Systema Naturae

Systema Naturæ

Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus'sSystema Naturæ
Author	Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)
Subject	Taxonomy
Genre	Biological classification
Publication date	1735(1735)
Publication place	Netherlands
LC Class	QH43.S21

Systema Naturae(originally inLatinwrittenSystema Naturæwith theligatureæ) is one of the major works of theSwedishbotanist, zoologist and physicianCarl Linnaeus(1707–1778) and introduced theLinnaean taxonomy.Although the system, now known asbinomial nomenclature,was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers,GaspardandJohann,Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, wasSystema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis,which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities".

Thetenth edition of this book(1758) is considered the starting point ofzoological nomenclature.In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced12th edition,the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "Systema Naturae"was published byJohann Friedrich Gmelinbetween 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 20th century, zoologists have commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series.

Overview

Linnaeus (later known as "Carl von Linné", after his ennoblement in 1761)published the first edition ofSystema Naturaein the year 1735, during his stay in theNetherlands.As was customary for thescientific literatureof its day, the book was published inLatin.In it, he outlined his ideas for thehierarchical classificationof the natural world, dividing it into theanimal kingdom(regnum animale), theplant kingdom(regnum vegetabile), and the "mineral kingdom"(regnum lapideum).

Linnaeus'sSystema Naturaelists only about 10,000 species of organisms, of which about 6,000 are plants and 4,236 are animals.According to the historian of botanyWilliam T. Stearn,"Even in 1753 he believed that the number of species of plants in the whole world would hardly reach 10,000; in his whole career he named about 7,700 species of flowering plants."

Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic ofGod's creation.Hissexual system,where species with the same number ofstamenswere treated in the same group, was convenient but in his view artificial.Linnaeus believed in God's creation and that there were no deeper relationships to be expressed. He is frequently quoted as saying: "God created, Linnaeus organized" (Latin:Deus creavit, Linnaeus disposuit).The classification of animals was more natural. For instance,humanswere for the first time placed together with otherprimates,asAnthropomorpha.They were also divided into fourvarieties,as distinguished byskin colorand corresponding with the four knowncontinentsandtemperaments.The tenth edition expanded on these varieties withbehavioralandculturaltraits that theLinnean Societyacknowledges as having cementedcolonialstereotypesand provided the foundations forscientific racism.

As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and ever-expanding editions of his work.It grew from eleven very large pages in the first edition (1735) to 2,400 pages in the12th edition(1766–1768).Also, as the work progressed, he made changes: in the first edition,whaleswere classified asfishes,following the work of Linnaeus' friend and "father ofichthyology"Peter Artedi;in the 10th edition, published in 1758, whales were moved into themammalclass. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names (seebinomen) for animal species, something that he had done for plant species (seebinary name) in the 1753 publication ofSpecies Plantarum.The system eventually developed into modernLinnaean taxonomy,a hierarchically organizedbiological classification.

After Linnaeus' health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions ofSystema Naturaewent in two directions. Another Swedish scientist,Johan Andreas Murrayissued theRegnum Vegetabilesection separately in 1774 as theSystema Vegetabilium,rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entireSystemaappeared in parts between 1788 and 1793. It was as theSystema Vegetabiliumthat Linnaeus' work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by theLichfield Botanical Society,asA System of Vegetables(1783–1785).

Taxonomy

In hisImperium Naturæ,Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namelyRegnum Animale,Regnum VegetabileandRegnum Lapideum.This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives until today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games: "Is itanimal, vegetable or mineral?"The classification was based on five levels:kingdom,class,order,genus,andspecies.While species and genus was seen as God-given (or "natural" ), the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, a task which most say he succeeded in.

The 1735 classification of animals

Linnaeus's work had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation forbiological nomenclature,now regulated by theNomenclature Codes.Two of his works, the first edition of theSpecies Plantarum(1753) for plants and the10th edition of theSystema Naturæ(1758), are accepted to be among the starting points of nomenclature. Most of his names for species and genera were published at very early dates, and thus takepriorityover those of other, later authors. In zoology there is one exception, which is a monograph on Swedish spiders,Svenska Spindlar,published byCarl Clerckin 1757, so the names established there take priority over the Linnean names.His exceptional importance to science was less in the value of his taxonomy, more his deployment of skilful young students abroad to collect specimens.At the close of the 18th century, his system had effectively become the standard for biological classification.

Animals

Only in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were:

1. Mammaliacomprised themammals.In the first edition,whalesand theWest Indian manateewere classified among the fishes.
2. Avescomprised thebirds.Linnaeus was the first to removebatsfrom the birds and classify them under mammals.
3. Amphibiacomprisedamphibians,reptiles,and assorted fishes that are not ofOsteichthyes.
4. Piscescomprised thebony fishes.These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order.
5. Insectacomprised allarthropods.Crustaceans,arachnidsandmyriapodswere included as the order "Aptera".
6. Vermescomprised the remaininginvertebrates,roughly divided into "worms",molluscs,and hard-shelled organisms likeechinoderms.

Humans

Linnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans asprimates(originallyAnthropomorphafor "manlike" ), eliciting some controversy for placing people amonganimalsand thus not ruling overnature.He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) fromHomo troglodytes,a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated ornon-humancharacteristics, despite finding limited evidence.He dividedHomo sapiensinto fourvarieties,corresponding with the four knowncontinentsandfour temperaments(some editions also classifyFeruswild childrenandMonstrosusmonstrousto accommodateadaptationstoextreme environments).The first edition includedEuropæus albescens(whitish Europeans),Americanus rubescens(reddish Americans),Asiaticus fuscus(tawny Asians), andAfricanus nigriculus(blackish Africans).The tenth edition solidified these descriptions by removing the "ish" qualifiers (e.g.albus"white" instead ofalbescens"whitish" ) and revising the characterization ofAsiaticusfromfuscus(tawny) toluridus(pale yellow).It also incorporatesbehavioralandculturaltraits that theLinnean Societyrecognizes as having cementedcolonialstereotypesand provided the foundations forscientific racism.

Plants

The orders and classes of plants, according to hisSystema Sexuale,were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to hisordines naturalesin hisPhilosophia Botanica) but only for use in identification. They were used in that sense well into the 19th century.

Key to the Sexual System from the10th (1758) editionofSystema Naturæ

The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were:

• Classis 1.Monandria
• Classis 2.Diandria
• Classis 3.Triandria
• Classis 4.Tetrandria
• Classis 5.Pentandria
• Classis 6.Hexandria
• Classis 7.Heptandria
• Classis 8.Octandria
• Classis 9.Enneandria
• Classis 10.Decandria
• Classis 11.Dodecandria
• Classis 12.Icosandria
• Classis 13.Polyandra
• Classis 14.Didynamia
• Classis 15.Tetradynamia
• Classis 16.Monadelphia
• Classis 17.Diadelphia
• Classis 18.Polyadelphia
• Classis 19.Syngenesia
• Classis 20.Gynandria
• Classis 21.Monoecia
• Classis 22.Dioecia
• Classis 23.Polygamia
• Classis 24.Cryptogamia

Minerals

Linnaeus's taxonomy ofmineralshas long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of theSystema Naturæ,the Linnaean classes were:

• Classis 1. Petræ (rocks)
• Classis 2. Mineræ (mineralsandores)
• Classis 3. Fossilia (fossilsandaggregates)

Editions

Gmelin'sthirteenth (decima tertia) edition ofSystema Naturae(1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limitedSystema Vegetabiliumfirst prepared and published byJohan Andreas Murrayin 1774 (but labelled as "thirteenth edition" ).

Edition	Location	Year	Complete bibliographical citation	Links to online versions
1	Leiden	1735	Linnæus, C. 1735. Systema naturæ, sive regna tria naturæ systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. – pp. [1–12]. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak)	Missouri Botanical Garden
2	Stockholm	1740	Linnæus, C. 1740. Systema naturæ in quo naturæ regna tria, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponuntur. Editio secunda, auctior. – pp. [1–2], 1–80. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter)	Internet Archive
3	Halle	1740	Lange, J. J. 1740. Caroli Linnaei systema natvrae, sive Regna tria natvrae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera et species. Caroli Linnaei Natur-Systema, oder die in ordentlichem Zusammenhange vorgetragene drey Reiche der Natur nach ihren Classen, Ordnungen, Geschlechtern und Arten, in die deutsche Sprache übersetzet und mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von Johann Joachim Langen. – pp. [1–8], 1–70, [1]. Halle. (Gebauer)	Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
4	Paris	1744	Linnæus, C. 1744. Systema naturæ in quo proponuntur naturæ regna tria secundum classes, ordines, genera & species. Editio quarta ab auctore emendata & aucta. Accesserunt nomina Gallica. – pp. i–xxvi, [1], 1–108. Parisiis. (David.)	Google Books CSIC Madrid
5	Halle	1747	Agnethler, M. G.1747.Caroli Linnæi systema natvræ in qvo natvræ regna tria, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponvntvr. Recvsvm et societatis, qvæ impensas contvlit, vsvi accommodatvm. Editio altera avctior et emendatior.– pp. 1–88. Halæ Magdebvrgicæ.	Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
6	Stockholm	1748	Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Editio sexta, emendata et aucta. – pp. [1–3], 1–224, [1–18], Tab. I–VIII. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter)	SUB Göttingen
7	Leipzig	1748	Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Secundum sextam Stockholmiensem emendatam & auctam editionem. – pp. [A], [1–5], 1–224, [1–22], Tab. I–VIII. Lipsiae. (Kiesewetter)	Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
8	Stockholm	1753	Haartman, J. J. 1753. Caroli Linnæi Indelning i Ö̈rt-Riket, efter Systema Naturae, på Swenska öfwersatt af Johan J. Haartman. – pp. [1–12], 1–136, [1–8]. Stockholm. (Salvius)	Umeå UB
9	Leiden	1756	Linnæus, C. 1756. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta, tabulisque æneis illustrata. Accedunt vocabula gallica. Editio multo auctior & emendatior. – pp. [1–7], 1–227, [1–19], Tab. I–VIII. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak)	New York Botanical Garden Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
10, Vol. 1	Stockholm	1758	Linnæus, C. 1758. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 1–824. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	Bayerische Staatsbibliothek SUB Göttingen Missouri Botanical Garden
10, Vol. 2	Stockholm	1759	Linnæus, C. 1759. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus II. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 825–1384. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	Missouri Botanical Garden
11, Vol. 1	Halle	1760	Linnaeus, C. 1760. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, cvm characteribvs, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomvs I. Praefactvs est Ioannes Ioachimvs Langivs. Ad editionem decimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. [1–8], 1–824. Halae Magdebvrgicae. (Curt). (Linnæus 1758: p. 5 recorded probably this edition as from Leipzig 1762, "nil additum" = nothing added)	New York Botanical Garden (pp. [1–8], 1–338) New York Botanical Garden (pp. 339–824)
12, Vol. 1, part 1	Stockholm	1766	Linné, C. a 1766. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata. – pp. 1–532. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	SUB Göttingen Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
12, Vol. 1, part 2	Stockholm	1767	Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ, Tom. I. Pars II. Editio duodecima reformata. – pp. 533–1327, [1–37]. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	SUB Göttingen Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
12, Vol. 2	Stockholm	1767	Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus II. – pp. 1–735, [1–16], 1–142, [1–2]. Holmiæ. (Salvius)
12, Vol. 3	Stockholm	1768	Linné, C. a 1768. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus III. – pp. 1–236, [1–20], Tab. I–III. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	SUB Göttingen
12a ( "13" ), Vol. 1, part. 1	Vienna	1767	Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. 1–532. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books
12a ( "13" ), Vol. 1, part 2	Vienna	1767	Linné, C. a [1767]. Systema naturæ. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. [1–2], 1–1327, [1–37]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books
12a ( "13" ), Vol. 2	Vienna	1770	Linné, C. a 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs II. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – 1–736, [1–6]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden New York Botanical Garden Google Books
12a ( "13" ), Vol. 3	Vienna	1770	Linnaeus, C. 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs III. – 1–236, [1–19]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books
12b, Vol. 1	Göttingen	1772	Beckmann, J. 1772.Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus I. Regnum Animale.– pp. [1–5], 1–240, [1–10]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck)	NCSU Libraries
12b, Vol. 2	Göttingen	1772	Beckmann, J. 1772.Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus II. Regnum Vegetabile.– pp. 1–356, [1–32]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck)	NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 1	Leipzig	1788	Gmelin, J. F. 1788. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1–12], 1–500. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 2	Leipzig	[1789]	Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. 501–1032. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 3	Leipzig	[1789]	Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars III. – pp. 1033–1516. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 4	Leipzig	[1790]	Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars IV. – pp. 1517–2224. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 5	Leipzig	[1790]	Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars V. – pp. 2225–3020. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 6	Leipzig	[1791]	Gmelin, J. F. [1791]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VI. – pp. 3021–3910. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries
13, Vol. 1, part 7	Leipzig	[1792]	Gmelin, J. F. [1792]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VII. – pp. [1], 3911–4120. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden
13, Vol. 2, part 1	Leipzig	1791	Gmelin, J. F. 1791. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus II. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1], I–XL, 1–884. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
13, Vol. 2, part 2	Leipzig	[1791]?	Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. II. Pars II. – pp. [1], 885–1661, [1]. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
13, Vol. 3	Leipzig	1793	Gmelin, J. F. 1793. Caroli a Linné (...) systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus III. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. 1–476. Lipsiae. (Beer)	Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries Bayerische Staatsbibliothek

The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:

• Part 1: pp. [1–12], 1–500 (25 July 1788)
• Part 2: pp. 501–1032 (20 April 1789)
• Part 3: pp. 1033–1516 (20 November 1789)
• Part 4: pp. 1517–2224 (21 May 1790)
• Part 5: pp. 2225–3020 (6 December 1790)
• Part 6: pp. 3021–3910 (14 May 1791)
• Part 7: pp. 3911–4120 (2 July 1792)

See also

• Supplementum Plantarum
• Animalia Paradoxa
• 10th edition ofSystema Naturae
• 12th edition ofSystema Naturae
• Systema Vegetabilium
• English edition by William Turton, translated from Gmelin's last edition.https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.37018

Bibliography

In Latin

• Linné, Carl von(1774). Murray, Johann Andreas (ed.).Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae)(2 vols.).Göttingen:Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich.Retrieved24 February2015.
  • Linné, Carl von (1785) [1774].Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae)[A System of Vegetables 2 vols.]. Lichfield:Lichfield Botanical Society.Retrieved24 February2015.

In English translation

• A General System of Naturetranslated by William Turton. Lackington, Allen, and Company, January 1806 (free, registration required)

External links

• Linné online
• Systema Naturaeis available for free viewing and download at theInternet Archive