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Sinosphere

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about a group of nations historically influenced by Chinese culture. For other uses, seeSinosphere (disambiguation).
"East Asian cultural sphere" redirects here. For the Japanese imperialist concept, seeGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.

Sinosphere
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
  • Đông á văn hóa quyển
  • Hán tự văn hóa quyển
Simplified Chinese
  • Đông á văn hóa quyển
  • Hán tự văn hóa quyển
Literal meaning
  • East Asian cultural sphere
  • Chinese character cultural sphere
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
  • Dōngyà wénhuà quān
  • Hànzì wénhuà quān
Bopomofo
  • ㄉㄨㄥ ㄧㄚˋ ㄨㄣˊ ㄏㄨㄚˋ ㄑㄩㄢ
  • ㄏㄢˋ ㄗˋ ㄨㄣˊ ㄏㄨㄚˋ ㄑㄩㄢ
IPA
Wu
Romanization
  • ton-ia ven-ho-chioe
  • hoe-zr ven-ho-chioe
Hakka
Pha̍k-fa-sṳ
  • Tûng-â vùn-fa-khiên
  • Hon-sṳ vùn-fa-khiên
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutping
  • Dung1aa3 man4faa3hyun1
  • Hon3zi6 man4faa3hyun1
IPA
Southern Min
HokkienPOJ
  • Tang-a bûn-hòa-khoan
  • Hàn-jī bûn-hòa-khoan
Tâi-lô
  • Tang-a bûn-huà-khua
  • Hàn-jī bûn-huà-khuan
Eastern Min
FuzhouBUC
  • Dĕ̤ng Ā ùng-huá-kuŏng
  • Háng-cê ùng-huá-kuŏng
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet
  • Vùng văn hóa Á Đông
  • Vùng văn hóa Đông Á
  • Vùng văn hóa chữ Hán
Chữ Nôm
  • 塳 văn hóa á đông
  • 塳 văn hóa đông á
  • 塳 văn hóa 𡨸 hán
Korean name
Hangul
  • 동아문화권
  • 한자문화권
Hanja
  • Đông á văn hóa quyển
  • Hán tự văn hóa quyển
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization
  • Dong-a Munhwagwon
  • Hanja Munhwagwon
McCune–Reischauer
  • Tong'a Munhwakwŏn
  • Hancha Munhwakwŏn
Japanese name
Kanji
  • Đông á văn hóa quyển
  • Hán tự văn hóa quyển
Transcriptions
Revised Hepburn
  • tō-a bunkaken
  • kanji bunkaken
Kunrei-shiki
  • Tou-A Bunkaken
  • Kanzi Bunkaken
This article containsVietnamesetext.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofchữ Nôm,chữ Hánandchữ Quốc ngữ.
Chinese dragons,legendary creatures in Sinosphere mythology and culture

TheSinosphere,[1]also known as theChinese cultural sphere,[2]East Asian cultural sphere,[3]or theSinic world,[4]encompasses multiple countries inEast AsiaandSoutheast Asiathat were historically heavily influenced byChinese culture.[4][5]The Sinosphere comprisesGreater China,Japan,Korea,andVietnam.[6]Other definitions may include the regions of modern-dayMongolia[7][8][9]andSingapore,due either to historical Chinese influence or a contemporaryoverseas Chinesepopulation.[10]The Sinosphere is different from theSinophoneworld, which indicates regions where theChinese languageis spoken.[11]

Imperial Chinawas a major regional power in Eastern Asia and exerted influence ontributarystates and neighboring states, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.[a]These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted inConfucianism,Buddhism,andTaoism.The four cultures were ruled by their respective emperors under similar imperial systems.Chinese inventionsinfluenced, and were in turn influenced by, innovations of the other cultures in governance, philosophy, science, and the arts.[14][15][16]Literary Chinesebecame the writtenlingua francafor bureaucracy and communications,[17]andChinese charactersbecame locally adapted askanjiin Japan,hanjain Korea, andchữ Hánin Vietnam.[18][19]

In late classical history, the literary importance of classical Chinese diminished as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam each adopted their own writing systems. Japan developed thekatakanaandhiraganascripts, Korea createdhangul,and Vietnam developedchữ Nôm(now rarely used in lieu of the modern Latin-basedVietnamese alphabet).[20][21]Classical literature written in Chinese characters nonetheless remains an important legacy of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultures.[22]In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism remain visible inhigh cultureand social doctrines.

Terminology

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Ancient China was one of thecradles of civilization,with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration ofHansettlers from theYellow Rivergenerally regarded as the origin of the East Asian world.[23]

Japanese historianNishijima Sadao[ja](1919–1998), professor emeritus at theUniversity of Tokyo,coined the termTōa bunka-ken(Đông á văn hóa quyển,'East Asian Cultural Sphere')to refer to an East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy ofConfucianism,the religion ofBuddhism,and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historicalClassical Chinesescholars.[5]It has also been informally referred to as the "chopstickssphere "due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region.[24][25]

Etymology

[edit]

Sometimes used as a synonym for the East Asian cultural sphere, the termSinospherederives fromSino-('China, Chinese') and-sphere,in the sense of asphere of influence,an area influenced by a country (cf.Sinophone).[26]

Sharing cognates, the "CJKV"languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese—translate the English termsphereas:

  • Chinese:quān(Quyển,'circle, ring, corral, pen')
  • Japanese:ken(Quyển けん,'sphere, circle, range, radius')
  • Korean:gwon(권from quyển )

Unlike the other languages in the Sinosphere, Vietnamese does not use 'khuyên' quyển to mean sphere or area.[b]Rather, Vietnamese uses 'vùng', meaning a region or area. The translation for đông á văn hóa quyển in Vietnamese is Vùng văn hóa Á Đông (塳 văn hóa á đông ).

In Ryukyuan languages, quyển ’ちん’ 'chin' is not used to mean sphere or area or domain. This word is also found only on Kammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Ryukyuans use the term thế 'yu' meaning world or sphere. Thus, hán tự văn hóa quyển and đông á văn hóa quyển would be translated as hán tự nhất hình ぬ thế 'kanjii tiigata nu yu' and đông á nhất hình ぬ thế 'too-a tiigata nu yu' respectively.

Victor H. Mairdiscussed the origins of these "culture sphere" terms.[27] The Chinesewénhuà quān(Văn hóa quyển) dates back to a 1941 translation for the German termKulturkreis,('culture circle, field'), which the AustrianethnologistsFritz GraebnerandWilhelm Schmidtproposed. Japanese historianNishijima Sadao[ja]coined the expressionsKanji bunka ken(Hán tự văn hóa quyển,"Chinese-character culture sphere" )andChuka bunka ken(Trung hoa văn hóa quyển,"Chinese culture sphere" ),which China later re-borrowed asloanwords. The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous toAncient Chinaand its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In the 1930s inA Study of History,the Sinosphere along with theWestern,Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, Indic, etc. civilizations is presented as among the major "units of study".[28]

Comparisons with the West

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British historianArnold J. Toynbeelisted the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his bookA Study of History.He included Japan and Korea in his definition of "Far Eastern civilization" and proposed that they grew out of the "Sinic civilization" that originated in the Yellow River basin.[29]Toynbee compared the relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilization with that of the Hellenic and Western civilizations, which had an "apparentation-affiliation".[30]

Americansinologistand historianEdwin O. Reischaueralso grouped China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam into a cultural sphere that he called the "Sinic world", a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in northern China, comparing the relationship between northern China and East Asia to that ofGreco-Roman civilizationand Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin had functioned in Europe.[31]

American political scientistSamuel P. Huntingtonconsidered the Sinic world as one of many civilizations in his bookThe Clash of Civilizations.He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations, one succeeding the other, in the early centuries of the Christian epoch",[32]Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[33]Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity.[34]Huntington's theory was that in a post-Cold Warworld, humanity "[identifies] with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities [and] at the broadest level, civilizations".[35][36]Yet, Huntington considered Japan as a distinct civilization.[37]

Culture

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Imperial City, Huế,Vietnam. Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the East Asian architectural styles of Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.
Great Wave off Kanagawa,one of the most famous Japanese woodblock prints

Arts

[edit]

Cuisine

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Main article:East Asian cuisine
See also:Chinese cuisine,List of Chinese dishes,Vietnamese cuisine,Japanese cuisine,Korean cuisine,andTaiwanese cuisine

The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques.Chopsticksare used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries.[40]The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region.[41]

Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus offood security.[42]People who have no rice are often seen as having no food. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan (Ngự phạn;gohan), Korea (밥;bap), and Vietnam (cơm;𩚵 or 粓), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general.[40]

Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine includeboba,kimchi,sushi,hot pot,tea,dim sum,ramen,as well asphở,sashimi,udon,andchả giò,among others.[43]

Traditions

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  • Fashion:seeHanfuandCheongsam(orQipao) (Chinese and Manchu);Áo dàiandVietnamese clothing(Vietnamese);Hanbok(Koreans);KimonoandWafuku(Japanese).
  • Dance:Thelion danceis a form of traditional dance inChinese cultureand other East Asian countries, in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion dances are usually performed duringLunar New Yearcelebrations.
  • New Year:China (Zhōngguó Xīn Nián), Korea (Seollal), Vietnam (Tết Nguyên Đán), Japan (Koshōgatsu), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year (Shōgatsu) to fit theWestern New Yearsince theMeiji Restoration.[citation needed]Although mainland Japan may not celebrate the Lunar New Year anymore, there are some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan that still do, such as theOkinawan/Ryukyuan people.Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Festivities nowadays are not as elaborate as the Western new year, but Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year.[44]

Literature

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Main article:Adoption of Chinese literary culture
The first line of theAnalects of ConfuciusinClassical Chinese,Standard Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean. Vietnamese is written inchữ Nôm,while Korean inKorean mixed script(한자혼용). Coloured words show vocabulary with the same meaning.

East Asian literary culture is based on the use ofLiterary Chinese,which became the medium of scholarship and government across the region. Although each of these countries developed vernacular writing systems and used them for popular literature, they continued to use Chinese for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the 19th century.[45]

Throughout East Asia, Literary Chinese was the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature. Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[46]Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-calledSino-Xenic pronunciations,which provide clues to the pronunciation ofMiddle Chinese.Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively into the local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies.[47]Vernacular or standard Chineseencompassingvarieties of Chinesealso developed in contrast to the use of Literary Chinese.

Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier,woodblock printinghad been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metalmovable typewas used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.[48]

Japan'stextual scholarshiphad Chinese origins, which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modernSinology.[49]

Four Books and Five Classicsare the authoritative books ofConfucianism,where it was used to study for civil service examinations inChina,Korea,andVietnam.

Philosophy and religion

[edit]
Main articles:East Asian religions,East Asian philosophies,andThree teachings

The Art of War,Tao Te Ching,I Ching,andAnalectsare classic Chinese texts that have been influential in East Asian history.[50]

Taoism

[edit]
Main article:Taoism

The Eastern Asian countries and Vietnam have been influenced by Taoism. Developed from an Eastern philosophy known asTao,the religion was created in China from the teachings ofLao Tse.It follows the search for thetao,a concept that is equivalent to a path or course and represents the cosmic force that creates the universe and all things.

According to this belief, the wisdom of thetaois the only source of the universe and must be a natural path of life events that everyone should follow. Thus, the adherents of Taoism follow the search fortao,which means path and represents the strength of the universe.

The most important text in Taoism, theTao Te Ching( "Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that thetaois the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" (wu wei) and spontaneity (zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, to achieve happiness and a long life.

Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources, manifesting itself as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life.

Buddhism

[edit]
MahayanaBuddhism, a religion particular to the Sinic world
Main article:East Asian Buddhism

Buddhist philosophy is guided by the teachings of the Buddha, which lead the individual toenlightenmentthrough meditative practices, mindfulness, and reflection on their daily actions. The belief is that physical and spiritual awareness leads to a state of enlightenment callednirvana,which, according to Buddha, is the highest state of meditation. In this state the individual finds peace and tranquility above the oscillations of thoughts and emotions and is rid of the inherent suffering of the physical world.[51]

Buddhism in the Sinosphere orEast Asian Buddhismis of or derived from theMahayana Buddhismsect, which is seen to be intertwined withinTaoismandConfucianismas well.[52]It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping fromsufferingin relation tokarma.[53]Vegetarianismorveganismis also present for moremonasticor devout Buddhists of this sect, or even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings.[54][55][56]

Confucianism

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Confucianismplays a crucial part in East Asian culture.
Temple of Literature, Hanoi.Confucian education andimperial examinationsplayed a huge role in creating scholars andmandarins(bureaucrats) for East Asian dynasties.
Main article:Confucianism

The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview.[31]Confucianism is ahumanistic[57]philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are:[58]

  • rén(Nhân): an obligation ofaltruismand humaneness for other individuals
  • yì(Nghĩa/Nghĩa): the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good
  • lǐ(Lễ/Lễ): a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life

Neo-Confucianism

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Main article:Neo-Confucianism

Mid-Imperial Chinesephilosophy is primarily defined by the development ofneo-Confucianism.During theTang dynasty,Buddhism fromNepalalso became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang dynasty; the Confucianist scholarHan Yuis seen as a forebear of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty.[59]The Song dynasty philosopherZhou Dunyiis seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[60]

Elsewhere in East Asia,Japanese philosophybegan to develop as indigenousShintobeliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism, and other schools ofChinese philosophy.Similar to Japan, inKorean philosophy,elements ofshamanismwere integrated into theneo-Confucianismimported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, were also developed into Vietnam's ownTam giáo,which together withVietnamese folk religioncontributed to shapingVietnamese philosophy.

Other religions

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Though not commonly identified with that of East Asia, the following religions have been influential in its history:[citation needed]

Christianityis the most popular religion inSouth Koreafollowed by Buddhism.[61]Significant Christian communities are also found inmainland China,Hong Kong,Macau,Taiwan,Singapore,JapanandVietnam.[62]In recent years, Christianity, mainlyProtestant,Catholic (or Roman Catholic),as well as otherdenominationshas been gaining more popularity in these areas, due to its own version of spirituality andcharitability.[63][64]However, it is unlikely to supersede the more natively rooted Buddhism, except for places likeSouth KoreawhereProtestantismis more popular.[61]InVietnam,Roman Catholicismis prominent, and early Christian missionaries played a historical role in romanizing the Vietnamese language, before the time ofFrench colonial rule.[65]

ForHinduism;seeHinduism in Vietnam,Hinduism in China.[citation needed]

Islam is the most popular religion inXinjiangand has significant communities inNingxiain China.

On the other hand, no specific religious affiliation may also be practiced as well, and are often the most cited in several aforementioned countries. However, regardless of religious affiliations, most in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies.

Language

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Numbers in Chinese and Sinoxenic languages
TheUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin CJKV languages. Shared vocabulary is coloured. From left to right, Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt) using the obsoleteChữ Nômscript, Korean (Han'gugeo; 한국어), Japanese (Nihongo; にほんご), and Chinese (Zhōngwén; ㄓㄨㄥ ㄨㄣˊ).

Languages and language families

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The following language families are found in and around the East Asian cultural sphere. Some have historically contributed to the vocabulary or development of Sinitic languages, and others have been influenced to some degree by them. Only some of these languages are highly indebted toLiterary Chineseand thus relevant to the East Asian cultural sphere.

  1. Sino-Tibetan:spoken mainly in China, Singapore, Myanmar,Christmas Island,Bhutan,northeast India,Kashmir,and parts of Nepal. Major Sino-Tibetan languages includethe varieties of Chinese,the Tibetic languages,andBurmese.These are thought to have originated around theYellow River,north of theYangtze.[69][70]
  2. Austronesian:spoken mainly in what is today Taiwan,East Timor,Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, theCocos (Keeling) Islands,Christmas Island, Madagascar, and most of Oceania. Major Austronesian languages include theFormosan languages,Malay,Filipino,Malagasy,andMāori.[71][72]
  3. Turkic:spoken mainly in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Cyprus, and Turkey. Major Turkic languages includeKazakh,Kyrgyz,Uyghur,Tuvan,andAltai.[73][74][75]
  4. Austroasiatic:spoken mainly in Vietnam, and Cambodia. Major Austroasiatic languages includeVietnameseandKhmer.
  5. Kra-Dai:spoken mainly in Thailand, Laos, and parts of southern China. Major Kra-Dai languages includeZhuang,Thai,andLao.
  6. Mongolic:spoken mainly in Mongolia, China, and Russia. Major Mongolian languages includeOirat,Mongolian,Monguor,Dongxiang,andBuryat.
  7. Tungusic:spoken mainly in China and Russia. Major Tungusic languages includeEvenki,Manchu,andXibe.
  8. Koreanic:spoken mainly in Korea. Major Korean languages includeKoreanandJeju.
  9. Japonic:spoken mainly in Japan. Major Japonic languages includeJapanese,Ryukyuan,andHachijo.
  10. Ainu:spoken mainly in Japan. The only surviving Ainu language isHokkaido Ainu.

Core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese.[76][77][78]There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such asZhuangandHmong-Mien.They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country or heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written inHanzi-inspired characters calledSawndipfor over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the coreCJKVlanguages.[79]

Due to the common usage of Chinese characters across East Asian nations, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese people traditionally can engage in written communication usingLiterary Chinesewithout knowing other people's spoken language, calledBrushtalk.[80]

As a result, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese are also deemedSino-Xenic languagesthat are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese.[81][82]

Writing systems

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Writing systems around the world
Writing systems of the Far East
Writing system Regions
Logograms(Hanziand its variants) China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam*, Taiwan
Logograms(Dongba symbols) China (used by theNaxiethnic minorities in China)
Syllabary(Kana) Japan
Syllabary(Yi script) China (used by theYiethnic minorities in China)
Semi-syllabary(Bopomofo) Taiwan, and historically mainland China. Used to aid in the learning of Hanzi, especially reading and writing, in elementary schools. On the mainland it is used only in theXiandai Hanyu Cidian.
Alphabet(Latin) Vietnam, China (used by some ethnic minorities in China, such as theMiao people); Taiwan (Tâi-lô Latin scriptfor theTaiwanese Hokkienlanguage)
Alphabet (Hangul) Korea, China (used by theChosonethnic minorities in northeastern China)
Alphabet (Cyrillic) Mongolia (though there is a movement to switch back toMongolian script)[83]
Alphabet (Mongolian) Mongolia*, China (Inner Mongolia)
Logograms(Chữ Nôm) Vietnam*, China (Dongxing, Guangxi), still used by theGin peopletoday
Abugida(Brahmic scriptsof Indian origin) Singapore, China (Tibet,Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture)
Abugida (Pollard script) China (used by theHmongethnic minorities in China)
Abjad(Uyghur Arabic alphabet) China (Xinjiang)
* Official usage historically. Currently used unofficially.
Development ofkanafrom Chinese characters
Countries and regions using Chinese characters as a writing system:
Dark Green:Traditional Chinese, used officially (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau)
Green:Simplified Chinese, used officially, but traditional form is also used in publishing (Singapore, Malaysia).[84]
Light Green:Simplified Chinese, used officially, traditional form in daily use is uncommon (China)
Cyan:Chinese characters are used in parallel with other scripts in respective native languages (South Korea, Japan).
Yellow:Chinese characters were once used officially, but this is now obsolete (Mongolia, North Korea, Vietnam).

Chinese charactersare considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have used Chinese characters. Today, they are mainly used in China, Japan, and South Korea, albeit in different forms.

Mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore usesimplified characters,whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau useTraditional Chinese.

Japan still useskanjibut has also inventedkana,inspired by theChinese cursive script.

Korea used to write inhanjabut has invented an alphabetic system calledhangulthat is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is a required subject in South Korea. Most names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms andSino-Korean loanwordsare used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.

Vietnam used to write inchữ Hán(Chinese characters) inClassical Chinesetexts (Hán văn). In the 8th century, they began inventing many of their ownchữ Nômcharacters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet calledchữ Quốc ngữ.However, Chinese characters still hold a special place in these cultures, as their history and literature have been greatly influenced by them. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design.

Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, calledSawndip.Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but in 1957, China introduced an alphabetical script for the language, which is what it officially promotes.[85]

Economy and trade

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Business culture

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The business cultures of East Asia are heavily influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Japan often features hierarchically organizedcompanies,andJapanese work environmentsplace a high value oninterpersonal relationships.[86]A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker.[87][88]

Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around apatriarchalfamily governed byfilial piety(Hiếu thuận) between management and a company's employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors (seonbae), or their juniors (hubae). And usually positions within a company is reflective of a person's age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause.[89]Koreans place value on maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker's "kibun"(their mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced.[80]

Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships.[88][90]In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept of "guanxi"which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another.[91][92]

In Vietnamese culture, the culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority, and Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status assoldiersbefore) and maintaining face is highly important. Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Anger or displaying temper will reduce trust and Vietnamese business people may take spoken word as fact. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down.[93][94]

Common factors across Sinosphere tends to place great emphasis and respect towards traits of humility and conformity.[95][96][97][98]

History

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During theIndustrial Revolution,East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power, starting with theMeiji Restorationin the late 19th century, when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area.[99]

Postwar economies

[edit]

Hong Kong's successful postwar economy led to the territory's categorization as one of theFour Asian Tigers,developing strong textile and manufacturing industries.[100]South Korea followed a similar route, developing its textile industry.[100]After theKorean War,theUS military occupationof the country following the end of World War II, and the ultimate division of the peninsula,South Koreaexperienced what has become known as theMiracle on the Han River,with the rise ofchaebolslike Samsung, LG, etc. strongly driving its economy, and as of 2023, has the 12th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP.[101][102]

Since the 1990s,Japanese growth has stagnated,while currently remaining the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP. Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and theTiger Cub Economiesof Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam.[103][104][105][106]

The impact of theVietnam Warwas devastating. Vietnam only started opening its economy throughĐổi Mớireforms in 1986, andthe US only lifted its embargo on Vietnamin 1995. Over the last few decades, Vietnam has been developing at arapid pace.

Modern era

[edit]
ASEANnations, of whichVietnamis a part of.Singapore,one of the most successful Southeast Asian states, may also be considered as Sinosphere in some circumstances (due to its majorityoverseas Chinesepopulation).

Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China. Most Chinese-Vietnamese people are from Cantonese background, and can speak Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities.[107]Vietnam, one of theNext Elevencountries as of 2005,is regarded as a rising economicpowerin Southeast Asia.[108]

Since theChinese economic reform,China has become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP andGDP (PPP).[109][110]

Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest ofASEAN,Vietnamis the only one in the Sinosphere that is formally part of ASEAN as aSoutheast Asiancountry. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantlyoverseas Chinese.China'sandJapan'seconomies are respectively the world'ssecond and third-largest economies by nominal GDP,and both are highly influential on the world's tapestry in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of theKorean wavesince the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest by nominal GDP in 2023.

Relations

[edit]

Mutual relations stem from hundreds to thousands of years of history between each state, originating from the advent of the spread of Classical Chinese writing, conquest, or from trade and cultural flow. Although there were long historical connections between each side, instances of racism or xenophobia towards the other stemming from deep-rooted historical, economic, political or regional differences has also been a major concern.

Additionally, besides mutual relations, various forms of inheritance of Chinese civilisation or "Little China"ideologies have surfaced with Vietnam, Japan, Korea, (the use of trung quốc in self-reference) in various situations, conferring the" Chinese "label.

  • Korea and Japan have had extensive links in terms of culture, trade, political contact and military confrontations. Thehistory of Japan–Korea relationsextends for over 15 centuries, with many ideas from mainland Asia flowing into Japan via Korea in historical times.[111]Although geographically close, the two countries are culturally distinct from one another and may harbor contrasting military and historical viewpoints, where relations can turn fraught, especially in the context of Japanese colonization.[112][113][114]
  • Likewise, Vietnam and China have had relations since 111 BC when theHan dynastyconquered parts of northern Vietnam, as well as northern Korea in 109 BC, although Chinese influences began before then as well. Chinese rule and influence continued to impactVietnamandKorea.[115]Vietnam and China's relations are linked with many cultural and philosophical thoughts emanating from China transferring to Vietnam, as well as many confrontations between the two. Although currently politically similar, relations can oftentimes become fraught and unsound as well.[116][117][118]
    • The variousBaiyue(Bách Việtin Vietnamese, theHundred Yue's), were vaguely but historically connected to southern Chinese and Vietnamese. In the past "Việt"(Yue,Viet,Cantonese) was interchangeable with the homophonous character that today refers specifically to the Vietnamese [Việt] (Yue,Viet,Vietnamese).Cantonesescholars looked through earlier Chinese sources to find historical information about the Việt/Yue, be it recorded with [ việt ] or [ việt ].[119]
  • Japan has long been influenced by China for around 2 millennia and emulated many cultural and philosophical thought, with many Japanese undertaking studies that came from China or via Korea.[111]Culture, trade, and military confrontation has been a major focal point between the two as well and relations can become very fraught.[120]
  • Vietnam and Korea had semi-official encounters when both countries' envoys met in China from the 16th to 19th century.[121][122]Despite the geographical distance, the countries share many parallels such as colonial rule, and historical or current political division.[122]South Korea was involved in the controversial Vietnam War with South Vietnam as well.[123]Although relations appear courteous, tensions on the Korean peninsula prevent any major relations truly forming without angering the other political side,[124]with Vietnam ultimately used as neutral ground for a North Korean-US summit.[125][126]
  • Japan's links with Vietnam and the rest of Southeast Asia was mainly through maritime trade stemming from the 16th century.[127]Japan's relations with Vietnam went further back into the 8th century via China.[128][129]Although some residual grievances of Japan's colonizing past in Asia may remain, as well as existing political differences, the relation has mostly been of mutualism.[130][131]However, instances of mistreatment, such as abuse towards Vietnamese laborers in Japan, has surfaced.[132][133]
  • Korea and China relations are extensive and several millennia old with much cultural trade and thought transferring into Korea from China, with parts of Korea having also been subsumed by Chinese rule since 109 BC, as well as partaking in several military confrontations.[115]Much of the history between Korea and China focused on Northeast Asia, also playing a role in transmitting knowledge to Japan.[111]Along with the long history between the two, relations between them may also become fraught.[134]

See also

[edit]

Relations:

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Vietnam and Korea remained tributary states of China for much of their histories, while Japan only submitted fully to Chineseregional hegemonyduring theMuromachi period.[12][13]
  2. ^This word is not used to mean 'sphere or circle' in Vietnamese, rather it has the meaning of an earring; the 'sphere' sense is only found in Literary Chinese texts, but not at all in Vietnamese.

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[edit]

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