarion/APCI. pp. 21–25.ISBN2080135392.
  • Pirovano, Carlo, ed. (1991). "Forms of Representation".History of Industrial Design.Vol. 1. Milan: Electa. pp. 108–127.OCLC32885051.
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