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Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

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Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
White bust
Bust of Agrippa in theLouvre,Paris,ca. 25–24 BC.
Bornc. 63BC[1]
Uncertain location, possiblyArpino,IstriaorAsisium,[2]Roman Republic
Died12 BC (aged 50–51)
Campania,Roman Italy,Roman Empire
Resting placeMausoleum of Augustus
Occupation(s)Military commander, politician
Notable workPantheon(original)
OfficeConsul(37, 28–27 BC)
Spouses
Children
List
Familygens Vipsania
Military service
AllegianceAugustus
Years of service45–12 BC
Battles/wars

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa[a](/əˈɡrɪpə/;c. 63BC[1]– 12 BC) was a Roman general, statesman and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law and lieutenant to theRoman emperorAugustus.[3]Agrippa is well known for his important military victories, notably theBattle of Actiumin 31 BC against the forces ofMark AntonyandCleopatra.He was also responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings of his era, including the originalPantheon.

Born to aplebeianfamilyc. 63 BC,in an uncertain location inRoman Italy,he met the future emperor Augustus, then known as Octavian, atApollonia,inIllyria.Following theassassinationof Octavian's great-uncleJulius Caesarin 44 BC, Octavian returned to Italy. Around this time, Agrippa was electedtribune of the plebs.He served as a military commander, fighting alongside Octavian and Caesar's former general and right-hand manMark Antonyin theBattle of Philippi.In 40 BC, he waspraetor urbanusand played a major role in thePerusine waragainstLucius Antoniusand Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony. In 39 or 38 BC, Agrippa was appointed governor ofTransalpine Gaul.In 38 BC, he put down a rising of theAquitaniansand fought the Germanic tribes. He was consul for 37 BC, well below the usual minimum age of 43, to oversee the preparations forwarfareagainstSextus Pompey,who had cut off grain shipments to Rome.

Agrippa defeated Pompey in the battles ofMylaeandNaulochusin 36 BC. In 33 BC, he served ascurule aedile.Agrippa commanded the victorious Octavian's fleet at theBattle of Actiumin 31 BC. Following the victory at Actium, Octavian became emperor and took the title of Princeps, while Agrippa remained as his close friend and lieutenant. Agrippa assisted Augustus in making Rome "a city of marble". Agrippa renovatedaqueductsto provide Roman citizens from every social class access to the highest quality public services, and was responsible for the creation of many baths,porticoes,and gardens. He was also awarded powers almost as great as those of Augustus. He hadvetopower over the acts of theSenateand the power to present laws for approval by the People. He died in 12 BC at the age of 50–51. Augustus honored his memory with a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. His remains were placed in Augustus' ownmausoleum.

Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography. Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's design of having a complete survey of the empire made was accomplished. From the materials at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sisterVipsania Polla.Agrippa was also husband toJulia the Elder(who had later married the second EmperorTiberius), and was the maternal grandfather ofCaligulaand the maternal great-grandfather of the EmperorNero.

Early life, family, and early career[edit]

Early life and family[edit]

Agrippa was bornc. 63 BC,[1][4]in an uncertain location.[2]His father was calledLucius Vipsanius.[5]His mother's name is not known andPliny the Elderclaimed that hiscognomen"Agrippa"derived from him having beenborn breech[6]so it is possible that she died in childbirth.[7]Pliny also stated that he suffered from lameness as a child.[8]He had an elder brother whose name was alsoLucius Vipsanius,and a sister namedVipsania Polla.His family originated in the Italian countryside, and was of humble and plebeian origins. They had not been prominent in Roman public life.[9]According to some scholars, includingVictor Gardthausen,R. E. A. Palmer,andDavid Ridgway,Agrippa's family was originally fromPisainEtruria.[10][11]

Early career[edit]

Agrippa was the same age as Octavian (the future emperorAugustus), and the two were educated together and became close friends. Despite Agrippa's association with the family ofJulius Caesar,his elder brother chose another side in thecivil warsof the 40s BC, fighting underCatoagainst Caesarin Africa.When Cato's forces were defeated, Agrippa's brother was taken prisoner but freed after Octavian interceded on his behalf.[12]

It is not known whether Agrippa fought against his brother in Africa, but he probably served in Caesar's campaign of 46 to 45 BC againstGnaeus Pompeius,which culminated in theBattle of Munda.[13]Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavius in 45 BC to study inApollonia(on theIllyriancoast) with theMacedonianlegions,while Caesar consolidated his power in Rome.[14]In the fourth month of their stay in Apollonia the news of Julius Caesar's assassination in March 44 BC reached them. Agrippa and another friend,Quintus Salvidienus Rufus,advised Octavius to march on Rome with the troops from Macedonia, but Octavius decided to sail to Italy with a small retinue. After his arrival, he learned that Caesar had adopted him as his legal heir.[15]Octavius at this time took Caesar's name, but modern historians refer to him as "Octavian" during this period.

Rise to power[edit]

Friend to Octavian[edit]

After Octavian's return to Rome, he and his supporters realised they needed the support of legions. Agrippa helped Octavian to levy troops inCampania.[16]Once Octavian had his legions, he made a pact withMark AntonyandLepidus,legally established in 43 BC as theSecond Triumvirate.Octavian and his consular colleagueQuintus Pediusarranged for Caesar's assassins to be prosecutedin their absence,and Agrippa was entrusted with the case againstGaius Cassius Longinus.[17]It may have been in the same year that Agrippa began his political career, holding the position oftribune of the plebs,which granted him entry to theSenate.[18]

In 42 BC, Agrippa probably fought alongside Octavian and Antony in theBattle of Philippi.[19]After their return to Rome, he played a major role in Octavian's war againstLucius AntoniusandFulvia,respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony, which began in 41 BC and ended in the capture ofPerusiain 40 BC. However, Salvidienus remained Octavian's main general at this time.[20]After the Perusine war, Octavian departed forGaul,leaving Agrippa asurban praetorin Rome with instructions to defend Italy againstSextus Pompeius,an opponent of the Triumvirate who was now occupyingSicily.In July 40 BC, while Agrippa was occupied with theLudi Apollinaresthat were the praetor's responsibility, Sextus began a raid in southern Italy. Agrippa advanced on him, forcing him to withdraw.[21]However, the Triumvirate proved unstable, and in August 40 BC both Sextus and Antony invaded Italy (but not in an organized alliance). Agrippa's success in retakingSipontumfrom Antony helped bring an end to the conflict.[22]Agrippa was among the intermediaries through whom Antony and Octavian agreed once more upon peace. During the discussions Octavian learned that Salvidienus had offered to betray him to Antony, with the result that Salvidienus was prosecuted and either executed or committed suicide. Agrippa was now Octavian's leading general.[23]

Governor of Transalpine Gaul[edit]

Bust of Agrippa,Pushkin Museum

In 39 or 38 BC, Octavian appointed Agrippa governor ofTransalpine Gaul,where in 38 BC he put down a rising of theAquitanians.He also fought theGermanic tribes,becoming the next Roman general to cross theRhineafterJulius Caesar.[24]He was summoned back to Rome by Octavian to assume theconsulshipfor 37 BC. He was well below the usual minimum age of 43, but Octavian had suffered a humiliating naval defeat against Sextus Pompey and needed his friend to oversee the preparations for further warfare. Agrippa refused the offer of atriumphfor his exploits in Gaul – on the grounds, saysDio,that he thought it improper to celebrate during a time of trouble for Octavian.[25]

Since Sextus Pompeius had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy, Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for Octavian's ships. He accomplished this by cutting through the strips of land which separated theLacus Lucrinusfrom the sea, thus forming an outer harbour, while joining thelake Avernusto the Lucrinus to serve as an inner harbor.[26]The new harbor-complex was namedPortus Juliusin Octavian's honour.[27]Agrippa was also responsible for technological improvements, including larger ships and an improved form ofgrappling hook.[28]About this time, he marriedCaecilia Pomponia Attica,daughter ofCicero's friendTitus Pomponius Atticus.[29]

War with Sextus Pompeius[edit]

Further information:Bellum Siculum

In 36 BC, Octavian and Agrippa set sail against Sextus. The fleet was badly damaged by storms and had to withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt. Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories atMylaeandNaulochus,destroying all but seventeen of Sextus' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender. Octavian, with his power increased, forced the triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph.[30]Agrippa received the unprecedented honour of acorona navalisdecorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was "a decoration given to nobody before or since".[31]

Public service[edit]

Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34 BC he had returned to Rome.[32]He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of theaqueductknown as theAqua Marciaand an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. He became the firstCurator Aquarumof Rome in 33 BC.[33]Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of theaediles(officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, and lavish public spectacles were held.[34]Agrippa signalled his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing theCloaca Maxima,constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position ofaedile,[35]but Agrippa's success bore out that break with tradition. As emperor, Augustus would later boast that "he had found the city of brick but left it of marble" in part because of the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign.

Battle of Actium[edit]

Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out. He captured the strategically important city ofMethoneat the southwest of thePeloponnese,then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modernCorfu). Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as a naval base.[36]Antony drew up his ships and troops atActium,where Octavian moved to meet him. Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony's supporterQuintus Nasidiusin a naval battle atPatrae.[37]Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encounteredGaius Sosius,one of Antony's lieutenants, who was making a surprise attack on the squadron ofLucius Tarius,a supporter of Octavian. Agrippa's unexpected arrival turned the battle around.[38]

As the decisive battle approached, according to Dio, Octavian received intelligence that Antony and Cleopatra planned to break past his naval blockade and escape. At first he wished to allow the flagships past, arguing that he could overtake them with his lighter vessels and that the other opposing ships would surrender when they saw their leaders' cowardice. Agrippa objected, saying that Antony's ships, although larger, could outrun Octavian's if they hoisted sails, and that Octavian ought to fight now because Antony's fleet had just been struck by storms. Octavian followed his friend's advice.[39]

On 2 September 31 BC, theBattle of Actiumwas fought. Octavian's victory, which gave him the mastery of Rome and the empire, was mainly due to Agrippa.[40]Octavian then bestowed upon him the hand of his nieceClaudia Marcella Majorin 28 BC. He also served a second consulship with Octavian the same year.[41]In 27 BC, Agrippa held a third consulship with Octavian,[41]and in that year, the Senate also bestowed upon Octavian the imperial title ofAugustus.

In commemoration of the Battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the RomanPantheonbefore its destruction in AD 80. EmperorHadrianused Agrippa's design to build his own Pantheon, which survives in Rome. The inscription of the later building, which was builtc. 125,preserves the text of the inscription from Agrippa's building during his third consulship. The years following his third consulship, Agrippa spent in Gaul, reforming the provincial administration and taxation system, along with building aneffective road systemand aqueducts.[citation needed]

Later life[edit]

The theatre atMerida, Spain;it was promoted by Agrippa, built between 16 and 15 BC.

Agrippa's friendship with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of Augustus's nephew and son-in-lawMarcus Claudius Marcellus.[42]Traditionally it is said that the result of such jealousy was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of eastern provinces – a sort of honourable exile. He only sent hislegatetoSyria,while he remained atLesbosand governed by proxy.[42]He might have been on a secret mission to negotiate with theParthiansabout the return of theRoman legions'standards.[43]On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a year of his exile, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could not dispense with his services. If one places the events in the context of the crisis of 23 BC it seems unlikely that, when facing significant opposition and about to make a political climb down, the emperor Augustus would place a man in exile in charge of the largest body of Roman troops. What is far more likely is that Agrippa's 'exile' was actually the careful political positioning of a loyal lieutenant in command of a significant army in case thesettlement plans of 23 BCfailed and Augustus needed military support.[44]

After 23 BC, as part of what became known as Augustus'sSecond Constitutional Settlement,Agrippa's constitutional powers were greatly increased to provide thePrincipate of Augustuswith greater constitutional stability by providing for a political heir or replacement for Augustus if he were to succumb to his habitual ill health or was assassinated. In the course of the year,proconsular imperium,similar to Augustus's power, was conferred upon Agrippa for five years. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus'simperial provinces,east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That was to come later, as was the jealously guardedtribunicia potestas,or powers of a tribune of the plebeians.[45]These great powers of state are not usually heaped upon a former exile. It is said thatMaecenasadvised Augustus to attach Agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son-in-law.[46]In 21 BC, he induced Agrippa to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter,Julia the Elder—the widow of Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty, abilities, and her shameless extravagance.[47]In 19 BC, Agrippa was employed in putting down a rising of theCantabriansinHispania(Cantabrian Wars).[42]

In 18 BC, Agrippa's powers were even further increased to almost match those of Augustus. That year his proconsular imperium was augmented to cover thesenatorial provincesand was grantedtribunicia potestas,or powers of a tribune of the plebeians. As was the case with Augustus, Agrippa's grant of tribunician powers was conferred without his having to hold the office.[48]These powers were considerable, giving him veto power over the acts of the Senate or other magistracies, including those of other tribunes, and the power to present laws for approval by the People. Just as important, a tribune's person was sacred, meaning that any person who harmfully touched them or impeded their actions, including political acts, could lawfully be killed.[49]After the grant of these powers Agrippa was, on paper, almost as powerful as Augustus was; there was no doubt that Augustus was the man in charge.

Agrippa was appointed governor of the eastern provinces a second time in 17 BC, where his just and prudent administration won him the respect and good-will of the provincials, especially from theJewishpopulation.[42]Agrippa also restored Roman control over the Cimmerian Chersonnese (Crimean Peninsula).

Death[edit]

Agrippa's last public service was his beginning of the conquest of the upperDanube Riverregion, which would become the Roman province ofPannoniain 13 BC.[50]He died atCampaniain 12 BC at the age of 50–51. His posthumous son,Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus,was named in his honor. Augustus honoured his memory by a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. Augustus oversaw the education of Agrippa's children. Agrippa had built a tomb for himself but Augustus had Agrippa's remains placed in theMausoleum of Augustus.[51]

Legacy[edit]

TheMaison CarréeatNîmes,modern France, built in 19 BC; Agrippa was its patron.

Agrippa was not only Augustus' most skilled subordinate commander but also his closest companion, serving him faithfully for over three decades. HistorianGlen Bowersocksays of Agrippa:

Agrippa deserved the honours Augustus heaped upon him. It is conceivable that without Agrippa, Octavian would never have become emperor. Rome would remember Agrippa for his generosity in attending to aqueducts, sewers, and baths.[52]

Agrippa was also a writer, especially on the subject ofgeography.[42]Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's dream of having a completesurveyof the Empire made was carried out. Agrippa constructed a circular chart, which was later engraved on marble by Augustus, and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Polla.[42]Amongst his writings, an autobiography, now lost, is referenced.[42]

Agrippa established a standard for theRoman footin 29 BC,[53]and thus a definition of a pace as 5 feet. An imperialRoman miledenotes 5,000Roman feet.The termVia Agrippais used for any part of the network of roadways inGaulbuilt by Agrippa. Some of these still exist as paths or even as highways.

The Roman tribe Agrippia was named in his honor.[54]

In popular culture[edit]

An Audience at Agrippa's, byLawrence Alma-Tadema

Drama[edit]

  • Agrippa is a character inWilliam Shakespeare's playAntony and Cleopatra.
  • A fictional version of Agrippa in his later life played a prominent role in the 1976BBC TelevisionseriesI, Claudius.Agrippa was portrayed as a much older man though he would have been only 39 years old at the time of the first episode (24/23 BC). He was played byJohn Paul.
  • Agrippa is the main character inPaul Naschy's 1980 filmLos cántabros,played by Naschy himself. It is a highly fictionalized version of theCantabrian Warsin which Agrippa is depicted as the lover of the sister of Cantabrian leaderCorocotta.
  • Agrippa appears in several film versions of the life of Cleopatra. He is normally portrayed as an old man, rather than a young one. Among the actors to portray him arePhilip Locke,Alan Rowe,andAndrew Keir,as well asFrancis de Wolffin the 1964 filmCarry on Cleo.
  • Agrippa is also one of the principal characters in the British/Italian joint projectImperium: Augustus(2003) featuringflashbacksbetween Augustus and Julia about Agrippa, which shows him in his youth on serving in Caesar's army up until his victory at Actium and the defeat of Cleopatra. He is portrayed byKen Duken.
  • In the 2005 seriesEmpirethe young Agrippa (played byChristopher Egan) becomes Octavian's sidekick after saving him from an attempted poisoning.
  • Marcus Agrippa,a highly fictional character based on Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa's early life, is part of theBBC-HBO-RAItelevision seriesRome.He is played byAllen Leech.He describes himself as the grandson of a slave. The series creates a romantic relationship between Agrippa and Octavian's sisterOctavia Minor,for which there is no historical evidence.
  • In the TV seriesDomina(2021), Agrippa was played by Oliver Huntingdon andBen Batt.

Literature[edit]

Marriages and issue[edit]

Agrippa married three times:

Through his numerous children, Agrippa would become ancestor to many subsequent members of theJulio-Claudian dynasty,whose position he helped to attain, as well as many other distinguished Romans.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^He discarded his nomen Vipsanius and was called simply Marcus Agrippa for most of his public career and in official inscriptions, possibly to mask his lowborn origin. ReinholdMarcus Agrippapp. 6–8
  2. ^However, it is uncertain whether they had also one or more sons who died young[58]

References[edit]

  1. ^abcReinhold, Meyer (1933).Marcus Agrippa: A Biography.New York: The W.F. Humphrey Press. p. 1.Based on primary sources regarding his death, scholars have agreed upon the year of Agrippa's birth to have occurred during the consulship of M. Tullius Cicero, in 63 BC, the same yearOctavianwas born.
  2. ^abReinhold, p. 9;Roddaz,p. 23.
  3. ^Plate, William (1867)."Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius".In Smith, William (ed.).Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.Vol. 1. Boston:Little, Brown and Company.pp. 77–80.
  4. ^Dio54.28.3places Agrippa's death in late March 12 BC, whilePliny the Elder7.46states that he died "in his fifty-first year". Depending on whether Pliny meant that Agrippa was aged 50 or 51 at his death, this gives a date of birth between March 64 and March 62. A calendar fromCyprusorSyriaincludes a month named after Agrippa beginning on November 1, which may reflect the month of his birth. See Reinhold, pp. 2–4; Roddaz, pp. 23–26.
  5. ^cf Pantheon inscription "M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT"[1].
  6. ^Reinhold, Meyer (1965).Marcus Agrippa: A Biography(new ed.). L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 10.
  7. ^Everitt, Anthony (2006).The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome(illustrated ed.). John Murray. p. 19.ISBN9780719554940.
  8. ^Barrett, Anthony A.; Fantham, Elaine; Yardley, John C. (2016).The Emperor Nero: A Guide to the Ancient Sources.Princeton University Press. p. 5.ISBN9780691156514.
  9. ^Velleius Paterculus2.96,127.
  10. ^Hall, John Franklin (1996).Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era.Indiana University Press. p.188.ISBN978-0842523349.
  11. ^Ridgway, David (2002).The World of the Early Etruscans.Stockholm: Paul Astrèoms Fèorlag. p. 37.ISBN9789170811890.
  12. ^Nicolaus of Damascus,Life of Augustus7.
  13. ^Reinhold, pp. 13–14.
  14. ^Suetonius,Life of Augustus94.12.
  15. ^Nicolaus of Damascus,Life of Augustus16–17; Velleius Paterculus2.59.5.
  16. ^Nicolaus of Damascus,Life of Augustus31. It has been speculated that Agrippa was among the negotiators who won over Antony's Macedonian legions to Octavian, but there is no direct evidence for this; see Reinhold, p. 16.
  17. ^Velleius Paterculus2.69.5;Plutarch,Life of Brutus27.4.
  18. ^Mentioned only byServiusauctusonVirgil,Aeneid8.682,but a necessary preliminary to his position asurban praetorin 40 BC. Roddaz (p. 41) favours the 43 BC date.
  19. ^Pliny the Elder7.148cites him as an authority for Octavian's illness on the occasion.
  20. ^Reinhold, pp. 17–20.
  21. ^Dio48.20;Reinhold, p. 22.
  22. ^Dio48.28;Reinhold, p. 23.
  23. ^Reinhold, pp. 23–24.
  24. ^Dio,48.49
  25. ^Dio48.49;Reinhold, pp. 25–29. Agrippa's youth is noted by Lendering, "From Philippi to ActiumArchived2014-07-10 at theWayback Machine".
  26. ^Reinhold, pp. 29–32.
  27. ^Suetonius,Life of Augustus16.1.
  28. ^Appian,Civil Wars2.106,118–119;Reinhold, pp. 33–35.
  29. ^abReinhold, pp. 35–37.
  30. ^Reinhold, pp. 37–42.
  31. ^Dio49.14.3.
  32. ^Reinhold, pp. 45–47.
  33. ^The World Book encyclopedia.World Book, Inc. Chicago: World Book. 1987. p. 580.ISBN0716600889.OCLC15063621.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  34. ^Dio49.42–43.
  35. ^Lendering, "From Philippi to ActiumArchived2014-07-10 at theWayback Machine".
  36. ^Orosius,History Against the Pagans6.19.6–7;Dio50.11.1–12.3;Reinhold, pp. 53–54.
  37. ^Dio50.13.5.
  38. ^Dio50.14.1–2;cf. Velleius Paterculus2.84.2( "Agrippa... before the final conflict had twice defeated the fleet of the enemy" ). Dio is wrong to say that Sosius was killed, since he in fact fought at and survived theBattle of Actium(Reinhold, p. 54 n. 14; Roddaz, p. 163 n. 140).
  39. ^Dio50.31.1–3.
  40. ^Reinhold, pp. 57–58; Roddaz, pp. 178–181.
  41. ^abcAttilio Degrassi,I fasti consolari dell'Impero Romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo Cristo(Rome, 1952), p. 3
  42. ^abcdefgChisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 425–426.
  43. ^David Magie, "The Mission of Agrippa to the Orient in 23 BC",Classical Philology,Vol. 3, No. 2 (Apr., 1908), pp. 145–152
  44. ^Syme (1939), 342.
  45. ^Syme (1939), 337–338.
  46. ^Cassius Dio54.6
  47. ^abSuetonius,The Life of Augustus63;Dio,6.5;Reinhold,Marcus Agrippa. A biography,pp. 67–68, 86–87.
  48. ^Dio,Roman History54.12.4.
  49. ^Everett (2006), 217.
  50. ^Dio,28
  51. ^Cassius Dio54.28.5
  52. ^"Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa | Roman leader | Britannica".www.britannica.com.14 July 2023.
  53. ^Soren (1999),p. 184.
  54. ^Chow, John K. (1992).Patronage and Power: A Study of Social Networks in Corinth.The Library of New Testament Studies. Vol. 75. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 44.ISBN9780567111869.
  55. ^Virgil,The Aeneid,trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Vintage Classics, p. 252.
  56. ^Ronald Syme,The Augustan Aristocracy(1987), 314.
  57. ^Syme, Ronald (1989).The Augustan Aristocracy(illustrated and revised ed.). Clarendon Press. p. 504.ISBN9780198147312.
  58. ^Ronald Syme, Augustan Aristocracy, Clarendon Press, 1989, pp.144-145, ISBN 978-0-19-814731-2
  59. ^Wells, Peter S. (2004).The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest.W. W. Norton & Company. p. 81.ISBN9780393352030.
  60. ^Syme, Ronald (1989).The Augustan Aristocracy(illustrated and revised ed.). Clarendon Press. p. 125.ISBN9780198147312.
  61. ^Suetonius,Augustus, 64.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

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Preceded byas suffecti Roman consul
37 BC
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