Mutiny
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg/330px-Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg)
Mutinyis arevoltamong a group of people (typically of amilitary,of acrew,or of a crew ofpirates) to oppose, change, or remove superiors or their orders. The term is commonly used for insubordination by members of the military against an officer or superior, but it can also sometimes mean any type of rebellion against any force. Mutiny does not necessarily need to refer to a military force and can describe apolitical,economic,orpower structurein which subordinates defy superiors.
During theAge of Discovery,mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ship'scaptain.This occurred, for example, duringFerdinand Magellan's journeys around the world, resulting in the killing of one mutineer, theexecutionof another, and themarooningof others; onHenry Hudson'sDiscovery,resulting in Hudson and others being set adrift in a boat; and the famousmutiny on theBounty.
Penalty
[edit]Those convicted of mutiny often facedcapital punishment.
United Kingdom
[edit]Until 1689, mutiny was regulated inEnglandbyArticles of Warinstituted by the monarch and effective only in a period of war. In 1689, the firstMutiny Actwas approved, which passed the responsibility to enforce discipline within the military toParliament.TheMutiny Act,altered in 1803, and theArticles of Wardefined the nature and punishment of mutiny until the latter were replaced by theArmy Discipline and Regulation Actin 1879. This, in turn, was replaced by theArmy Actin 1881.
Today theArmy Act 1955defines mutiny as follows:[1]
Mutiny means a combination between two or more persons subject to service law, or between persons two at least of whom are subject to service law—
- (a) to overthrow or resist lawful authority in Her Majesty's forces or any forces co-operating therewith or in any part of any of the said forces,
- (b) to disobey such authority in such circumstances as to make the disobedience subversive of discipline, or with the object of avoiding any duty or service against, or in connection with operations against, the enemy, or
- (c) to impede the performance of any duty or service in Her Majesty's forces or in any forces co-operating therewith or in any part of any of the said forces.
The same definition applies in theRoyal NavyandRoyal Air Force.
The military law of England in early times existed, like the forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a particular service and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, byprerogative,made laws known asArticles of Warfor the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied and serving. Except for the punishment of desertion, which was made afelonyby statute in the reign ofHenry VI,these ordinances or Articles of War remained almost the sole authority for enforcing discipline until 1689. That year, the firstMutiny Actwas passed and the military forces of the crown were brought under the direct control of Parliament. Even the Parliamentary forces in the time ofCharles IandOliver Cromwellwere governed not by an act of the legislature, but by articles of war similar to those issued by the king and authorized by an ordinance of the Lords and Commons exercising in that respect the sovereign prerogative. This power of law-making by prerogative was however held to be applicable during a state of actual war only, and attempts to exercise it in times of peace were ineffectual. Subject to this limitation, it existed for considerably more than a century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act.
From 1689 to 1803, the Mutiny Act occasionally expired during times of peace. Yetstatutory powerwas given to the crown to make Articles of War that operated in thecoloniesand elsewhere beyond the seas in the same manner as those made by prerogative in times of war.
In 1715, in consequence of the rebellion, this power was created in respect of the forces in the kingdom, but apart from and in no respect affected the principle acknowledged all this time that the crown of its mere prerogative could make laws for the government of the army in foreign countries in time of war.
TheMutiny Act 1803effected a great constitutional change in this respect: the power of the Crown to make any Articles of War became altogether statutory, and the prerogative merged in the act of Parliament. TheMutiny Act 1873was passed in this manner.
Such matters remained until 1879 when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The Mutiny Act legislated for offences in respect of which death or penal servitude could be awarded. Meanwhile, the Articles of War, while repeating those provisions of the act, constituted the direct authority for dealing with offences for which imprisonment was the maximum punishment, as well as with many matters relating to trial and procedure.
The act and the articles were found not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their language sometimes obscure. In 1869, a royal commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelligible shape. In 1878, a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view and made recommendations for performing the task. In 1879, a measure was passed into law consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879.
After one or two years of experience highlighted the need for improvement, it was superseded by the Army Act 1881, which formed the foundation and main portion of the military law of England. The act contained a proviso saving the right of the crown to make Articles of War, but in such a manner as to render the power in effect a nullity by enacting that no crime made punishable by the act shall be otherwise punishable by such articles. As the punishment of every conceivable offence was provided, any articles made under the act could be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect.
Thus the history of English military law up to 1879 may be divided into three periods, each having a distinct constitutional aspect: (I) prior to 1689, the army, being regarded as so many personal retainers of the sovereign rather than servants of the state, was mainly governed by the will of the sovereign; (2) between 1689 and 1803, the army, being recognised as a permanent force, was governed within the realm by statute and without it by the prerogative of the crown; and (3) from 1803 to 1879, it was governed either directly by statute or by the sovereign under an authority derived from and defined and limited by statute. Although in 1879 the power of making Articles of War became in effect inoperative, the sovereign was empowered to make rules of procedure, having the force of law, to regulate the administration of the act in many matters formerly dealt with by the Articles of War. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, and must be laid before parliament immediately after they are made. Thus in 1879, the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of Parliament.
A further notable change took place at the same time. The Mutiny Act had been brought into force on each occasion for one year only, in compliance with the constitutional theory:
that the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, unless with the consent of parliament, is against law. Each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line. The Army Act, on the other hand, is a fixed permanent code. But constitutional traditions are fully respected by the insertion in it of a section providing that it shall come into force only by virtue of an annual act of parliament. This annual act recites the illegality of a standing army in time of peace unless with the consent of parliament, and the necessity nevertheless of maintaining a certain number of land forces (exclusive of those serving in India) and a body of royal marine forces on shore, and of keeping them in exact discipline, and it brings into force the Army Act for one year.
Sentence
[edit]Until 1998, mutiny and another offence of failing to suppress or report a mutiny were each punishable with death.[2]Section 21(5) of theHuman Rights Act 1998completely abolished thedeath penalty in the United Kingdom.(Prior to this, the death penalty had already been abolished for murder, but it had remained in force for certain military offences andtreason,although no executions had been carried out for several decades.) This provision was not required by theEuropean Convention on Human Rights,since Protocol 6 of the Convention permitted the death penalty in time of war, and Protocol 13, which prohibits the death penalty for all circumstances, did not then exist. TheUK governmentintroduced section 21(5) as a late amendment in response toparliamentarypressure.
United States
[edit]TheUnited States'Uniform Code of Military Justicedefines mutiny thus:
- Art. 94. (§ 894.) 2004 Mutiny orSedition.
- (a) Any person subject to this code (chapter) who—
- (1) with intent to usurp or override lawful military authority, refuses, in concert with any other person, to obey orders or otherwise do his duty or creates any violence or disturbance is guilty of mutiny;
- (2) with intent to cause the overthrow or destruction of lawful civil authority, creates, in concert with any other person, revolt, violence, or other disturbance against that authority is guilty of sedition;
- (3) fails to do his utmost to prevent and suppress a mutiny or sedition being committed in his presence, or fails to take all reasonable means to inform his superior commissioned officer or commanding officer of a mutiny or sedition which he knows or has reason to believe is taking place, is guilty of a failure to suppress or report a mutiny or sedition.
- (b) A person who is found guilty of attempted mutiny, mutiny, sedition, or failure to suppress or report a mutiny or sedition shall be punished by death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct.[citation needed]
U.S. military law requires obedience only to lawful orders. Disobedience to unlawful orders (seeSuperior orders) is the obligation of every member of theU.S. military,a principle established by theNurembergandTokyo TrialsfollowingWorld War IIand reaffirmed in the aftermath of theMy Lai Massacreduring theVietnam War.However, a U.S. soldier who disobeys an order after deeming it unlawful will almost certainly be court-martialed to determine whether the disobedience was proper. In addition, simple refusal to obey is not mutiny, which requires collaboration or conspiracy to disobedience.
Famous mutinies in history
[edit]16th century
[edit]- Sack of Antwerp,one of the many mutinies in the SpanishArmy of Flanders[3]during theEighty Years' War;this mutiny caused the provinces of theHabsburg Netherlandsto temporarily unite in rebellion againstPhilip II of Spainand sign thePacification of Ghent.
- Sack of Rome (1527),military event carried out by the mutinous troops ofCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor.
17th century
[edit]- Discoverymutiny in 1611 during the 4th voyage ofHenry Hudson,after having been trapped in pack ice over the winter, his desire to continue incited the crew to casting him and 8 others adrift.
- Bataviawas ashipof theDutch East India Company(VOC), built in 1628 inAmsterdam,which suffered both mutiny andshipwreckduring her maiden voyage.
- Second English Civil War
- Corkbush Field mutiny(1647)
- Banbury mutiny(1649)
- Bishopsgate mutiny(1649)
18th century
[edit]- TheWager Mutiny– the main body of the crew of the British war ship HMSWagermutinied against their Captain after she was wrecked on a desolate island off thesouth coast of Chilein 1741. The ship was part of asquadronbound to attack Spanish interests in the Pacific.
- A failed 1787 mutiny aboard theMiddlesexoccurred two weeks before HMSBounty's final England departure, which included the lead mutineer of HMSBountyFletcher Christian's older brother Charles.
- Mutiny aboard HMSBounty,a mutiny aboard aBritishRoyal Navyship in 1789 that has been made famous by several books and films.
- Quibéron mutinieswere major mutinies in the French fleet in 1793.
- HMSHermionewas a 32-gunfifth-ratefrigateof theBritish Royal Navy.While operating in the Caribbean in 1797 a portion of the crew mutinied, killing the captain, eight other officers, two midshipmen and a clerk before surrendering the ship to the Spanish authorities. The mutiny was the bloodiest recorded in the history of the Royal Navy.
- Spithead and Nore mutinieswere two major mutinies by sailors of theBritish Royal Navyin 1797.
- Schemes for mutiny onboard nine British warships between June and mid-August 1798, resulting in courts-martial for crew fromHMSAdamant(1780),HMSAtlas(1782),HMSCaesar(1793),HMSDefiance(1783),HMSGlory(1788),HMSHaughty(1797),HMSNeptune(1797),HMSQueen Charlotte(1790)andHMSSt George(1785)[4]
- Vlieter Incidentwas a mutiny of a squadron of the fleet of theBatavian Republicwhich caused it to be surrendered to the British without a fight in 1799 at the start of theAnglo-Russian invasion of Holland.
19th century
[edit]- HMSDominica- in May 1806, crew members mutinied, took over the ship and turned her over to the French. She was later recaptured by the British and the mutiny's ringleader hanged.
- Vellore Mutiny,outbreak against theBritish East India Companyon 10 July 1806, by sepoys forming part of the garrison of a fortress and palace complex at Vellore (now in Tamil Nadu state, southern India).
- TheFroberg mutinyby the Froberg Regiment inFort Ricasoli,Maltain 1807. The mutiny was suppressed and 30 men were executed.
- The US whalerGlobemutiny of 1824.
- Barrackpore Mutiny,(2 November 1824), incident during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26), generally regarded as a dress rehearsal for the Indian Mutiny of 1857 because of its similar combination of Indian grievances against the British.
- St. Joseph Mutiny(1837): rebellion of forcibly conscripted African soldiers in the1st West India RegimentinBritish Trinidad.[5]
- La Amistad,in 1839. A group of captured Africanslavesbeing transported inCubamutinied against the crew, killing the captain.[6]
- The brigUSSSomershad a mutiny plotted onboard on her first voyage in 1842. Three men were accused of conspiring to commit mutiny, and were hanged.[7]
- Lady Franklin(1854) seized by convicts
- TheIndian rebellion of 1857was a period of armed uprising inIndiaagainstBritishcolonial power, and was popularly remembered in Britain as the Indian Mutiny or Sepoy Mutiny. It is remembered in India as the First War of Independence.
- TheSharon,a Fairhaven whaleship, was subject to multiple mass desertions, mutinies and the murder and dismemberment of a cruel (and from the record,sociopathic) captain by fourPolynesianswho had been pressed into service on theSharon.[8]
- In 1857 on the whaleshipJunior,Cyrus Plummer and several accomplices engineered a mutiny that resulted in the murder of Captain Archibald Mellen and Third Mate John Smith. The mutineers were captured and found guilty in the fall of 1858. Plummer was sentenced to be hanged and his accomplices received life sentences. The story made national and international news and Plummer was able to garner a stay of execution from PresidentJames Buchananand was ultimately pardoned byUlysses S. Grant.
- TheCavite Mutinyof 1872 in the Philippines.
- TheBrazilian Naval Revoltwas the occasion of two mutinies in 1893 and 1894.
20th century
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/The_Russian_Revolution%2C_1905_Q81546.jpg/220px-The_Russian_Revolution%2C_1905_Q81546.jpg)
- Mutiny aboard theRussian battleshipPotemkin,a rebellion of the crew against their officers in June 1905 during theRussian Revolution of 1905.It was made famous by the filmBattleshipPotemkin.
- TheRevolta da Chibata( "Revolt of the Lash" ) was a Brazilian naval mutiny of 1910, where Afro-Brazilian crewmen rose up against oppressive white officers who frequently beat them. Their goal was to have their living conditions improved and thechibata(whips or lashes) banned from the navy.
- Guaymas MutinyOn 22 February 1914,Mexican Navysailors under LieutenantHilario Rodríguez Malpica seized control of gunboatTampicooffGuaymas, Mexico.This event led to anaval campaignoffTopolobampoduring theMexican Revolution.
- Curragh Incident,also known as the Curragh Mutiny of 20 July 1914 occurred in theCurragh,Ireland,whereBritish officersthreatened to resign rather than enforce theHome Rule Act 1914.
- Etaples Mutinyby British troops, 1917
- French Army mutiniesin 1917. The failure of theNivelle Offensivein April and May 1917 resulted in widespread mutiny in many units of the French Army.
- Wilhelmshaven mutinybroke out in theGermanHigh Seas Fleeton 29 October 1918. The mutiny led directly to the Kiel mutiny a few days later.
- Kiel mutiny:Major revolt by sailors on 3 November 1918 in response to arrests of suspected Wilhelmshaven ringleaders. It sparked theGerman Revolution of 1918-1919,which led to the collapse of themonarchyand the establishment of theWeimar Republic.
- Luxembourg Rebellions:After two failed communist revolutions in November and after a minor mutiny in December, theLuxembourg Armytook over theChamber of Deputies,and proclaimed a republic.
- Black Sea mutiny (1919)by crews aboard the French dreadnoughtsJean BartandFrance,sent to assist the White Russians in theRussian Civil War.The ringleaders (includingAndré MartyandCharles Tillon) received long prison sentences.
- The 1920 mutiny of the mainly Irish unit ofConnaught Rangersin the British Army againstmartial law being imposedand brutally enforced by theBlack and Tansin Ireland during theIrish War of Independence.The leader,Private James Daly,became the last member of the British Armed Forces to be executed for mutiny when he was shot byfiring squadon 2 November 1920.
- Kronstadt rebellion,an unsuccessful uprising of Russian sailors, led byStepan Petrichenko,against the government of the earlyRussian SFSRin the first weeks of March in 1921. It proved to be the last large rebellion againstBolshevikrule.
- Irish Army Mutiny,a crisis in March 1924 provoked by a proposed reduction in army numbers in the immediate post-Civil Warperiod.[9][10]
- Invergordon Mutiny,anindustrial actionby around a thousandsailorsin theBritish Atlantic Fleet,that took place on 15–16 September 1931. For two days, ships of theRoyal NavyatInvergordonwere in open mutiny, in one of the few military strikes inBritishhistory.
- Mutiny aboard the Dutch warship theDe Zeven Provinciënas a result of salary cuts in early February 1933.
- 1936 Naval Revoltin Portugal, also known as the Mutiny on the Tagus ships. Sailors aboard two Portuguese ships imprisoned their officers and attempted to sail out into the open sea. Coastal artillery disabled both ships and theEstado Novoshortly thereafter founded theLegião Portuguesa.
- Cocos Islands Mutiny,a failed mutiny bySri Lankanservicemen on thethen-BritishCocos (Keeling) Islandsduring theSecond World War.
- Battle of Bamber Bridgeon 24–25 June 1943, a racially motivated mutiny by African American soldiers in a segregated U.S. Army truck unit stationed inBamber Bridge,Lancashire,United Kingdom.
- Townsville mutinyon 22 May 1942, a mutiny by about 600 African American servicemen of the96th Engineer Battalionof the United States Army while serving in Townsville, Australia, during World War II. See alsoAfrican-American mutinies in the United States armed forces.
- Port Chicago mutinyon August 9, 1944, three weeks after the Port Chicago disaster. 258 out of the 320 African-American sailors in the ordnance battalion refused to load any ammunition.[11]
- Terrace mutiny,a mutiny by French-Canadian soldiers in Terrace, British Columbia, in November 1944.
After World War II
[edit]- Post–World War II demobilization strikesoccurred withinAllied military forcesstationed across theMiddle East,IndiaandSoutheast Asiain the months and years following the Second World War.
- The Royal Indian Navy Mutinyencompasses a total strike and subsequent mutiny by the Indian sailors of theRoyal Indian Navyon board ship and shore establishments atBombayHarbour on 18 February 1946.
- SSColumbia Eagleincidentoccurred on 14 March 1970 during theVietnam Warwhen sailors aboard an American merchant ship mutinied and hijacked the ship toCambodia.
- TheEast Bengal Regimentswitched sides from thePakistan Armyto theBangladesh Forcesduring theBangladesh Liberation War.
- TheUnit 684 mutinyoccurred when members ofSouth Koreanblack ops Unit 684 mutinied for unclear reasons.
- TheStorozhevoymutinyoccurred on 9 November 1975 inRiga,Latvian SSR,Soviet Union. Thepolitical officerlocked up theSoviet Navycaptain and sailed the ship towardLeningrad.
- TheVelosmutiny:On 23 May 1973, the captain ofVelosrefused to return toGreeceafter aNATOexercise.
- 1977 Bangladesh Air Force Mutiny,during which 11 officers of theBangladesh Air Forcewere killed by mutineers.
- FollowingOperation Blue Staragainst Sikh militants holed in theGolden Templein the Sikhholy cityofAmritsar,many soldiers and officers ofIndian Army'sSikh Regimentmutinied or resigned.[12][13]
21st century
[edit]- 2003Oakwood mutiny– A group of 321 officers and personnel of thePhilippines Armed Forcestook over the Oakwood Premier Ayala Center serviced apartment tower inMakatito show the Filipino people the alleged corruption of PresidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo.
- 2003 Fort Bonifacio Crisis– Members of thePhilippine Marinesstaged a protest over the removal of their Commandant Maj. Gen. Renato Miranda.
- 2009 Bangladesh Rifles revolt– A group of Bangladesh border guards revolted, demanding equal rights to the regular army and killed several of their officers.
- 2011Mutiny onLurongyu 2682,a Chinese fishing trawler in the South Pacific. After a month of killings, 11 of the 33 crew returned to China.
- 2013 Eritrean Army mutiny
- 2013 1st Battalion Yorkshire Regiment, British Army Sixteen soldiers were jailed after a court martial for staging a 'sit-in' protest against their Captain and Colour Sergeant[14]
- 2014Nigerian Army:A total of 54 soldiers weresentenced to deathbyfiring squadby a court martial in two separate trials, after they had refused to fight to recapture a town that had been captured byBoko Haraminsurgents.The sentences are subject to the approval of senior officers.[15][16]
- 2020 Malian mutiny
- 2022Russian Ground Forces:Obozrevatelreported that around 5,000 contract soldiers in the city ofBelgorodrioted after being told that they would be sent to fight inUkraine.[17]Russian soldiers have also beensurrenderingen masse, and many have reportedly sabotaged their own vehicles, with a prime example instances of gas tank sabotage among soldiers in theRussian Kyiv convoy.[18][19]
- 2022Russian Naval Infantry:Russian conscripts rioted aboardRussian naval shipswhich were going to land inOdessaas part of theRussian invasion of Ukraine.As a result of the riot, thelandingwas called off.[20][21]
- 2022Russian Ground Forces:Russian soldiers of the37th Motor Rifle Brigadepurposefullyran over their commanding officer,ColonelYuri Medvedev, killing or severely injuring him. This was reportedly because the 37th Brigade had lost close to 50% of their men during theBattle of Makarivunder the leadership of Medvedev.[22][23]
- 2023Wagner Group mutiny
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^Army Act (1955) c.18 – Part II Discipline and Trial and Punishment of Military Offences: Mutiny and insubordination,The UK Statute Law Database.
- ^Army Act (1955) c.18 Part II Discipline and Trial and Punishment of Military Offences,UK Statute Law Database.
- ^Parker, G.(2004)The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road 1567–1659. Second edition.Cambridge U.P.,ISBN978-0-521-54392-7,ch.8
- ^MacDougall, Phillip (2022). "The Naval Mutinies of 1798".The Mariner's Mirror.108(4).Society for Nautical Research:423–438.doi:10.1080/00253359.2022.2117457.S2CID253161503.
- ^August, Thomas (1991). "Rebels with a cause: The St. Joseph Mutiny of 1837".Slavery & Abolition.12(2): 73–91.doi:10.1080/01440399108575034.
- ^"Unidentified Young Man".World Digital Library.1839–1840.Retrieved2013-07-28.
- ^Memmott, Jim (November 20, 2017),"Jim Memmott: A high-seas mutiny with a Canandaigua connection",Democrat & Chronicle (USA Today),Rochester,retrievedMay 30,2019
- ^Druett, Joan (2003).In the Wake of Madness.Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill.
- ^Garret FitzGeraldReflections On The Foundation of the Irish StateArchived2011-03-19 at theWayback Machine,University College Cork, April 2003
- ^Irish TimesMarch 10th, 192410 Mar 2012
- ^Though 50 sailors were convicted of mutiny after thePort Chicago disaster,there is some question as to whether there was a conspiracy, a prerequisite of mutiny, rather than simple refusal to obey a lawful order. All of the sailors were willing to do any other task except load ammunition under unsafe conditions.
- ^AP (1984-07-02)."General Promises To Punish Sikh Mutineers".The New York Times.India; Amritsar (India); Punjab State (India).Retrieved2012-06-10.
- ^"Operation Blue Star 1984 Golden Temple Attack Sikhs".Sikhmuseum.com. 1984-06-11.Retrieved2012-06-10.
- ^"Yorkshire Regiment soldiers jailed for sit-in protest".BBC News.2013-12-10.Retrieved2014-04-07.
- ^"BREAKING: Nigerian Military Sentences 54 Soldiers To Death For Mutiny".Sahara Reporters. 17 December 2014.Retrieved12 March2017.
- ^"Nigerian soldiers given death penalty for mutiny".BBC News.17 December 2014.Retrieved12 March2017.
- ^Рагуцька, Лілія (2022-02-26)."У Білгороді 5 тис. контрактників влаштували бунт та відмовилися їхати воювати з Україною. Ексклюзив".OBOZREVATEL NEWS(in Ukrainian).Retrieved2022-03-28.
- ^Balevic, Katie."Pentagon official says Russian troops have 'deliberately punched holes' in their own gas tanks in apparent attempts to avoid combat as morale declines: report".Business Insider.Retrieved2022-03-28.
- ^"Mass surrender, sabotage of own equipment – Pentagon on Russian military units".Interfax-Ukraine.Retrieved2022-03-28.
- ^"Russian young marine conscripts staged a riot against landing in Odessa".odessa-journal.com.2022-03-01.Retrieved2022-03-28.
- ^Дібров, Сергій (February 28, 2022)."Russian Marine conscripts riot when ordered to land 'straight to Odessa'".Dumskaya.RetrievedFebruary 28,2022.
- ^Российский военный переехал на танке своего командира в отместку за гибель товарищей в боях под Киевом
- ^"Russian troops attack own commanding officer after suffering heavy losses".The Hill.2022-03-25.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-03-26.
Further reading
[edit]- Jaclyn Johnson's Military Mutinies and Defections Database (MMDD), 1945–2017.
- Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911). "Mutiny".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Guttridge, Leonard F (1992).Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection.Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute Press.ISBN0-87021-281-8.
- Bell, Christopher M; Elleman, Bruce A, eds. (2003).Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century: An International Perspective.Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers.ISBN0-7146-8468-6.OCLC464313205.
- Pfaff, Steven and Michael Hechter. 2020.The Genesis of Rebellion: Governance, Grievance, and Mutiny in the Age of Sail.Cambridge University Press.