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Kaesong

Coordinates:37°58′N126°33′E/ 37.967°N 126.550°E/37.967; 126.550
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Kaesong
개성시
Special city
Korean transcription(s)
•Chosŏn'gŭl개성특별시
•HanjaKhai thànhĐặc biệt thị
•McCune–ReischauerKaesŏng-T'ŭkpyŏlsi
•Revised RomanizationGaeseong-Teukbyeolsi
Clockwise from top:Koryo Songgyungwan University,Mausoleum of King Kongmin,street in Kaesong, skyline ofKaesong Industrial Regionand downtown Kaesong,Sungyang Academy,fall foliage in Kaesong
Nickname(s):
"City of Pines" (송도;Tùng đô;Songdo)
Kaesong location within North Korea
Kaesong location within North Korea
Map
Kaesong is located in North Korea
Kaesong
Kaesong
Coordinates:37°58′N126°33′E/ 37.967°N 126.550°E/37.967; 126.550
CountryNorth Korea
ProvinceKaesong
Settledc. 700
Administrative divisions24dong,3ri
Area
• Total179.26 km2(69.21 sq mi)
Population
(2009)
• Total192,578
• Density1,100/km2(2,800/sq mi)
• Dialect
Gyeonggi
Time zoneUTC+9(Pyongyang Time)
Other informationSplit fromGyeonggiin 1951;
joinedNorth Hwanghaein 2003. LeftNorth Hwanghaeand became special city in 2019.

Kaesong[a](UK:/keɪˈsɒŋ/,US:/keɪˈsɔːŋ/;Korean:[kɛsʌ̹ŋ]) is aspecial cityin the southern part ofNorth Korea(formerly inNorth Hwanghae Province), and the capital ofKoreaduring theTaebongkingdom and subsequentGoryeodynasty. The city is near theKaesong Industrial Regionclose to theborderwithSouth Koreaand contains the remains of theManwoldae palace.Called Songdo while it was the ancient capital of Goryeo, the city prospered as a trade centre that produced Koreanginseng.Kaesong now functions as North Korea'slight industrycentre.

During theJapanese occupationfrom 1910 to 1945, the city was known by theJapanese pronunciation of its name,"Kaijō".[2]Between 1945 and 1950, Kaesong was part of South Korea and under its control. During theKorean War,North Korea captured the city, and the 1953Korean Armistice Agreementleft the city under North Korean control. Due to the city's proximity to the border with South Korea, Kaesong has hosted cross-border economic exchanges between the two countries as well as the jointly runKaesong Industrial Region.

As of 2009, the city had a population of 192,578.[3]

History

[edit]

The earliest archaeological signs of habitation in the Kaesong area date from theNeolithic.Artifacts such asJeulmun pottery,stone ware, and stone axes have been excavated fromOsongsanandKaesong Nasong,the double-walled fortress of Kaesong. As Kaesong has been occupied by various states throughout centuries, its name has changed. It was in the realm ofMahan confederacy,and was referred to asBusogapduring the rule ofGoguryeo.Before the strength ofBaekjewas retreated to the southwest ofJungnyeong,Mungyeong Saejae,andAsan Bayin 475, the area had been a part ofBaekjefor about 100 years.

However, it became a territory ofSillain 555, the 16th year ofJinheung of Silla's reign, and its name was changed toSong'ak-gunduring the period. According to theSamguk Sagi,when a castle was built in the site in 694, the third year ofHyoso of Silla's reign, Kaesong was referred to as "Song'ak (송악; tùng nhạc )". Therefore, it is assumed that the name Song'ak had been used at least before the time.[4]

Goryeo

[edit]

Silla began to decline in the late 9th century, and a period of rival warlords ensued. In 898, Kaesong fell under the hand ofGung Ye,the founder of his short-lived state,Taebong,and then became a part ofGoryeoin 919 by its founder, Wang Geon, who was enthroned asTaejo of Goryeo.Taejo established the capital in the south of Song'ak, and incorporated Kaesong into Song'ak under the name of "Gaeju". In 919, Kaesong became the national capital. In 960, the 11th year ofGwangjong of Goryeo's reign, the city was renamed Gaegyeong, and in 995, the 14th year ofSeonjong of Goryeo's reign, it was elevated to "Gaesong-bu". The Gaeseong-bu is a combined term of Song'ak-gun, and Gaesong-gun, which is different from the region of the pre-1945 Gaesong-ri, Seo-myeon, Kaepung-gun. In 1010, the first year ofHyeonjong of Goryeo's reign, the palace and houses were almost burnt down during thesecond conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War,so in 1018, Gaesong-bu was relegated for the "bu" system, and became to govern the three hyeon unites of Jeongju, Deoksu, and Gangeum.[4]

In the late 12th century, there was instability in both the government and the countryside. A slave namedManjǒk(or Manjeok) (만적; vạn tích ) led a group of slaves who gathered outside Kaesong in 1198. The revolt plot was suppressed byCh'oe Ch'ung-hŏn.[5]When Yi Song-gye overthrew Goryeo in 1392 and establishedJoseonasTaejo of Joseon,he moved the Korean capital from Kaesong to Hanyang (modern-daySeoul) in 1394.[4]

20th century

[edit]
Kim Il Sungstatue in Kaesong, as it appeared in October 2012. The statue has since been updated and a statue ofKim Jong Ilhas been added next to the Kim Il-sung statue.[6]

Kaesong remained a part ofGyeonggi Provinceuntil theKorean War.When Korea was partitioned at the38th parallelafterWorld War II,Kaesong was on the southern side of the line (within South Korea).

However, thebattle of Kaesong-Munsanwas won by theKorean People's Army(KPA) in the first days of the Korean War. The city was recaptured by UN Forces on 9 October 1950 during thepursuit of the KPAthat followed the successfulInchon landings.UN Forcesabandonedthe city on 16 December 1950 during the withdrawal to theImjin Riverfollowing the ChinesePeople's Volunteer Armyintervention in the war. Kaesong would remain under Chinese/North Korean control until the end of the war.[4]

Ceasefire negotiations began in Kaesong[7]on 10 July 1951, but were moved toPanmunjom,southeast of the city, on 25 October 1951. TheKorean Armistice Agreementsigned on 27 July 1953 recognisedNorth Koreancontrol over Kaesong making it the only city to change control from South Korea to North Korea as a result of the war. Postwar Kaesong and the part of Kyonggi Province that came to be occupied was organized into "Kaesong Region" (Kaesŏng Chigu;개성 지구; khai thành địa khu ). In 1957, Kaesong became a "Directly Governed City" (Kaesŏng Chikhalsi;개성 직할시; khai thành trực hạt thị ).

21st century

[edit]

In 2002,Kaesŏng Industrial Regionwas formed from part of Kaesong. In 2003, the remaining part of Kaesong (excluding the Industrial Region) became part ofNorth Hwanghae Province.The city is close to theDemilitarized Zonethat divides North and South Korea.

In October 2019, Kaesong became a "Special City".[8]

Geography

[edit]
See also:Geography of North Korea

Located in the center of Korea, Kaesong is the southernmost city of North Korea. It is bordered byKaepung,Changpung,Panmun,andKumchoncounties.Kanghwa IslandofIncheonMunicipality lies just south, beyond a narrow channel. It covers an area of 1,309 km2,the urban district is surrounded bySongak(Songak-san; 송악산; tùng nhạc sơn ) (489 m) andPongmyongmountains. The city center surrounds the much smaller Mt. Janam (103 m), on which is located the city'sKim Il Sungstatue.

In the northern part of Kaesong, the end of theAhobiryŏngrange creates the northernmost border of Kaesong City. This range consists of Mts.Chŏnma(757 m), Sŏnggŏ, Myoji (764 m), Suryong (716 m), Chesŏk (749 m), Hwajang (558 m), and Ogwan. With the exception of the mountainous northeastern region, however, most areas of Kaesong consist of low hills with heights less than 100 metersA.S.L.[9]

TheImjin Riverflows along the northeastern border line of the city and theRyesong River( lễ thành giang ) (Ryeseong-gang; 례성강) (transliterated in South Korea as Yeseong-gang; 예성강) runs along the western border to the mouth of theHan River.In addition to the two rivers, small and large rivers and streams such as the Samich'ŏn, Wŏlamch'ŏn, Chukbaech'ŏn, Kŭmsŏngch'ŏn, andSach'ŏn riversdrain into the Han. The river basin located in the southwest of Kaesong has spacious alluvial plains such as P'ungdŏkbŏl, Singwangbŏl, and Samsŏngbŏl.[9]

The geology consists of theProterozoic,Cenozoic,andPaleozoicstrataandMesozoicintrusivegranite.The underground resources includegold,zinc,copper,fluorspar,limestone,granite, andkaolin.The soil comprises generally brown forest soil while the areas drained by Yesŏng, Imjin, and Han rivers consist of mostlyalluvialandsaline soil.The climate is generally warm and moderate, with an average annual temperature of around 10 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average temperature of −5.9 °C, while the hottest month is August, with an average temperature of 24.7 °C. The average annual rainfall ranges from 1,300 to 1,400 millimeters. The duration of frost-free period is 180 days—the longest in North Korea. About 55% of Kaesong is forested (80% of the trees are pines), and 40 species of mammals and 250 birds inhabit the area.[9]

Climate

[edit]

Kaesong has ahumid continental climate(Köppen climate classification:Dwa), with cold, dry winters and hot, humid summers with abundant rainfall.

Climate data for Kaesong (1991–2020)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 1.6
(34.9) 		4.6
(40.3) 		10.5
(50.9) 		17.3
(63.1) 		22.8
(73.0) 		26.8
(80.2) 		28.1
(82.6) 		29.3
(84.7) 		25.8
(78.4) 		20.1
(68.2) 		11.3
(52.3) 		3.6
(38.5) 		16.8
(62.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) −3.6
(25.5) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		4.6
(40.3) 		11.0
(51.8) 		16.7
(62.1) 		21.3
(70.3) 		24.1
(75.4) 		24.9
(76.8) 		20.4
(68.7) 		13.7
(56.7) 		5.9
(42.6) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		11.4
(52.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −8.1
(17.4) 		−5.6
(21.9) 		−0.3
(31.5) 		5.6
(42.1) 		11.6
(52.9) 		17.1
(62.8) 		21.1
(70.0) 		21.5
(70.7) 		15.9
(60.6) 		8.3
(46.9) 		1.1
(34.0) 		−5.6
(21.9) 		6.9
(44.4)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 10.9
(0.43) 		19.4
(0.76) 		24.7
(0.97) 		49.9
(1.96) 		95.2
(3.75) 		105.7
(4.16) 		359.9
(14.17) 		285.2
(11.23) 		109.9
(4.33) 		40.9
(1.61) 		40.8
(1.61) 		18.3
(0.72) 		1,160.8
(45.70)
Average precipitation days(≥ 0.1 mm) 3.3 3.6 4.6 6.3 7.4 8.1 12.8 11.3 5.9 4.7 6.4 4.9 79.3
Average snowy days 4.6 3.1 1.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 4.9 15.7
Averagerelative humidity(%) 67.2 64.7 64.4 66.7 72.9 77.8 85.3 81.8 73.4 70.1 70.3 67.9 71.9
Source:Korea Meteorological Administration[10]

Administrative divisions

[edit]

Before 2002, what is now Kaesong Directly Governed City was divided into one city (Kaesŏng itself) and one county and two wards:Changpung County, Kaepung-guyokandPanmun-guyok.In 2003, P'anmun-gun and part of Kaesong-si were separated from Kaesŏng Directly Governed City and merged to formKaesong Industrial Region.The remaining part of Kaesŏng joinedNorth Hwanghae Provincein 2002. Kaesong is currently divided into 24 administrative districts known asDong,as well as three villages ( "ri" ).[11]After Kaesong promoted to Special City, Changpung County, Kaepung-guyok and Panmun-guyok return to Kaesong.

Culture

[edit]

Landmarks

[edit]
Goryeo Museum
Namdaemun

Kaesong is home to theWorld Heritage SiteHistoric Monuments and Sites in Kaesong.[21]Koryo Songgyungwan University(Light Industry), Communist University and Art College are located in Kaesong. TheKoryo Museum,housed in the city's oldConfucian academy,contains many priceless Goryeo arts and cultural relics (although many are copies, with the originals held in the vaults of theKorean Central History MuseuminPyongyang).

As the former capital of Goryeo, the tombs of almost all of the Goryeo kings are located in the area, though most are not accessible; the heavily reconstructedTomb of King Wanggon,belonging to the dynasty's founder,Taejo of Goryeo,is located to the west of the city in Kaepung-gun. Other notable tombs include those of kingsHyejong of Goryeo(theSollung Royal Tomb),Gyeongjong of Goryeo(Yongrung Royal Tomb),Seongjong of Goryeo(Kangrung Royal Tomb),Hyeonjong of Goryeo(Sollung Royal Tomb),Munjong of Goryeo(Kyongrung Royal Tomb), andGongmin of Goryeo(Tomb of King Kongmin). Kaesong also contains North Korea's only two royal tombs dating to theJoseon:theHurung Royal Tomb,belonging to the dynasty's second king,Jeongjong of Joseon,and theCherung Royal Tomb,containing the remains of Queen Sinui, wife of the dynasty's founder,Yi Songgye(Taejo of Joseon). The two final tombs, despite belonging to members of the Joseon royal family, were excluded from the World Heritage SiteRoyal Tombs of the Joseon Dynastybecause of their location in North Korea.

Cuisine

[edit]
See also:Korean regional cuisine
A meal for visitors at Tongil restaurant, Kaesong

Since Kaesong was the capital ofGoryeofor 487 years, its culinary culture was highly developed. The luxurious style of Kaesong cuisine is frequently compared withSeoulcuisine andJeollacuisine.[22]Kaesong cuisine was traditionally treated as part ofGyeonggicuisine, since Kaesong belonged to Gyeonggi Province until 1950. However, it has been incorporated into the administration of North Korea after theKorean Warwhile Gyeonggi Province is in South Korea.Bossamkimchi(wrapped kimchi),pyeonsu(square-shaped summermandu),[23]sinseollo(royal casserole),seolleongtang(ox bone soup),chueotang(mudfish soup),joraengitteokguk(rice cake soup),umegi(tteokcovered with syrup), andgyeongdan(ball-shapedtteok) are representative Kaesong dishes.Umegi,also calledKaesong juak,is a holiday food of Kaesong, and known for the delicate style with the sweet and nutty taste. The dish is made by kneading a mixture of rice flour and glutinous rice flour with warm water, by shaping the dough into balls with either onepine nutorjujube,by frying and coating them with syrup.[22][24]

Economy

[edit]
See also:Kaesong Industrial Region

With itstopography,climateandsoil,Kaesong has advantageous natural conditions foragriculturalproductions. Thewater supplysystem is established with 18 reservoirs, including Songdo Reservoir, built for agricultural advances and about 150pumping stationsas well as hundreds of dammed pools. Thecultivated landaccounts for 27% of Kaesong's area. Rice,maize,soybeans,wheat, and barley are the main crops. Among them, rice production accounts for 60% of the whole grain production, andKaepungand Panmun are the two primary regions, producing more than 70% of the rice production. In addition, vegetable and fruit cultivation including peach, apple andpersimmon,livestock farming, andsericultureare active. Peach is a local specialty of Kaesong, especially white peach, which accounts for more than 25% of the total fruit production. The counties of Kaepung-gun and Panmun-gun are also known for cultivating the quality KoreanginsengcalledGoryeo Insam.[25]

Kaesong is North Korea'slight industrycentre. The urban district is equipped with ajewelprocessing factory, ginseng processing factory and anembroideryfactory.[citation needed]Since theGoryeoperiod, Kaesong had been a center of handcrafts such asGoryeo wareand commerce while thetextile industryhas been the primary business along with the production of grocery goods, daily general goods, and ginseng products after the division into the two states. The food processing industry ranks next to the textile business, mainly producingjang(soybean-based condiments),oil,canned foods,alcoholic beverages,soft drinksand others. In addition,resin,timber,handicrafts, pottery, shoes,school supplies,musical instruments, and glass are produced. Kaesong has factories for producing agricultural machines and tractor repair.

As of 2002, the city contained the headquarters of theCentral Bank of North Korea,with branches also in Kapung and Panmun counties.[25]

North Korea and South Korea jointly operate an industrial complex in the Kaesong Industrial Region.[26]The industrial park, built around 2005, employs over 53,400 North Koreans at over 120 South Korean textile and other labor-intensive factories.[27]In early 2013, approximately 887 South Koreans worked in the complex, which produced an estimated $470 million of goods in 2012,[26][27]and the complex employed a sixth of Kaesong's working people.[28]

Amid tensions in 2013, the industrial park was temporarily closed.[7]It was closed again in 2016.

Tourism

[edit]
See also:Tourism in North Korea
Pakyon Falls

Kaesong is a major destination for foreign visitors to North Korea. Many Goryeo-era sites are located in Kaesong, including theKaesong Namdaemungate, theSonggyungwan Confucian Academy,now the Koryo Museum, and theSonjuk Bridge and Pyochung Pavilion.Less-known sites include Kwandok Pavilion, the ruined Goryeo-eraManwoldae Palace,Anhwa Temple,Sungyang Hall,Mokchong Hall,and theKaesong Chomsongdae(개성 첨성대; khai thành chiêm tinh đài ) observatory. Located to the west of the city are the tombs of KingsKongminandWanggon;twenty-four km north of Kaesong isTaehungsan Fortress,a Koguryo satellite fortress built to protectPyongyang.This castle contains theKwanumand Taehung Temples. The famousPakyon Fallsare located in the area, as well as a large, recently discovered Goryeo-era Buddha carved into the stone onMt. Chonma.Most tourists to Kaesong are put in the traditionalKaesong Folk Hotel,housed in 19 traditionalhanokcourtyard houses.

Education

[edit]

Sungkyunkwan,one kilometer north of Seonjukgyo bridge is a representative traditional educational institution in Kaesong. It was founded in the neighborhood ofGukja-dongwith the nameGukjagam(국자감; quốc tử giam ) in 992 during the reign ofKing SeongjongofGoryeo,which ignitedKorean Confucianism.Its name was changed toGukhak(국학; quốc học ) in the reign ofChungnyeol of Goryeoand was referred to asSeonggyungwan.In 1367, the 16th year ofGongmin of Goryeo's reign, the structure was revamped andYi Saek,andChŏng Mong-ju,Confucian scholars of the time taught there as professors. In 1592, the 25th year ofSeonjo of Joseon's reign,Kim Yukreconstructed the institution which was burned down by the Japanese during theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).[4]

The first modern school that appeared in Kaesong wasHanyeong Seowon(한영서원; hàn anh thư viện ), or Anglo-Korean School established byYun Chi-hoin 1906, with the help of American missionaries Mr. Wasson, and Mr. Candler. It obtained authorization as Songdo High School fromGovernor-General of Koreain 1917, and expanded to the Songdo School Foundation in 1950 with the accreditation for the establishment of Songdo Middle School and Songdo College of Pharmacy, the latter of which produced 40 graduates. However, when the Korean War occurred, the foundation was moved to Incheon, and reconstructed Songdo Middle and High Schools in 1953 which still exist to the present.[4]

By 1950, there were two public high schools: Kaeseong High School (개성중학교; khai thành trung học giáo ) and Kaeseong Girls' High School (개성고등여학교; khai thành cao đẳng nữ học giáo ) and three private high schools: Songdo High School (송도중학교; tùng đô trung học giáo ), Jeonghwa Girls' School (정화여학교; trinh hòa nữ học giáo ) and Hosudon Girls' School (호수돈여학교; hảo thọ đôn nữ học giáo ). Like Songdo High School, Jeonghwa and Hosudon Girls' Schools, with the teachers and most students, evacuated south during theKorean Warand their campuses now are located inSeoulandDaejeonrespectively.

There were also eight public elementary schools (국민학교) in Kaeseong by 1950, they were the Manwol (만월; mãn nguyệt ), Donghyun (동현; đồng hiện ), Seonjuk (선죽; thiện trúc ), Koryo (고려; cao lệ ), Songdo (송도; tùng đô ), Junggyeong (중경; trung kinh ), Namsan (남산; nam sơn ) and Deokam (덕암; đức nham ) elementary schools.

As of 2002, Kaesong had 80 each public elementary schools which scattered in each unit ofri(village), 60 middle-high schools, 3 colleges and 3 universities such as Songdo University of Politics, Kaesong University of Education, and Kaesong Communist University.[29]

Transportation

[edit]

Kaesong is connected toPyongyangand other cities by rail and highways. The city's main railway station isKaesong Station,which is on thePyongbu Line.

There was a plan to build atrolleybusline in this city, but it never came to fruition.[30]

Sister cities

[edit]

People born in Kaesong

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^In the 19th century, Kaesong was also spelledKaï-seng.[1]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^EB(1878),p. 390.
  2. ^Historic Map: Geographic overview Japan & Korea 1945 AD – 1B
  3. ^"City population by sex, city and city type".United Nations.2009.Retrieved16 December2013.
  4. ^abcdef개성시 khai thành thị (Kaesong)(in Korean). Nate/Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.Archived fromthe originalon 10 June 2011.
  5. ^Michael J. Seth.A concise history of Korea: from the neolithic period through the nineteenth century.pp. 99–102. Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
  6. ^Voice of Korea."Bronze statues of great Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il unveiled in Kaesong City"– via Internet Archive.
  7. ^ab"Kaesŏng | North Korea | Britannica".
  8. ^"Bae, sae 'chianchongsu'e gimjeongho…" Gaeseongsi, teugbyeolsilo seung-gyeog ""Bắc, 새 '치안총수'에 김정호… "개성시, 특별시로 승격".Yonhap News Agency.13 February 2020.Retrieved5 April2020.
  9. ^abc개성직할시 자연환경 (Nature of Kaesong)(in Korean).Nate/Britannica.Archived fromthe originalon 10 June 2011.
  10. ^"30 years report of Meteorological Observations in North Korea (1991 ~ 2020)"(PDF)(in Korean). Korea Meteorological Administration. pp. 224, 336, and 345.Archived(PDF)from the original on 29 January 2022.Retrieved23 March2022.
  11. ^개성시( khai thành thị ) – KAESONGSI.JoongAng Ilbo(in Korean).
  12. ^"고려동개요".cybernk.
  13. ^"해운동개요".cybernk.
  14. ^"자남동개요".cybernk.
  15. ^"관훈동개요".cybernk.
  16. ^"만월동개요".cybernk.
  17. ^"내성동개요".cybernk.
  18. ^"남안동개요".cybernk.
  19. ^"남문동개요".cybernk.
  20. ^"북안동개요".cybernk.
  21. ^"Historic Monuments and Sites in Kaesong".UNESCO.Retrieved16 February2020.
  22. ^ab향토음식 hương thổ ẩm thực[Hyangto eumsik] (in Korean).Nate/Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.Archived fromthe originalon 10 June 2011.
  23. ^편수 (Pyeonsu)Archived10 June 2011 at theWayback Machine(in Korean) Nate / Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
  24. ^닮은 듯 색다른 매력을 간직한 북한의 음식 문화(in Korean). Korea Knowledge Portal. 19 June 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 9 October 2011.
  25. ^ab개성직할시 산업과 교통 (Industry and transport of Kaesong)(in Korean).Nate/Britannica.Archived fromthe originalon 10 June 2011.
  26. ^abChoe Sang-Hun (27 March 2013)."North Korea Shuts Last Military Hot Lines to South".The New York Times.Retrieved27 March2013.
  27. ^abChoe Sang-Hun and Gerry Mullany (30 March 2013)."North Korea Threatens to Close Factory It Runs With South".The New York Times.Retrieved30 March2013.
  28. ^Alastair Gale and Jeyup S. Kwaak (26 April 2013)."Seoul to Pull Workers out of North Korea".The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved26 April2013.
  29. ^개성직할시 교육과 문화 (Education and Culture of Kaesong)Archived10 June 2011 at theWayback Machine(in Korean) Nate / Britannica
  30. ^"Cities that almost had Trolleys".www.sfu.ca.Retrieved22 February2021.
  31. ^"Ciudades Hermanas"[Sister Cities] (in Spanish). Municipalidad del Cusco. Archived fromthe originalon 3 August 2009.Retrieved23 September2009.
  32. ^:: 모바일 서울대학교병원::.m.snuh.org.Archived fromthe originalon 26 September 2017.Retrieved27 December2015.

Sources

[edit]
  • "Corea",Encyclopædia Britannica,vol. VI (9th ed.), New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1878, pp. 390–394.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Dormels, Rainer. North Korea's Cities: Industrial facilities, internal structures and typification. Jimoondang, 2014.ISBN978-89-6297-167-5
[edit]
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Preceded by
 Capital of Korea
919–1394 		Succeeded by
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