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Symphonic poem

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"Tone poem" redirects here. For other uses, seeTone Poems.

Asymphonic poemortone poemis a piece of orchestral music, usually in a single continuousmovement,which illustrates or evokes the content of a poem, short story, novel, painting,landscape,or other (non-musical) source. The German termTondichtung(tone poem) appears to have been first used by the composerCarl Loewein 1828. The Hungarian composerFranz Lisztfirst applied the termSymphonische Dichtungtohis 13 works in this vein,which commenced in 1848.

While many symphonic poems may compare in size and scale tosymphonicmovements(or even reach the length of an entire symphony), they are unlike traditional classical symphonic movements, in that their music is intended to inspire listeners to imagine or consider scenes, images, specific ideas or moods, and not (necessarily) to focus on following traditional patterns ofmusical formsuch assonata form.This intention to inspire listeners was a direct consequence ofRomanticism,which encouraged literary, pictorial and dramatic associations in music. According to themusicologistHugh Macdonald,the symphonic poem met three 19th-centuryaestheticgoals: it related music to outside sources; it often combined or compressed multiple movements into a single principal section; and it elevated instrumentalprogram musicto an aesthetic level that could be regarded as equivalent to, or higher thanopera.[1]The symphonic poem remained a popular composition form from the 1840s until the 1920s, when composers began to abandon thegenre.

Symphonic poems are thought to bridge the gap between different modes of expression. Much research has been done on thesemioticrelationship between symphonic poems and their extra-musical inspiration, such as art, literature and nature.[2]Composers used many different musical gestures to evoke a non-musical concept. Some musical gestures appear to be literal representations of their non-musical counterparts. For example,Sergei Rachmaninoffuses anuneven 5/8time signaturethroughoutThe Isle of the Deadin order to suggest the rocking of a boat.[3]InRichard Strauss’sDeath and Transfiguration,the composer uses the orchestra to mimic the sound of an irregular heartbeat and labored breathing.[4]Other musical gestures capture the essence of the subject on a more abstract level. For example, In Franz Liszt’sHamlet,Liszt portrays the complex relation betweenHamletandOpheliaby juxtaposing a somber motif that is harmonically inconclusive (Hamlet) against a tranquil and harmonically conclusive motif (Ophelia), and developing the music from these principles.[2]InDeath and Transfiguration,a sprightly melody in a major key evokes childhood.[4]

Some piano andchamber works,such asArnold Schoenberg'sstring sextetVerklärte Nacht,have similarities with symphonic poems in their overall intent and effect. However, the term symphonic poem is generally accepted to refer to orchestral works. A symphonic poem may stand on its own (as do those ofRichard Strauss), or it can be part of a series combined into asymphonicsuiteor cycle. For example,The Swan of Tuonela(1895) is a tone poem fromJean Sibelius'sLemminkäinen Suite,andVltava(The Moldau) byBedřich Smetanais part of the six-work cycleMá vlast.

While the termssymphonic poemandtone poemhave often been used interchangeably, some composers such asRichard StraussandJean Sibeliushave preferred the latter term for their works.

Background[edit]

The first use of the German termTondichtung(tone poem) appears to have been byCarl Loewe,applied not to an orchestral work but to his piece for piano solo,Mazeppa,Op. 27 (1828), based on thepoem of that namebyLord Byron,and written twelve years beforeLiszt treated the same subjectorchestrally.[5]

The musicologist Mark Bonds suggests that in the second quarter of the 19th century, the future of the symphonic genre seemed uncertain. While many composers continued to write symphonies during the 1820s and '30s, "there were a growing sense that these works were aesthetically far inferior toBeethoven's.... The real question was not so much whether symphonies could still be written, but whether the genre could continue to flourish and grow. "[6]Felix Mendelssohn,Robert SchumannandNiels Gadeachieved successes with their symphonies, putting at least a temporary stop to the debate as to whether the genre was dead.[7]Nevertheless, composers began to explore the "more compact form" of theconcert overture"...as a vehicle within which to blend musical, narrative and pictoral ideas." Examples included Mendelssohn's overturesA Midsummer Night's Dream(1826) andThe Hebrides(1830).[7]

Between 1845 and 1847, the Belgian composerCésar Franckwrote an orchestral piece based onVictor Hugo's poemCe qu'on entend sur la montagne.The work exhibits characteristics of a symphonic poem, and some musicologists, such asNorman Demuthand Julien Tiersot, consider it the first of its genre, preceding Liszt's compositions.[8][9]However, Franck did not publish or perform his piece; neither did he set about defining the genre. Liszt's determination to explore and promote the symphonic poem gained him recognition as the genre's inventor.[10]

Liszt[edit]

Main article:Symphonic poems (Liszt)
Franz Liszt in 1858

The Hungarian composerFranz Lisztdesired to expand single-movement works beyond the concert overture form.[11]The music of overtures is to inspire listeners to imagine scenes, images, or moods; Liszt intended to combine those programmatic qualities with a scale and musical complexity normally reserved for the opening movement of classical symphonies.[12]The opening movement, with its interplay of contrasting themes undersonata form,was normally considered the most important part of the symphony.[13]To achieve his objectives, Liszt needed a more flexible method of developing musical themes than sonata form would allow, but one that would preserve the overall unity of a musical composition.[14][15]

Liszt found his method through two compositional practices, which he used in his symphonic poems. The first practice wascyclic form,a procedure established by Beethoven in which certain movements are not only linked but actually reflect one another's content.[16]Liszt took Beethoven's practice one step further, combining separate movements into a single-movement cyclic structure.[16][17]Many of Liszt's mature works follow this pattern, of whichLes préludesis one of the best-known examples.[17]The second practice wasthematic transformation,a type of variation in which one theme is changed, not into a related or subsidiary theme but into something new, separate and independent.[17]As musicologistHugh Macdonaldwrote of Liszt's works in this genre, the intent was "to display the traditional logic of symphonic thought;"[11]that is, to display a comparable complexity in the interplay of musical themes and tonal 'landscape' to those of the Romanticsymphony.

Thematic transformation, like cyclic form, was nothing new in itself. It had been previously used by Mozart and Haydn.[18]In the final movement of hisNinth Symphony,Beethoven had transformed the theme of the "Ode to Joy" into a Turkish march.[19]Weber andBerliozhad also transformed themes, and Schubert used thematic transformation to bind together the movements of hisWanderer Fantasy,a work that had a tremendous influence on Liszt.[19][20]However, Liszt perfected the creation of significantly longer formal structures solely through thematic transformation, not only in the symphonic poems but in others works such as hisSecond Piano Concerto[19]and hisPiano Sonata in B minor.[15]In fact, when a work had to be shortened, Liszt tended to cut sections of conventional musical development and preserve sections of thematic transformation.[21]

While Liszt had been inspired to some extent by the ideas ofRichard Wagnerin unifying ideas of drama and music via the symphonic poem,[22]Wagner gave Liszt's concept only lukewarm support in his 1857 essayOn the Symphonic Poems of Franz Liszt,and was later tobreak entirely with Liszt's Weimar circleover their aesthetic ideals.[citation needed]

Czech composers[edit]

Composers who developed the symphonic poem after Liszt were mainly Bohemian, Russian, and French; the Bohemians and Russians showed the potential of the form as a vehicle for thenationalistideas fomenting in their respective countries at this time.[11]Bedřich Smetanavisited Liszt in Weimar in the summer of 1857, where he heard the first performances of theFaust Symphonyand the symphonic poemDie Ideale.[23]Influenced by Liszt's efforts, Smetana began a series of symphonic works based on literary subjects—Richard III(1857–58),Wallenstein's Camp(1858–59) andHakon Jarl(1860–61). A piano work dating from the same period,Macbeth a čarodějnice(Macbeth and the Witches,1859), is similar in scope but bolder in style.[11]Musicologist John Clapham writes that Smetana planned these works as "a compact series of episodes" drawn from their literary sources "and approached them as a dramatist rather than as a poet or philosopher."[24]He used musical themes to represent specific characters; in this manner he more closely followed the practice of French composerHector Berliozin hischoral symphonyRoméo et Juliettethan that of Liszt.[25]By doing so, Hugh Macdonald writes, Smetana followed "a straightforward pattern of musical description".[11]

Vyšehrad over the Vltava River, evoked musically in the first poem of Smetana'sMá vlast.

Smetana's set of six symphonic poems published under the general title ofMá vlastbecame his greatest achievements in the genre. Composed between 1872 and 1879, the cycle embodies its composer's personal belief in the greatness of the Czech nation while presenting selected episodes and ideas from Czech history.[11]Two recurrent musical themes unify the entire cycle. One theme represents Vyšehrad, the fortress over the riverVltavawhose course provides the subject matter for the second (and best-known) work in the cycle; the other is the ancient Czech hymn"Ktož jsú boží bojovníci"( "Ye who are God's warriors" ), which unites the cycle's last two poems,TáborandBlaník.[26]

While expanding the form to a unified cycle of symphonic poems, Smetana created what Macdonald terms "one of the monuments of Czech music"[27]and, Clapham writes, "extended the scope and purpose of the symphonic poem beyond the aims of any later composer".[28]Clapham adds that in his musical depiction of scenery in these works, Smetana "established a new type of symphonic poem, which led eventually to Sibelius'sTapiola".[29]Also, in showing how to apply new forms for new purposes, Macdonald writes that Smetana "began a profusion of symphonic poems from his younger contemporaries in the Czech lands and Slovakia", includingAntonín Dvořák,Zdeněk Fibich,Leoš JanáčekandVítězslav Novák.[27]

Dvořák wrote two groups of symphonic poems, which date from the 1890s. The first, which Macdonald variously calls symphonic poems and overtures,[27]forms a cycle similar toMá vlast,with a single musical theme running through all three pieces. Originally conceived as a trilogy to be titledPříroda, Život a Láska(Nature, Life and Love), they appeared instead as three separate works,V přírodě(In Nature's Realm),CarnivalandOthello.[27]The score forOthellocontains notes from the Shakespeare play, showing that Dvořák meant to write it as a programmatic work;[30]however, the sequence of events and characters portrayed does not correspond to the notes.[27]

The second group of symphonic poems comprises five works. Four of them—The Water Goblin,The Noon Witch,The Golden Spinning WheelandThe Wild Dove—are based on poems fromKarel Jaromír Erben'sKytice(Bouquet) collection offairy tales.[27][30]In these four poems, Dvořák assigns specific musical themes for important characters and events in the drama.[30]ForThe Golden Spinning Wheel,Dvořák arrived at these themes by setting lines from the poems to music.[27][30]He also follows Liszt and Smetana's example of thematic transformation, metamorphosing the king's theme inThe Golden Spinning Wheelto represent the wicked stepmother and also the mysterious, kindly old man found in the tale.[30]Macdonald writes that while these works may seem diffuse by symphonic standards, their literary sources actually define the sequence of events and the course of the musical action.[27]Clapham adds that while Dvořák may follow the narrative complexities ofThe Golden Spinning Wheeltoo closely, "the lengthy repetition at the beginning ofThe Noon Witchshows Dvořák temporarily rejecting a precise representation of the ballad for the sake of an initial musical balance ".[30]The fifth poem,Heroic Song,is the only one not to have a detailed program.[27]

Russia[edit]

The development of the symphonic poem in Russia, as in the Czech lands, stemmed from an admiration for Liszt's music and a devotion to national subjects.[27]Added to this was the Russian love of story-telling, for which the genre seemed expressly tailored,[27]and led criticVladimir Stasovto write, "Virtually all Russian music is programmatic".[31]Macdonald writes that Stasov and the patriotic group of composers known asThe Fiveor The Mighty Handful, went so far as to hailMikhail Glinka'sKamarinskayaas "a prototype of Russian descriptive music"; despite the fact that Glinka himself denied the piece had any program,[27]he called the work, which is based entirely on Russian folk music, "picturesque music."[32]In this Glinka was influenced by French composerHector Berlioz,whom he met in the summer of 1844.[32]

Hans Baldung Grien,Witches,woodcut, 1508. Mussorgsky'sNight on Bald Mountainwas meant to evoke a witches' sabbath.

At least three of the Five fully embraced the symphonic poem.Mily Balakirev'sTamara(1867–82) richly evokes the fairy-tale orient and, while remaining closely based on the poem byMikhail Lermontov,remains well-paced and full of atmosphere.[27]Balakirev's other two symphonic poems,In Bohemia(1867, 1905) andRussia(1884 version) lack the same narrative content; they are actually looser collections of national melodies and were originally written as concert overtures. Macdonald callsModest Mussorgsky'sNight on Bald MountainandAlexander Borodin'sIn the Steppes of Central Asia"powerful orchestral pictures, each unique in its composer's output".[27]Titled a "musical portrait",In the Steppes of Central Asiaevokes the journey of acaravanacross thesteppes.[33]Night on Bald Mountain,especially its original version, containsharmonythat is often striking, sometimes pungent and highly abrasive; its initial stretches especially pull the listener into a world of uncompromisingly brutal directness and energy.[34]

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakovwrote only two orchestral works that rank as symphonic poems, his "musical tableau"Sadko(1867–92) andSkazka(Legend,1879–80), originally titledBaba-Yaga.While this may perhaps be surprising,[according to whom?]considering his love for Russian folklore, both his symphonicsuitesAntarandScheherazadeare conceived in a similar manner to these works. Russian folklore also provided material for symphonic poems byAlexander Dargomyzhsky,Anatoly LyadovandAlexander Glazunov.Glazunov'sStenka Razinand Lyadov'sBaba-YagaKikimoraandThe Enchanted Lakeare all based on national subjects.[27]The Lyadov works' lack of purposeful harmonic rhythm (an absence less noticeable inBaba-YagaandKikimoradue to a superficial but still exhilarating bustle and whirl) produces a sense of unreality and timelessness much like the telling of an oft-repeated and much loved fairy tale.[35]

While none ofPyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's symphonic poems has a Russian subject, they hold musical form and literary material in fine balance.[27](Tchaikovsky did not callRomeo and Julieta symphonic poem but rather a "fantasy-overture", and the work may actually be closer to aconcert overturein its relatively stringent use ofsonata form.It was the suggestion of the work's musical mid-wife, Balakirev, to baseRomeostructurally on hisKing Lear,a tragic overture in sonata form after the example ofBeethoven's overtures.)[36]R.W.S. Mendl, writing inThe Musical Quarterly,states that Tchaikovsky was by temperament peculiarly well-fitted for the composition of symphonic poems. Even his works in other instrumental forms are very free in structure and frequently partake of the nature of programme music.[37]

Among later Russian symphonic poems,Sergei Rachmaninoff'sThe Rockshows as much the influence of Tchaikovsky's work asIsle of the Dead(1909) does its independence from it. A similar debt to his teacher Rimsky-Korsakov imbuesIgor Stravinsky'sThe Song of the Nightingale,excerpted from his operaThe Nightingale.Alexander Scriabin'sThe Poem of Ecstasy(1905–08) andPrometheus: The Poem of Fire(1908–10), in their projection of an egocentric theosophic world unequalled in other symphonic poems, are notable for their detail and advanced harmonic idiom.[27]

Socialist realismin the Soviet Union allowed program music to survive longer there than in western Europe, as typified byDmitri Shostakovich's symphonic poemOctober(1967).[26]

France[edit]

Michael Wolgemut,The Dance of Death(1493) from theLiber chronicarumbyHartmann Schedel,evoked musically in Saint-Saëns'Danse macabre.

While France was less concerned than other countries with nationalism,[38]it still had a well-established tradition of narrative and illustrative music reaching back to Berlioz andFélicien David.For this reason, French composers were attracted to the poetic elements of the symphonic poem. In fact,César Franckhad written an orchestral piece based on Hugo's poemCe qu'on entend sur la montagnebefore Liszt did so himself as his first numbered symphonic poem.[39]

The symphonic poem came into vogue in France in the 1870s, supported by the newly founded Société Nationale and its promotion of younger French composers. In the year after its foundation, 1872,Camille Saint-Saënscomposed hisLe rouet d'Omphale,soon following it with three more, the most famous of which became theDanse macabre(1874).[39]In all four of these works Saint-Saëns experimented withorchestrationandthematic transformation.La jeunesse d'Hercule(1877) was written closest in style to Liszt. The other three concentrate on some physical movement—spinning, riding, dancing—which is portrayed in musical terms. He had previously experimented with thematic transformation in his program overtureSpartacus;he would later use it in hisFourth Piano ConcertoandThird Symphony.[40]

After Saint-Saëns cameVincent d'Indy.While d'Indy called his trilogyWallenstein(1873, 1879–81) "three symphonic overtures", the cycle is similar to Smetana'sMá vlastin overall scope.Henri Duparc'sLenore(1875) displayed a Wagnerian warmth in its writing and orchestration. Franck wrote the delicately evocativeLes Éolides,following it with the narrativeLe Chasseur mauditand the piano-and-orchestral tone poemLes Djinns,conceived in much the same manner as Liszt'sTotentanz.Ernest Chausson'sVivaneillustrates the penchant shown by the Franck circle for mythological subjects.[39]

Frontispiece forL'après-midi d'un faune,drawing byÉdouard Manet.

Claude Debussy'sPrélude à l'après-midi d'un faune(1892–94), intended initially as part of atriptych,is, in the composer's words, "a very free... succession of settings through which the Faun's desires and dreams move in the afternoon heat."Paul Dukas'The Sorcerer's Apprenticefollows the narrative vein of symphonic poem, whileMaurice Ravel'sLa valse(1921) is considered by some critics a parody of Vienna in an idiom no Viennese would recognize as his own.[39]Albert Roussel's first symphonic poem, based onLeo Tolstoy's novelResurrection(1903), was soon followed byLe Poème de forêt(1904–06), which is in four movements written incyclic form.Pour une fête de printemps(1920), initially conceived as the slow movement of his Second Symphony.Charles Koechlinalso wrote several symphonic poems, the best known of which are included in his cycle based onThe Jungle BookbyRudyard Kipling.[39]Through these works, he defended the viability of the symphonic poem long after it had gone out of vogue.[41]

Germany[edit]

Honoré Daumier,Painting ofDon Quixote,c. 1855–1865
See also:Tone poems (Strauss)

Both Liszt andRichard Straussworked in Germany, but while Liszt may have invented the symphonic poem and Strauss brought it to its highest point,[39][42]overall the form was less well received there than in other countries.Johannes BrahmsandRichard Wagnerdominated the German musical scene, but neither wrote symphonic poems; instead, they devoted themselves completely tomusic drama(Wagner) andabsolute music(Brahms). Therefore, other than Strauss and numerous concert overtures by others, there are only isolated symphonic poems by German and Austrian composers—Hugo Wolf'sPenthesilea(1883–85),Alexander von Zemlinsky'sDie Seejungfrau(1902-03) andArnold Schoenberg'sPelleas und Melisande(1902–03). Because of its clear relationship between poem and music, Schoenberg'sVerklärte Nacht(1899) for string sextet has been characterised as a non-orchestral 'symphonic poem'.[39]

Alexander Ritter,who himself composed six symphonic poems in the vein of Liszt's works, directly influencedRichard Straussin writing program music. Strauss wrote on a wide range of subjects, some of which had been previously considered unsuitable to set to music, including literature, legend, philosophy and autobiography. The list includesMacbeth(1886–87),Don Juan(1888–89),Death and Transfiguration(1888–89),Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks(1894–95),Also sprach Zarathustra(Thus Spoke Zoroaster,1896),Don Quixote(1897),Ein Heldenleben(A Hero's Life,1897–98),Symphonia Domestica(Domestic Symphony,1902–03) andAn Alpine Symphony(1911–1915).[39]

In these works, Strauss takesrealismin orchestral depiction to unprecedented lengths, widening the expressive functions of program music as well as extending its boundaries.[39]Because of his virtuosic use of orchestration, the descriptive power and vividness of these works is extremely marked. He usually employs a large orchestra, often with extra instruments, and he often uses instrumental effects for sharp characterization, such as portraying the bleating of sheep withcuivrébrass inDon Quixote.[43]Strauss's handling of form is also worth noting, both in his use ofthematic transformationand his handling of multiple themes in intricatecounterpoint.His use ofvariation forminDon Quixoteis handled exceptionally well,[43]as is his use ofrondoform inTill Eulenspiegel.[43]As Hugh Macdonald points out in theNew Grove(1980), "Strauss liked to use a simple but descriptive theme—for instance the three-note motif at the opening ofAlso sprach Zarathustra,or striding, vigorousarpeggiosto represent the manly qualities of his heroes. His love themes are honeyed and chromatic and generally richly scored, and he is often fond of the warmth and serenity ofdiatonic harmonyas balm after torrentialchromatictextures, notably at the end ofDon Quixote,where the solo cello has a surpassingly beautiful D major transformation of the main theme. "[43]

Other countries and decline[edit]

Jean Sibelius

Jean Sibeliusshowed a great affinity for the form, writing well over a dozen symphonic poems and numerous shorter works. These works span his entire career, fromEn saga(1892) toTapiola(1926), expressing more clearly than anything else his identification to Finland and its mythology. TheKalevalaprovided ideal episodes and texts for musical setting; this coupled with Sibelius's natural aptitude for symphonic writing allowed him to write taut, organic structures for many of these works, especiallyTapiola(1926).Pohjola's Daughter(1906), which Sibelius called a "symphonic fantasy", is the most closely dependent on its program while also showing a sureness of outline rare in other composers.[43]With the compositional approach he took from theThird Symphonyonward, Sibelius sought to overcome the distinction between symphony and tone poem to fuse their most basic principles—the symphony's traditional claims of weight, musical abstraction, gravitas and formal dialogue with seminal works of the past; and the tone poem's structural innovation and spontaneity, identifiable poetic content and inventive sonority. However, the stylistic distinction between symphony, "fantasy" and tone poem in Sibelius's late works becomes blurred since ideas first sketched for one piece ended up in another.[44]One of Sibelius's greatest works,Finlandia,focuses on Finnish independence. He wrote it in 1901 and added choral lyrics – theFinlandiahymnbyVeikko Antero Koskenniemi– to the central part afterFinlandbecame independent.

The symphonic poem did not enjoy as clear a sense of national identity in other countries, even though numerous works of the kind were written. Composers includedArnold BaxandFrederick Deliusin Great Britain;Edward MacDowell,Howard Hanson,Ferde GroféandGeorge Gershwinin the United States;Carl Nielsenin Denmark;Zygmunt NoskowskiandMieczysław Karłowiczin Poland andOttorino Respighiin Italy. Also, with the rejection of Romantic ideals in the 20th century and their replacement with ideals of abstraction and independence of music, the writing of symphonic poems went into decline.[43]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Macdonald,New Grove (1980),18:428.
  2. ^abAlons, McKenzie C. (2020)."Hamlet as Music: A Study in the Semantics of Symphonic Poetry".Selected Honors Theses(133) – via FireScholars.
  3. ^Gitz, Raymond J. (1990)."A Study of Musical and Extra-Musical Imagery in Rachmaninoff'sÉtudes-Tableaux,Opus 33 ".LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses(5049) – via LSU Scholarly Repository.
  4. ^abHarberg, Amanda Coakley (2019).Issues of Meaning and Structure in the Symphonic Poem(PhD thesis). Rutgers University.Retrieved9 May2024.
  5. ^Linda Nicholson 2015),"Carl Loewe: Piano Music Volume One",liner notes toToccata ClassicsCD TOCC0278, pp. 5–6. Accessed 14 January 2016.
  6. ^Bonds 2001,24:837–8.
  7. ^abBonds 2001,24:838
  8. ^Ulrich, 228.
  9. ^Murray, 214.
  10. ^Macdonald,New Grove (2001),24:802, 804; Trevitt and Fauquet,New Grove (2001),9:178, 182.
  11. ^abcdefMacdonald,New Grove (1980),18:429.
  12. ^Spencer, P., 1233
  13. ^Larue and Wolf,New Grove (2001),24:814–815.
  14. ^Searle,New Grove(1980), 11:41.
  15. ^abSearle,Works,61.
  16. ^abWalker,Weimar,357.
  17. ^abcSearle, "Orchestral Works", 281.
  18. ^Macdonald,New Grove(1980), 19:117.
  19. ^abcWalker,Weimar,310.
  20. ^Searle,Music,60–61.
  21. ^Walker,Weimar,323 footnote 37.
  22. ^'Wagner's Faust Overture (1840, revised 1855) had an important formative influence on Liszt and indicates how closely Wagner's imaginative world might have approached the symphonic poem had he not devoted himself so single-mindedly to music drama'. Macdonald,New Grove (1980),18:429.
  23. ^Clapham,New Grove (1980),17:392, 399.
  24. ^New Grove (1980),17:399.
  25. ^Clapham,New Grove (1980),17:399.
  26. ^abMacdonald,New Grove (1980),18:429–30.
  27. ^abcdefghijklmnopqMacdonald,New Grove (1980),18:430.
  28. ^Clapham,New Grove (1980),17:399–400.
  29. ^Clapham,New Grove (1980),17:400.
  30. ^abcdefClapham,New Grove (1980),5:779.
  31. ^As quoted in Macdonald,New Grove (1980)18:430.
  32. ^abMaes, 27.
  33. ^Barnes 1980,3:59.
  34. ^Brown,Mussorgsky,92.
  35. ^Spencer, J., 11:384.
  36. ^Maes, 64, 73.
  37. ^Mendl, Robert William Sigismund (1932). "The Art of the Symphonic Poem".The Musical Quarterly.18(3): 443–462.doi:10.1093/mq/XVIII.3.443.ISSN0027-4631.JSTOR738887.
  38. ^Spencer, 1233
  39. ^abcdefghiMacdonald, 18:431.
  40. ^Fallon and Ratner,New Grove 2,22:127.
  41. ^Orledge, 10:146.
  42. ^Spencer, 1234.
  43. ^abcdefMacdonald,New Grove (1980),18:432.
  44. ^Hepokoski,New Grove 2,23:334.

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  • Macdonald, Hugh, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Transformation, thematic",The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition(London: Macmillan, 2001), 29 vols.ISBN0-333-60800-3
  • Maes, Francis, tr.Arnold J. Pomeransand Erica Pomerans,A History of Russian Music: FromKamarinskayatoBabi Yar (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London:University of California Press,2002).ISBN0-520-21815-9
  • Mueller, Rena Charin:Liszt's "Tasso" Sketchbook: Studies in Sources and Revisions,Ph.D. dissertation, New York University 1986.
  • Murray, Michael, French Masters of the Organ: Saint-Saëns, Franck, Widor, Vierne, Dupré, Langlais, Messiaen (New Haven and London:Yale University Press,1998).
  • Orledge, Robert, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Koechlin, Charles",The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians(London: Macmillan, 1980), 20 vols.ISBN0-333-23111-2
  • Sadie, Stanley, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Opera: I. General",The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians(London: Macmillan, 1980), 20 vols.ISBN0-333-23111-2
  • Schonberg, Harold C.,The Great Conductors(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-19821.
  • Searle, Humphrey,ed Stanley Sadie, "Liszt, Franz",The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,1st ed. (London: Macmillan, 1980), 20 vols.ISBN0-333-23111-2
  • Searle, Humphrey, ed. Alan Walker, "The Orchestral Works",Franz Liszt: The Man and His Music(New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1970). SBN 8008-2990-5
  • Shulstad, Reeves, ed. Kenneth Hamilton, "Liszt's symphonic poems and symphonies",The Cambridge Companion to Liszt(Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,2005).ISBN0-521-64462-3(paperback).
  • Spencer, Jennifer, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Lyadov, Anatol Konstantinovich",The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians(London: Macmillan, 1980), 20 vols.ISBN0-333-23111-2
  • Spencer, Piers, ed. Allison Latham, "Symphonic poem [tone-poem]",The Oxford Companion to Music(Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).ISBN0-19-866212-2
  • Temperley, Nicholas,ed. Stanley Sadie, "Overture",The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), 29 vols.ISBN0-333-60800-3
  • Ulrich, Homer,Symphonic Music: Its Evolution since the Renaissance(New York:Columbia University Press,1952).
  • Walker, Alan,Franz Liszt, Volume 2: The Weimar Years, 1848–1861(New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1989).ISBN0-394-52540-X

External links[edit]

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