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Maghreb

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This article is about the North African subregion. For Islamic evening prayer, seeMaghrib prayer.
Not to be confused withMashriq.

Maghreb
المغرب
Countries and territories
Major regional organizationsAfrican Union,Arab League,Arab Maghreb Union,Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa,Community of Sahel–Saharan States,Union for the Mediterranean
Population105,095,436 (2021*)[3]
Population density16.72/km2
Area6,045,741 km2(2,334,274 sq mi)
GDP PPP$1.299 trillion (2020)
GDP PPP per capita$12,628 (2020)
GDP nominal$382.780 billion (2020)
GDP nominal per capita$3,720 (2020)
Languages
ReligionSunni Islam,Christianity,andJudaism

TheMaghreb(/ˈmɑːɡrəb/;[4]Arabic:ْاَلْمَغْرِب,romanized:al-Maghrib,lit. 'the west'[ælˈmaɣrɪb]ⓘ), also known as theArab Maghreb(Arabic:اَلْمَغْرِبُ الْعَرَبِيُّ,romanized:al-Maghrib al-ʿArabi,lit. 'the Arab west') andNorthwest Africa,[5]is the western part of theArab world.The region comprises western and centralNorth Africa,includingAlgeria,Libya,Mauritania,Morocco,andTunisia.The Maghreb also includes thedisputed territoryofWestern Sahara.[note 1]As of 2018, the region had a population of over 100 million people.

The Maghreb is usually defined as encompassing much of the northern part of Africa, including a large portion of theSahara Desert,but excludingEgyptand theSudan,which are considered to be located in theMashriq— the eastern part of the Arab world. The traditional definition of the Maghreb — which restricted its scope to theAtlas Mountainsand the coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya — was expanded in modern times to include Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara. During the era ofal-Andaluson theIberian Peninsula(711–1492), the Maghreb's inhabitants — the MuslimMaghrebis— were known by Europeans as the "Moors".[6]TheGreeksreferred to the region as the "Land of the Atlas", referring to its Atlas Mountains.[7]

Before the establishment of modern nation states in the region during the 20th century, theMaghrebmost commonly referred to a smaller area, between theMediterranean Seaand the Atlas Mountains in the south. It often also included the territory of eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century, the term "Maghreb" was used to refer to the western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in particular.[8]

During the rule of theBerberkingdom ofNumidia,the region was somewhat unified as an independent political entity. This period was followed by one of theRoman Empire's rule or influence. The GermanicVandalsinvaded after that, followed by the equally brief re-establishment of a weak Roman rule by theByzantine Empire.The Islamiccaliphatescame to power under theUmayyad Caliphate,theAbbasid Caliphateand theFatimid Caliphate.The most enduring rule was that of the localArabempires of theAghlabids,Idrisids,Salihids,Sulaymanids,Umayyads of Cordoba,Hammudids,Nasrids,Saadians,Alawitesand theSennusids,as well as the Berber empires of theIfranids,Almoravids,Almohads,Hammadids,Zirids,Marinids,Zayyanids,HafsidsandWattasids,extending from the 8th to 13th centuries. TheOttoman Empirealso controlled parts of the region for a period.

Centuries ofArab migration to the Maghrebsince the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region was ruled by European powers: France (Algeria,Tunisia,Mauritania andmost of Morocco), Spain (northern Moroccoand Western Sahara), and Italy (Libya). Italy was expelled from North Africa by the Allies inWorld War II.Decolonizationof the region continued in the decades thereafter, with violent conflicts such as theAlgerian War,theIfni Warand theWestern Sahara War.

Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia established theArab Maghreb Unionin 1989 to promote cooperation andeconomic integrationin acommon market.The union implicitly included Western Sahara under Morocco's membership.[9]However, this progress was short-lived, and the union is now largely dormant. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco over Western Sahara re-emerged, reinforced by the unresolvedborder disputebetween the two countries. These two conflicts have hindered progress on the union's joint goals.[10]

Terminology

[edit]

The toponymmaghrib(Arabic:مغرب) is anArabicterm that the first Muslim Arab settlers gave to therecently conquered areasituated west of theUmayyadcapital ofDamascusin the 7th century AD.[11]The term was used to refer to the region extending fromAlexandriain the east to theAtlantic Oceanin the west.[12]Etymologically, it means both "the western place/land" and "the place where the sun sets", in contrast to theMashriq,theFertile Crescentand eastern part of the Arab world.[13]InAḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Ma'rifat al-Aqālīm(c. 985 AD), medieval Arab geographerAl-Maqdisiused the termArab regions(Arabic:أَقَالِيمُ ٱلْعَرَبِ) to refer to the lands ofArabia,Iraq,Upper Mesopotamia,Egyptand the Maghreb.[14]This constituted the earliest documented differentiation between the terms Maghreb and Gharb (Muslim lands west of theAbbasidcapital,Baghdad). The former referred to the present-day Maghreb whereas the latter incorporated the Levant and Egypt in addition to the Maghreb.[11]

Medieval Muslim historians and geographers divided the Maghreb region into three areas:al-Maghrib al-Adna(the near Maghrib; also known asIfriqiya), which included the lands extending fromAlexandriato Tarabulus (modern-dayTripoli) in the west;al-Maghrib al-Awsat(the middle Maghrib), which extended from Tripoli to Bijaya (Béjaïa); andal-Maghrib al-Aqsa(the far Maghrib), which extended from Tahart (Tiaret) to the Atlantic Ocean.[12]Historians and geographers disagreed, however, over the definition of the eastern boundary. Some authors place it at the sea of Kulzum (theRed Sea) and thus includeEgyptand Barqa (Cyrenaica) in the Maghreb.Ibn Khaldundoes not accept this definition because, he says, the inhabitants of the Maghreb do not consider Egypt and Barqa as forming part of Maghrib. The latter commences only at the province ofTripoliand includes the districts of which the country of the Berbers was composed in former times. Later Maghribi writers repeated the definition of Ibn Khaldun, with a few variations in details.[15]

The term Maghrib is used in opposition toMashriqin a sense near to that which it had in medieval times, but it also denotes simplyMoroccowhen the fullal-Maghrib al-Aqsais abbreviated. Certain politicians seek a political union of the North African countries, which they callal-Maghrib al-Kabir(the grand Maghrib) oral-Maghrib al-Arabi(the Arab Maghrib).[15][16]

History

[edit]
Further information:History of North Africa
Maghreb head ornament (Morocco)

Prehistory

[edit]
Main article:Prehistoric North Africa

Some 9,000 years ago, Earth's tilt was 24.14 degrees, as compared with the current 23.45 degrees. Around 3,500 BC, these changes in the tilt of theEarth's orbitappear to have caused a rapiddesertificationof theSahararegion[17]forming a natural barrier that severely limited contact between the Maghreb andsub-Saharan Africa.TheBerber peoplehave inhabited western North Africa since at least 10,000 BC.[18]

Antiquity

[edit]
Main articles:North Africa during classical antiquityandAncient Carthage
Romantriremeon a mosaic in theBardo Museum,Tunisia

Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains (stretching from present-day Morocco to present-day Tunisia) and by the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Maghreb have long had commercial and cultural ties across the Mediterranean Sea to the inhabitants of the regions ofSouthern EuropeandWestern Asia.These trade relations date back at least to thePhoeniciansin the 1st millennium BC. (According to tradition, the Phoenicians founded their colony ofCarthage(in present-day Tunisia)c. 800 BC).

Phoenicians and Carthaginians arrived for trade. The main Berber and Phoenician settlements centered in theGulf of Tunis(Carthage,Utica, Tunisia) along the North Africanlittoral,between thePillars of Herculesand the Libyan coast east of ancientCyrenaica.They dominated the trade and intercourse of theWestern Mediterraneanfor centuries.Rome's defeat of Carthage in thePunic Wars(264 to 146 BC) enabled Rome to establish theProvince of Africa(146 BC) and to control many of these ports. Rome eventually took control of the entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains. Rome was greatly helped by the defection ofMassinissa(later King of Numidia,r. 202 – 148 BC) and of Carthage's eastern NumidianMassyliiclient-allies. Some of the most mountainous regions, such as the MoroccanRif,remained outsideRomancontrol. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent.[19][20][21][22]The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.[23][24]

The pressure put on theWestern Roman Empireby theBarbarian invasions(notably by theVandalsandVisigothsin Iberia) in the 5th century AD reduced Roman control and led to the establishment of theVandal Kingdomof North Africa in 430 A.D., with its capital at Carthage. A century later, theByzantineemperorJustinian Isent (533) a force under GeneralBelisariusthatsucceeded in destroyingthe Vandal Kingdom in 534.Byzantine rulelasted for 150 years. The Berbers contested the extent of Byzantine control.[25]

After theadvent of Islamin Mediterranean Africa in the period from 639 to 700 AD,Arabstook control of the entire Maghreb region.[26]

Middle Ages

[edit]
Main articles:Ifriqiya,Umayyad Caliphate,Abbasid Caliphate,Idrisid dynasty,Almoravid dynasty,Kingdom of Africa,Almohad Caliphate,Hafsid dynasty,Marinid dynasty,Ziyyanid dynasty,andWattasid dynasty
TheGreat Mosque of Kairouan,founded by the Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi (in 670), is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb city ofKairouan,Tunisia.[27]

The Arabs reached the Maghreb in earlyUmayyadtimes in the 7th century, and from then theArab migration to the Maghrebbegan. Islamic Berber kingdoms such as theAlmohadsexpansion and the spread ofIslamcontributed to the development oftrans-Saharan trade.In addition, several Arab dynasties formed in the Maghreb region, such as theIdrisids,Aghlabids,Sulaymanidsand more. While restricted due to the cost and dangers, the trade was highly profitable. Commodities traded included such goods as salt, gold, ivory, andslaves.Various Islamic variations, such as theIbadisand theShia,were adopted by some Berbers, often leading to scorning ofCaliphalcontrol in favour of their own interpretation of Islam.

The invasion of theBanu HilalandBanu SulaymArabs in the 11th century played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near theSahara.[28]It also heavily transformed the culture in the Maghreb intoArab culture,and spreadBedouinnomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.[29]These Bedouin tribes accelerated and deepened the Arabization process, since the Berber population was graduallyassimilatedby the newcomers and had to share with them pastures and seasonal migration paths. By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized.[30]As Arab nomads spread, the territories of the local Berber tribes were moved and shrank. TheZenatawere pushed to the west and theKabyleswere pushed to the north. The Berbers took refuge in the mountains whereas the plains were Arabized.[31]These Arabs had been set upon the Berbers by theFatimidsin punishment for theirZiridformer Berber clients who defected and abandonedShiismin the 11th century. Throughout this period, the Maghreb most often was divided into three states, roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria andTunisia.The Maghreb region was occasionally briefly unified, as under theAlmohad Caliphate,Fatimidsand briefly under theZirids.TheHammadidsalso managed to conquer land in all countries in the Maghreb region.[32][33][34]

Early modern history

[edit]
Main articles:Barbary Coast,Saadi dynasty,Alaouite dynasty,Kingdom of Ait Abbas,Kingdom of Kuku,Ottoman Algeria,Ottoman Tunisia,andOttoman Tripolitania
1707 map of Northwest Africa byGuillaume Delisle,including the Maghreb. After the Middle Ages, theOttoman Empireloosely controlled the area east of Morocco.

Modern history

[edit]
Further information:Spanish Morocco,Spanish Sahara,French protectorate of Morocco,French Algeria,French Protectorate of Tunisia,andItalian Libya
Further information:Military operations in North Africa during World War I,North African campaign,andWestern Desert campaign
Further information:Western Sahara War,Algerian War of Independence,History of Algeria since 1962,History of modern Tunisia,Kingdom of Libya,andLibya under Gaddafi

After the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized byFrance,Spain,and laterItaly.

Today, more than two and a half million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, many from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, as of 1999 there were 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (defined as having at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco, or Tunisia).[35]A 2003 estimate suggests six million French residents were ethnic Maghrebi.[36][37]

Population

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Main article:Maghrebis
Algiers,Algeria
Casablanca,Morocco
People of Maghreb

Ethnic groups

[edit]

The Maghreb is primarily inhabited by peoples ofArabandBerbermixed ancestral origin. Arabs inhabitAlgeria(70%[38]to 80%[39]),Libya(97%[40]),Morocco(67%[41]), andTunisia(98%[42]). Berbers inhabitAlgeria(20%[39]),Libya(10%[43]),Morocco(35%[44]), andTunisia(1%[45]). Ethnic French, Spanish, West African, and Sephardic Jewish populations also inhabit the region. Centuries ofArabizationandArab migration to the Maghrebsince the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs.

Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In northern coastal towns, in particular, several waves of European immigrants influenced the population in the Medieval era. Most notable were themoriscosandmuladies,that is, the indigenousSpaniards(Moors) who were forcibly converted to Catholicism and later expelled, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, during theSpanish Catholic Reconquista.Other European contributions included French, Italian, and English crews and passengers taken captive bycorsairs.In some cases, they were returned to families after being ransomed; in others, they were used as slaves or assimilated and adopted into tribes.[46]

Historically, the Maghreb was home to significant historicJewishcommunities calledMaghrebim,who predated the 7th-century introduction and conversion of the region to Islam. The earliest recorded Jewish settlement in the region dates back to the third century BCE underPtolemaic rulein what is now Libya,[47]although Jewish presence may have begun even earlier. Jewish communities continued to develop throughout the Roman period in present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, with evidence of their existence during the early centuries CE.[48]During the early Muslim era, Jews flourished in major urban centers such as Kairouan, Fez, and Tunis, despite facing intermittent persecution, notably under theAlmohads.[49]The influx ofSephardic Jewsfrom Spain and Portugal, fleeing pogroms, forced conversions and expulsions in the 14th to 16th centuries, further augmented the Jewish presence in North Africa.[50]

Another significant group is Turks, who migrated with the expansion of theOttoman Empire.

Africans from south of the Sahara joined the population mix during centuries oftrans-Saharan trade.Traders and slaves went to the Maghreb from theSahelregion. On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are small communities of black populations, sometimes calledHaratine.

In Algeria especially, a large European minority, known as the "pied noirs",immigrated to the region, settling under French colonial rule in the late 19th century.[51]As of the last census in French-ruled Algeria, taken on 1 June 1960, there were 1,050,000 non-Muslim civilians (mostlyCatholic,but including 130,000Algerian Jews) in Algeria, 10 per cent of the population.[52]They established farms and businesses. The overwhelming majority of these, however, left Algeria during and following the war for independence.[53]

In comparison to the population of France, the Maghrebi population was one-eighth of France's population in 1800, one-quarter in 1900, and equal in 2000. The Maghreb is home to 1% of the global population as of 2010.[54]

Genetics

[edit]
Further information:Genetic history of North Africa

The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be modulated chiefly by geography. The Y-DNA HaplogroupsE1b1bandJmake up the vast majority of the genetic markers of the populations of the Maghreb.Haplogroup E1b1bis the most frequent among Maghrebi groups, especially the downstream lineage ofE1b1b1b1a,which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa.Haplogroup J1is the second most frequent among Maghrebi groups and is more indicative ofMiddle Eastorigins, and has its highest distribution among populations in Arabia and the Levant. Due to the distribution ofE-M81(E1b1b1b1a), which has reached its highest documented levels in the world at 95–100% in some populations of the Maghreb, it has often been termed the "Berber marker" in the scientific literature.[citation needed]The second most common marker,Haplogroup J,especiallyJ1,[55][56]which is typically Middle Eastern and originates in the Arabian peninsula, can reach frequencies of up to 35% in the region.[57][58]Its highest density is found in theArabian Peninsula.[58]Haplogroup R1,[59]a Eurasian marker, has also been observed in the Maghreb, though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arabic speakers and Berber-speakers.

Haplogroup E

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Haplogroup Eis thought to have emerged in prehistoric North Africa or East Africa,[60]and would have later dispersed into West Asia. The major subclades of haplogroup E found amongst Berbers belong toE-Z827,which is believed to have emerged in North Africa. Common subclades include E1b1b1a, E1b1b1b and E1b1b1*.E1b1b1bis distributed along a west-to-east cline with frequencies that can reach as high as 100 percent in Northwest Africa.E1b1b1ahas been observed at low to moderate frequencies among Berber populations with significantly higher frequencies observed in Northeast Africa relative to Northwest Africa.[56][61][62]Loosdrecht et al. 2018 demonstrated that E1b1b is most likely indigenous toNorth Africaand migrated fromNorth Africato theNear Eastduring thePaleolithic.[63]

Haplogroup J1

[edit]
Distribution of Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup J-M267is another very common haplogroup in the Maghreb, being the second most-frequent haplogroup in the Maghreb.[64]It originated in theMiddle East,and its highest frequency of 30%–62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East.[64]A study found out that the majority of J1 (Eu10) chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by theArab migrations to the Maghrebin the first millennium CE. The J-M267 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from earlyNeolithicdispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions ofArabtribes from theArabian Peninsula,during which both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs added to the heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot.[64]A study from 2017 suggested that these Arab migrations were a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies.[65]

Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with theMiddle East,and to a lesser extentsub-Saharan AfricaandEurope.The recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb increased genetic similarities between Maghrebis and Middle Easterners.[66]Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of Maghrebis and has spread from the Arabian Peninsula, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of Maghrebis. A study from 2021 has shown that the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in the Arabs ofWesletiainTunisia,who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%.[67]According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians and 34.2% in Tunisians.[56]

Table

[edit]

The MaghrebY chromosomepool (including both Arab and Berber populations) may be summarized for most of the populations as follows, where only two haplogroupsE1b1bandJcomprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes:[68][64][56][69][60][59][70][71]

Haplogroup Marker Sahara/Mauritania Morocco Algeria Tunisia Libya
n 189 760 156 601 –
A – 0.26 – – –
B 0.53 0.66 – 0.17 –
C – – – – –
DE – – – – –
E1a M33 5.29 2.76 0.64 0.5 –
E1b1a M2 6.88 3.29 5.13 0.67 –
E1b1b1 M35 – 4.21 0.64 1.66 –
E1b1b1a M78 – 0.79 1.92 – –
E1b1b1a1 V12 – 0.26 0.64 – –
E1b1b1a1b V32 – – – – –
E1b1b1a2 V13 – 0.26 0.64 – –
E1b1b1a3 V22 – 1.84 1.28 3 –
E1b1b1a4 V65 – 3.68 1.92 3.16 –
E1b1b1b M81 65.56 67.37 64.23 72.73 –
E1b1b1c M34 11.11 0.66 1.28 1.16 –
F M89 – 0.26 3.85 2.66 –
G M201 – 0.66 – 0.17 –
H M69 – – – – –
I – 0.13 – 0.17 –
J1 3.23 6.32 1.79 6.64 –
J2 – 1.32 4.49 2.83 –
K – 0.53 0.64 0.33 –
L – – – – –
N – – – – –
O – – – – –
P, R – 0.26 – 0.33 –
Q – – 0.64 – –
R1a1 – – 0.64 0.5 –
R1b M343 – – – – –
R1b1a V88 6.88 0.92 2.56 1.83 –
R1b1b M269 0.53 3.55 7.04 0.33 –
R2 – – – – –
T M70 – – – 1.16 –

Religion

[edit]
ThemausoleumofMadghacen

The original religions of the peoples of the Maghreb seem[72]to have been based in and related to fertility cults of a strongmatriarchal pantheon.This theory is based on the social and linguistic structures of theAmazighcultures that antedated all Egyptian and eastern Asian, northern Mediterranean, and European influences.

Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in the Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century of the common era, the area had become a center of Phoenician-speaking Christianity. Its bishops spoke and wrote inPunic,and EmperorSeptimius Severuswas noted by his local accent. Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. Carthage subsequently exercised informalprimacyas anarchdiocese,being the most important center ofChristianityin the whole ofRoman Africa,corresponding to most of today's Mediterranean coast and inland ofNorthern Africa.[73]The region produced figures such as Christian church writerTertullian(c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian martyrs or leading figures such asPerpetua, and Felicity(martyrs, c. 200 CE);St. Cyprian of Carthage(+ 258);St. Monica;her son the philosopherSt. Augustine,Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); andSt. Julia of Carthage(5th century).DonatistChristianity mainly spread among the indigenousBerberpopulation,[74]and from the late fifth and early sixth century, the region included severalChristian Berberkingdoms.[75]

Islam

[edit]
al-Qarawiyyin Mosque

Islamarrived in 647 and challenged the domination of Christianity. The first permanent foothold of Islam was the founding in 667 of the city ofKairouan,in present-dayTunisia.Carthagefell to Muslims in 698 and the remainder of the region fell by 709. Islamization proceeded slowly.

From the end of the 7th century, over a period of more than 400 years, the region's peoples converted to Islam. Many left during this time for Italy, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 12th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Although there were numerous conversions after the conquest, Muslims did not become a majority until some time late in the 9th century. During the 10th century, Islam became by far the dominant religion in the region.[76]Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active and continued their relations with the Christian Church of Rome. As late as the reign of PopeBenedict VII(974–983), a newArchbishop of Carthagewas consecrated. From the 10th century, Christianity declined in the region.[77]By the end of the 11th century, only two bishops were left in Carthage andHippo Regius.Pope Gregory VII(1073–85) consecrated a new bishop for Hippo. Christianity seems to have suffered several shocks that led to its demise. First, many upper-class, urban-dwelling, Latin-speaking Christians left for Europe after the Muslim conquest. The second major influence was the large-scale conversions to Islam from the end of the 9th century. Many Christians of a much reduced community departed in the mid-11th century, and remnants were evacuated in the 12th by the Norman rulers of Sicily. The Latin-African language lingered a while longer.

There was a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow theSunniMalikischool. SmallIbadicommunities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of veneratingmaraboutsand saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. This practice was also common among the Jews of the region. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of "Sidi"s, showing places named after the marabouts. This tradition has declined through the 20th century. A network ofzaouiastraditionally helped teach basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.

Christianity

[edit]
See also:Christianity in the Roman Africa province
ChristianBerberfamily fromKabylia

Communities of Christians, mostlyCatholicsandProtestant,persist inAlgeria(100,000–380,000),[78]Mauritania(10,000),[79][80]Morocco(~380,000),[81]Libya(170,000), andTunisia(100,750).[82]Most of the Roman Catholics in Greater Maghreb are of French, Spanish, and Italian descent, with ancestors who immigrated during the colonial era. Some are foreign missionaries or immigrant workers. There are also Christian communities ofBerber or Arab descentin Greater Maghreb,[83]made up of persons who converted mostly during the modern era, or under and afterFrench colonialism.[84][85]

Prior to independence,Algeriawas home to 1.4 millionpieds-noirs(ethnic French who were mostly Catholic),[52][83]and Morocco was home to half a millionEuropeans,[83][86]Tunisiawas home to 255,000Europeans,[83][87]andLibyawas home to 145,000Europeans.[83]In religion, most of thepieds-noirsin Maghreb are Catholic. Due to the exodus of thepieds-noirsin the 1960s, more North African Christians of Berber or Arab descent now live inFrancethan in Greater Maghreb. Prior to independence, the European Catholic settlers had historic legacy and powerful presence in Maghreb countries.[83]

Recently, the Protestant community of Berber or Arab descent has grown significantly as additional individualsconvert to Christianity,especially toEvangelicalism.This has occurred in Algeria,[88]especially in theKabylie,[89]Morocco,[90][91]and in Tunisia.[92]The Catholic population in Libya is estimated to number 100,000, The Catholics are the largest Christian denomination, followed byc.60,000Coptsand a small number of Anglicans.[93]

A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted toChristianity in Algeria.[94]The number ofMoroccanswho converted to Christianity (most of them secret worshipers) are estimated between 40,000[95]-150,000.[96][97]The International Religious Freedom Report for 2007 estimates thousands ofTunisianMuslims have converted to Christianity.[92]A 2015 study estimate some 1,500 believers in Christ from a Muslim background living in Libya.[94]

In 2019, the proportion ofMelillansthat identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 65.0%,[98]the Roman Catholic churches in Melilla belong to theDiocese of Málaga.[99]Roman Catholicismis the largest religion inCeuta,in 2019, the proportion of Ceutans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 60.0%.[100]The Roman Catholic churches in Ceuta belong to theDiocese of Cádiz y Ceuta.

Jewish presence

[edit]
See also:Maghrebi Jews

The earliest documented Jewish presence in the Maghreb dates to the third century BCE, with Jews being settled ineastern Libyaby thePtolemaicrulers of Egypt.[47]During theRoman Empire,Jewish communities expanded across the Maghreb, with archaeological evidence, including synagogues and inscriptions, indicating their presence in what are now Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco from the early centuries CE.[48]Under early Muslim rule, Jews flourished in major urban centers such as Kairouan, Fez, and Tunis, with the Jewish community in Kairouan particularly noted for its significant intellectual and cultural contributions. However, Jews also encountered periods of persecution, particularly under theAlmohad Caliphate(12th–13th centuries), which imposed severe restrictions on non-Muslims.[49]In the 14th to 16th centuries, the Maghreb experienced an influx of Jews fleeing from Spain and Portugal due to growing persecution and theSpanish Inquisition.Following theexpulsion of Jews from Spainin 1492 and theforced mass conversions in Portugalin 1497, manySephardic Jewssettled in North Africa, establishing new communities and integrating with the existing Jewish populations.[50]

In the 10th century, as the social and political environment inBaghdadbecame increasingly hostile to Jews, some Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especiallyKairouan,Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribi, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean world. They passed this identification on from father to son. Their tight-knit pan-Maghreb community had the ability to use social sanctions as a credible alternative to legal recourse, which was weak at the time anyway. This unique institutional alternative permitted the Maghribis to very successfully participate in the Mediterranean trade.[101]This facilitated contacts between the Maghrebi and European Jewish communities, particularly in trade in the pre-colonial period. The most important points of contact were Livorno in Italy with its harbour frequented by Tunisian merchants and Marseille in France with its counterpart, the harbour for Algeria and Morocco. The Maghreb region produced spices and leather, from shoes to handbags. As many of the Maghrebi Jews were craftsmen and merchants, they had contact with their European customers.[102]Today, among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.[103][104]

Geography

[edit]

Ecoregions

[edit]

The Maghreb is divided into aMediterranean climateregion in the north, and thearidSaharain the south. The Maghreb's variations in elevation, rainfall, temperature, and soils give rise to distinct communities of plants and animals. TheWorld Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) identifies several distinctecoregionsin the Maghreb.

Mediterranean Maghreb

[edit]
Dwarf fan palm,grown in Maghrebi countries

The portions of the Maghreb between theAtlas Mountainsand theMediterranean Sea,along with coastalTripolitaniaandCyrenaicain Libya, are home toMediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub.These ecoregions share many species of plants and animals with other portions ofMediterranean Basin.The southern extent of the Mediterranean Maghreb corresponds with the 100 mm (3.9 in)isohyet,or the southern range of theEuropean Olive(Olea europea)[105]andEsparto Grass(Stipa tenacissima).[106]

Saharan Maghreb

[edit]

The Sahara extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Its central part is hyper-arid and supports little plant or animal life, but the northern portion of the desert receives occasional winter rains, while the strip along the Atlantic coast receives moisture from marine fog, which nourishes a greater variety of plants and animals. The northern edge of the Sahara corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet, which is also the northern range of thedate palm(Phoenix dactylifera).[106]

Culture

[edit]
Further information:Culture of Morocco,Culture of Algeria,Culture of Tunisia,andCulture of Libya
Cuscus

The countries of the Maghreb share many cultural similarities and traditions. Among these is a culinary tradition thatHabib Bourguibadefined as Western Arab, where bread orcouscousare the staple foods, as opposed to Eastern Arab, where bread, crushed wheat orwhite riceare the staple foods.[citation needed]In terms of food, some similarities beyond the starches are found throughout the Arab world.

Among other cultural and artistic traditions,jewellery of the Berber culturesworn byAmazighwomen and made of silver,[111]beads and other applications was a common trait of Berber identities in large areas of the Maghreb up to the second half of the 20th century.[112]

In 2020,couscouswas added toUNESCO'sIntangible Cultural Heritage list.[113]

Economy

[edit]

Maghreb countries by GDP (PPP)

[edit]
List by theInternational Monetary Fund(2013) List by theWorld Bank(2013) List by theCIA World Factbook(2013)
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
44 Algeria 285,541
58 Morocco 179,240
70 Tunisia 108,430
81 Libya 70,386
148 Mauritania 8,241
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
34 Algeria 421,626
55 Morocco 241,757
70 Libya 132,695
75 Tunisia 120,755
143 Mauritania 11,835
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
45 Algeria 284,700
58 Morocco 180,000
68 Tunisia 108,400
81 Libya 73,600
151 Mauritania 8,204
List by theInternational Monetary Fund(2019) List by theWorld Bank(2017) List by theCIA World Factbook(2017)
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
35 Algeria 681,396
54 Morocco 328,651
76 Tunisia 149,190
101 Libya 61,559
143 Mauritania 19,811
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
35 Algeria 631,150
55 Morocco 298,230
76 Tunisia 137,358
78 Libya 125,142
143 Mauritania 17,458
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
35 Algeria 629,300
55 Morocco 300,100
76 Tunisia 135,900
102 Libya 63,140
148 Mauritania 17,370

Medieval regions

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^abAdisputed territorywithundetermined political status.[1]FormerlySpanish Saharaup to 1976, administration is currently split betweenMoroccoand theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic,both of which claim theentire territory.The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic's administrative control is limited to approximately30% of the territory,with the remaining70% of the territoryoccupied by Morocco.[2]TheUnited Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Saharais theUnited Nations peacekeepingmission to the territory (seeWestern Sahara conflict).

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