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1220s

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The1220swas a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1220, and ended on December 31, 1229.

Events

1220

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By place

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Fifth Crusade
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  • July– The Crusaders, led by theKnights Hospitaller,raidBurlus,located in theNile DeltainEgypt.The town is pillaged, but the knights are ambushed on their return, and several Hospitallers, including Grand MasterGuérin de Montaigu,are captured. Meanwhile, SultanAl-Kamilsends an Egyptian squadron down theRosetta branchof theNile.It sails toCyprus,where it finds a Crusader fleet lying offLimassol.During the attack, they sink and capture all the ships, taking many thousands of prisoners.[1]
  • Summer – The Crusader army is trapped by a Nile flood atDamietta.CardinalPelagiussends a Venetian squadron to intercept the Egyptian fleet, and attacks the harbours of Rosetta andAlexandria,but to no effect. Lack of money prevents Pelagius from building a sufficient number of ships, and the papal treasury can not spare him anymore. In September more of the Crusaders return home.[2]
Mongol Empire
[edit]
  • Spring – The Mongol army (some 100,000 men) led byGenghis Khancrosses theKyzylkum Desert– a freezing sand-and-tussock wilderness of some 450 kilometers – towardsBukhara.Meanwhile,Muhammad II,ruler of theKhwarazmian Empire,prepares a strong defense around his capitalSamarkand.In February, Genghis approaches Bukhara, which is defended by a garrison of some 20,000 men, and begins theSiege of Bukhara.The city leaders open the gates to the Mongols, but Turkish forces who defend the city's citadel hold out for another twelve days.[3]In a speech at the city's Friday Mosque, Genghis declares "I am the punishment of God."[4]
  • March – Mongol forces led by Genghis Khan besiege Samarkand, the city is defended by some 40,000 men, including a brigade of 20 war elephants. On the third day, the garrison launches a counter-attack, the defenders sent out their elephants, which panic, turn and trample their own men before escaping onto the open plain. Muhammad II attempts to relieve Samarkand twice but is driven back. After a week, the remainder of the garrison surrenders. The city's inhabitants, numbering some 100,000 are enslaved or slaughtered.[5]
  • Summer – Muhammad II flees westwards across northernIran,hoping to find safety in the rugged and isolated region ofMazandaranon the southern coast of theCaspian Sea.He is pursued by 20,000 Mongol forces led bySubutaiandJebe(the Arrow). Abandoned by the remnants of his panic-stricken troops, Muhammad seeks shelter on a small island nearAstara.There he dies ofpleurisysome weeks later. He is succeeded by his sonJalal al-Din Mangburni,who is forced to flee toIndiaafter theMongol invasion(see1219).[6]
  • Autumn – Genghis Khan moves against the wealthy city ofUrgench.He is joined by his eldest sonJochi,now conqueror of half a dozen lesser towns who attacks it from the north. Despite a stout defense, the city is taken after a 5-months siege. The Mongols have to fight for Urgench street by street, razing many houses. Jochi is given the right to loot the city for himself, but prefers to negotiate with the locals to avoid property damage. This is refused by Genghis, who removes Jochi from command and appointsÖgedeiinstead.[7]
  • November – Genghis Khan dispatches his youngest sonTolui,at the head of an army (around 50,000 men), into the Khwarazmian province ofKhorasan.His forces also include 300 catapults, 700mangonelsto discharge pots filled withnaphtha,4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up moats. Among the first cities to fall isTermez(captured after a two-day siege) and laterBalkh.[8]
United Kingdom
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Europe
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Levant
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By topic

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Religion
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Education
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1221

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By place

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Byzantine Empire
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Fifth Crusade
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  • June– SultanAl-Kamilagain offers peace terms to CardinalPelagiuswith the cession ofJerusalemand allPalestineapart fromOultrejordain,together with a 30 years' truce and money compensation for the dismantling of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, a German contingent underLouis I of Bavariaarrives atDamietta,with orders from Frederick II not to launch an attack onCairountil the emperor's arrival. Louis and Pelagius decide to advance intoEgypttowardsMansoura,where Al-Kamil has built a fortress to protect Cairo. The Crusaders assemble their armies and tents are set up just up theNile,onJune 29.[13]
  • July 4– Pelagius orders a three-days fast in preparation for the advance. KingJohn I of Jerusalemarrives at Damietta to rejoin the Crusade at the command of Honorius III. The Crusader force moves towardsSheremsah,halfway betweenFaraskurand Mansoura on the east bank of the Nile, occupying the city onJuly 12.Sources tell of 630 ships of various sizes, 5,000 knights, 4,000 archers, and 40,000 men. A horde of pilgrims march with the army. They are ordered to keep close to the river, to supply the Crusaders with water. Pelagius plans a new offensive and leaves a large garrison at Damietta.[14]
  • July 24– Pelagius moves the Crusader forces nearAshmun al-Rumman,on the opposite bank from Mansoura. Queen-RegentAlice of Cyprusand leaders of the military orders warn Pelagius of a large Muslim army being formed inSyria.Meanwhile, the Egyptian army under Al-Kamil crosses the Nile nearLake Manzalehand establishes themselves between the Crusader camp and Damietta. In the Ushmum canal at Sheremsah, Al-Kamil's ships sail down the Nile and block the Crusaders' line of communications to Damietta. In August, Pelagius orders a retreat, but the route is cut off by Egyptians.[15]
  • August 26–28–Battle of Mansoura:The Crusader army led by Pelagius and John I of Jerusalem is defeated by the Egyptian forces at Mansoura. John and the military orders fight a last stand on the river banks of the Nile. He beats off a Nubian assault (supported by elite Turkish cavalry) and drives them back, but only after thousands of soldiers have perished. The remaining Crusaders are surrounded by Al-Kamil's forces and begin a desperate retreat to Damietta. The city is well-garrisoned and supplied with arms; a naval squadron underHenry, Count of Malta( "Enrico Pescatore" ) defends the harbour against the Egyptians.[16]The Crusaders retreat under cover of darkness. Many of the soldiers cannot bear to abandon their stores of wine, and drink them all rather than leave them. TheTeutonic Knightsset fire to the stores that they cannot carry, thus informing the Egyptians that they are abandoning their positions. In the meantime, Al-Kamil orders opening of the sluices along the right bank of the Nile, flooding the area. Pelagius on his ship is carried by the floodwaters past the blockading Egyptian fleet. Other ships, carrying the medical supplies of the army and much of its food, escape, but many are captured.[17]
  • August 28– Pelagius sues for peace and sends an envoy to Al-Kamil. The terms of surrender are accepted, which includes the retreat from Damietta – leaving Egypt with the remnants of the Crusader army and an 8-year truce. After prisoners are exchanged, Al-Kamil enters Damietta onSeptember 8.TheFifth Crusadeends with nothing gained for the West, with much lost, men, resources and reputations. The Crusaders blame Frederick II for not being there. Pelagius is accused of ineffectual leadership and a misguided view, which has led to rejecting the sultan's peace offerings.[18]
Mongol Empire
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  • Spring –Genghis Khanorders an armed reconnaissance expedition into theCaucasus(consisting ofGeorgiaandArmenia) under the command ofSubutaiandJebe( "the Arrow" ). The Mongols defeat two Georgian armies aroundTbilisi,but lack the will or equipment to besiege the capital city. During the fighting, KingGeorge IV of Georgiahimself is severely wounded and his elite knights are massacred. The Mongols then return toAzerbaijanandPersia,and burn and pillage a few more cities.[19]
  • February – The cities ofMerv(perhaps the world's largest up to this date),HeratandNishapurwhich have peacefully surrendered rise up in arms. Genghis Khan sends his sonToluito spend an extra month to subdue the revolts. Contemporary scholars report over a million people are systematically killed in agenocide.[20]
  • September –Battle of Parwan:SultanJalal al-Din Mangburnirecruits an army of Turkic and Afghan warriors numbering some 60,000 men. As soon as news of this reaches Genghis Khan he sends a Mongol army of 30,000 men, led by his stepbrotherShikhikhutug.Meanwhile, Jalal al-Din moves toParwan(modernAfghanistan), where the two armies meet in a narrow valley. Jalal al-Din takes the initiative, ordering his right-wing of Turks to dismount and engage in a skirmish. On the third day, the Mongols are finally defeated by the Khwarezmian forces and are forced to retreat. Shikhikhutug is driven off in defeat, losing over half his army.[21]
  • October – The Mongol army raids Georgia for the second time, and Subutai and Jebe allow their forces to pass through theCaucasus Mountains.[19]
  • November 24–Battle of the Indus:Left with some 20,000 men, Jalal al-Din Mangburni has headed for theIndus Riverwhere Genghis catches up with him. In a desperate battle the Khwarezmain forces are destroyed, completing theMongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire,while Jalal al-Din flees across the river and escapes intoIndia.[20]
Europe
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Britain
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Asia
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Mesoamerica
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1222

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By place

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Asia
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  • After the invasion and destruction of theKhwarezmian Empirein1221,Genghis Khanreturns to Mongolia, and a rebellion sparks inHelmand,to which the response is a large army led byÖgedei Khansent into the region to put an end to the rebellion of Muhammad the Marghani, resulting in the killing of every man inGhazniandHelmand,and the enslavement and selling of most of the women of the region.
  • Genghis Khan’s armies were said to have killed approximately 1.6 million people in the city ofHerat,in Northwestern Afghanistan.[29]
Mesoamerica
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Europe
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1223

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Other events, by place

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Mongol Empire
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  • Spring – The Polovtsian army assembles on theTerek Riverlowlands and are joined byAlan,Circassian,and Don Kipchak/Cumanforces. The Mongol army crosses theCaucasus Mountains,but is trapped in the narrow mountain passes. The Mongol generalsSubutaiandJebe(the Arrow) send an embassy to the Polovtsians and convince them to break their alliance with the Caucasian peoples. The Mongol cavalry invades theCaucasusregion and devastates the local villages, seizing slaves, cattle and horses.[61]
  • The Mongol army invades Polovtsian territory and defeats the Polovtsians in a great battle near theDon River.Several Polovtsian leaders are killed – while the remainder flees westwards, across theDnieper River,to seek support by various Russian princes. Steppe lands east of the Dnieper fall under Mongol control, Subutai and Jebe raise the wealthy city ofAstrakhanon theVolga River.Subutai now parts his forces, he moves south to theCrimea(orTauric Peninsula), while Jebe travels towards the Dnieper.[62]
  • Mongol forces capture the nominally Genoese trading outpost ofSudak,probably with the tacit approval of neighbouring rival Venetian outposts in the Crimea. Subutai promises to destroy any non-Venetian colonies in the area. In return, the Venetians provide Subutai with information about the kingdoms inEastern Europe.Meanwhile,Köten Khan,Cuman/Kipchak chieftain of the Polovtsians, convinces PrinceMstislav MstislavichofGaliciato form an alliance, and informs him of his plight against the Mongols.[63]
  • February– A council of Russian princes summons atKiev;several princes are convinced by Köten Khan to assemble an allied army to drive the Mongols back. During the first half of March, Russian princes return to their principalities and begin to raise forces for the forthcoming campaign. The alliance has a combined force of some 60,000 men, mainly cavalry. Subutai unites his army with Jebe, and sends ambassadors to theKievan Rus'princes, to tell them to stay out of the conflict as it didn't involve them.[63]
  • April– The Russian princes lead their separate armies from different parts ofRussia,to assemble 60 kilometres downriver from Kiev. There are three main groups of princes taking part in the campaign; the Kievan army is represented by Grand PrinceMstislav Romanovich(the Old). The second group are theChernigovandSmolenskarmies under PrinceMstislav II.The third group is the Galician-Volhynian army under Mstislav Mstislavich with his son-in-lawDaniel of Galicia,leaving from northernUkraine.[64]
  • The Mongol leaders Subutai and Jebe receive news thatJochi,who camps north of theCaspian Sea,will not be able to provide the expected reinforcements due to Jochi's reported illness or suspected refusal to obey his fatherGenghis Khan's orders. Subutai sends an embassy to the Russian princes, to offer peace and perhaps attempt to break the Russian alliance with the Polovtsians. But the Mongol ambassadors are executed – a task eagerly carried out by Köten Khan's followers, by the end of April.[64]
  • LateApril– The Russian and Polovtsian armies march down the west bank of the Dnieper River. Within a few days of the march beginning, a second group of Mongol ambassadors appear in the Russian camp and again offer peace. When their offers are rebuffed, the ambassadors are allowed to leave unharmed. Meanwhile, Russian forces from Galicia arrive by boat or cart-loads of equipment and food, along theBlack Seacoast and up the Dnieper River, screened by Mongol forces on the east bank.[63]
  • LateMay– The Mongol army under Subutai and Jebe establishes a defensive position on the Kalka River. Increasing disagreements amongst the Russian princes, about the wisdom of continuing to pursue the Mongols deeper into the steppes. By the end of May, the allied forces reach the banks of the Kalka River. The Polovtsian vanguard is way ahead of the rest of the Russian army, which gives them a triumphant feeling. Meanwhile, Subutai and Jebe set up a trap against the Russian forces.[65]
  • June– Mstislav Mstislavich escapes back to the Dnieper River with the remnants of his Galician army. Mstislav Romanovich (the Old) surrenders and is executed. According to sources, he and other Russian nobles are slowly suffocated to death during a Mongol 'drunken feast', they are tied up and laid flat on the ground beneath what is described as a wooden 'bridge' (or platform), on which Subutai, Jebe and their officers feast. This is revenge for killing the Mongol ambassadors.[66]
  • Battle of Samara Bend:A Volga-Bulgarian army underGhabdula Chelbirdefeats the Mongols, probably led by Subutai, Jebe and Jochi. The Bulgars retreat during the battle but the Mongols pursue them. Then the main Bulgar forces ambush the Mongols. Subutai and Jebe retreat their forces near the city ofSarai(future capital of theGolden Horde), not far from where the Volga River empties into the Caspian Sea.[67]
  • Autumn – Mongol forces under Jochi, Subutai and Jebe attack and defeat the Qangl Turks (eastern Kipchaks orWild Polovtsians), killing their ruler. During the winter, they continue eastwards across theGreat Steppe.Jebe (possibly poisoned) suddenly dies of a fever near theImil River.[68]
Europe
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Asia
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  • Spring – The Mongol army led byMuqali(orMukhali) strikes intoShaanxi Province,attackingChang'anwhile Genghis khan is invading theKhwarazmian Empire.The garrison (some 200,000 men) in Chang'an is too strong and Muqali is forced to pillageFeng County.During the campaign, Muqali becomes seriously ill and dies, while his forces are consolidating their position on both sides of theYellow River.[69]

1224

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January – March

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April – June

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July – September

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  • July 16– (28th day of 6th month ofGennin1);Hōjō Yoshitokibecomes the new regent (shikken) for theKamakura shogunatein Japan after the death of his father,Hōjō Yoshitoki.
  • August 15– The garrison atBedford Castle,belonging toFalkes de Bréauté,surrenders to Henry III after a two month siege that ends after the castle has been undermined by a fire and fallen. After the garrison surrenders, the defenders are all hanged by order of the king. Falkes is allowed to leave the country but loses all his possessions. Bedford Castle is badly damaged as a result.
  • September 14–Francis of Assisi,while praying on the mountain ofLa Vernaduring a 40-day fast, has a vision, as a result of which he receives thestigmata.Brother Leo, who is with Francis at the time, leaves a clear and simple account of this event, the first definite account of the phenomenon of stigmata.[73]
  • September 17– EmperorNing Zongof the ChineseSong Dynastydies atHangzhou,possibly from poisoning, after a 30-year reign. He is succeeded by his relative,Li Zong,as all of Ning Zong's children have died.
  • September–Abdallah al-Adil(the Just), governor in Al-Andalus, challenges the Almohad throne and captures Seville. He marches toMarrakeshto confront Abu Muhammad al-Wahid. Abdallah seizes the royal palace and deposes Muhammad al-Wahid, who is strangled to death.

October – December

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By place

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Byzantine Empire
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Europe
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Asia
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  • Spring – The Mongol army led bySubutaiandJochicross the steppes of modernKazakhstan,and returns to the horde ofGenghis Khanon theIrtyshRiver. At a greatkurultaior gathering of chiefs, Subutai reports on the Western campaign. Jochi submits to Genghis and his supposed 'insubordination' (see1220) is forgiven. As a result of the Mongol invasion in 1219–1223, Kazakhstan andCentral Asiabecome part of theMongol Empire.[77]

1225

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By place

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Mongol Empire
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  • Autumn –Subutaiis assigned a new campaign byGenghis Khanagainst theTanguts.He crosses theGobi Desertwith a Mongol army and advances south into theWestern Xia(orXi Xia). Meanwhile, Genghis, in his mid-sixties, becomes wounded during hunting. His injury – a dislocated shoulder, perhaps, or a bruised rib – forces him to take some rest.[78]
  • Iltutmish,Ghurid ruler of theDelhi Sultanate,repels a Mongol attack and invadesBengal.His rival,Ghiyasuddin,leads an army to halt Iltutmish's advance, but decides to avoid a conflict by paying him tribute and accepting his suzerainty.[79]
Europe
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England
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  • February 11– TheCharter of the Forestis restored to its traditional rights by KingHenry III.'Free men' are allowed to find pasture for their pigs, collect firewood, graze animals, or cut turf for fuel. At this time, however, only about 10 percent of the population is 'free', the rest are locked into service to a local landowner, some of them little more than slaves.[82]
  • TheMagna Cartais reaffirmed (for the third time) by Henry III, in return for issuing a property tax. It becomes the definitive version of the text.[83]
Middle East
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Levant
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Asia
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By topic

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Religion
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1226

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By place

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Europe
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Mongol Empire
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  • Summer –Genghis Khanstarts a campaign against theTanguts,punishing the vassal kingdom ofWestern Xia(orXi Xia) for not contributing to theMongol invasions.He assembles a large force (some 100,000 men), and lays siege toLiangzhou,second-largest city in Western Xia, which surrenders without resistance. In the autumn, Genghis crosses theHelan Mountains,and in November he lays siege toLingwu.Meanwhile, EmperorXian Zongdies and is succeeded by his nephewMo(orLi Xian).[90]
Middle East
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Asia
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By topic

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Art and Culture
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Astronomy
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Religion
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1227

This section istranscludedfrom1227.(edit|history)

By place

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Europe
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Mongol Empire
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Levant
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England
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Asia
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  • Siege of Yinchuan:Mongol forces eliminate theWestern Xia(orXi Xia) and execute EmperorMo(orLi Xian). Genghis Khan dies during the siege under debated circumstances, but this is kept secret from the army until the siege's end. Yinchuan is pillaged and its entire population is slaughtered or sold intoslavery.Genghis orders the imperial family to be executed, effectively ending theTangutroyal lineage.[101]
  • August 18– Genghis Khan dies during the fall ofYinchuanafter a 21-year reign. His exact cause of death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained duringhunting.Genghis is succeeded by his third son, Ögedei Khan, who becomes the "Great Khan" of theMongol Empire.[102]

By topic

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Cities and Towns
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Religion
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1228

This section istranscludedfrom1228.(edit|history)

By place

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Sixth Crusade
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  • Summer – EmperorFrederick IIsails fromBrindisiwith a expeditionary force and arrives inAcrein theMiddle EastonSeptember 7.He disembarks a well-trained and equipped Crusader army (some 10,000 men and 2,000 knights). After his arrival inPalestine,Frederick is again excommunicated by PopeGregory IX,for setting out for the Crusade before he has obtained absolution from his previous ex-communication (see1227). Many of the local nobility, theKnights TemplarandKnights Hospitallerdeny him their support for the Crusade. Frederick can only rely on his own army and theTeutonic Knights,whose Grand Master,Hermann von Salza,is his friend.[106]
  • Autumn – Frederick II receives an embassy of SultanAl-Kamil,includingFakhr al-Din ibn as-Shaikh,at the Hospitaller camp atRecordane,near Acre. Meanwhile, Al-Kamil is engaged in suppressing a rebellion inSyriaand has concentrated his forces on a siege atDamascus.Frederick is pressed for time, because his army is not large enough for a major campaign. Al-Kamil, who has full control ofJerusalem,starts diplomatic negotiations.[107]
  • November – Frederick II puts pressure on the negotiations by a military display. He assembles his Crusader army and marches down the coast toJaffa– which he proceeds to refortify. At the same moment, Ayyubid forces underAn-Nasir Dawud,who are not participating in the revolt at Damascus, move toNablus,to intercept Al-Kamil's supply lines. Al-Kamil breaks off the negotiations, saying that the Crusaders have pillaged several Muslim villages, and only resumes them again when Frederick pays out compensation to the victims.[108]
Europe
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Cities and Towns
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Markets
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  • The city ofTournaiemits its first recordedlife annuity,thus confirming a trend of consolidation of public debts startedten yearsearlier, inReims.[111]
  • The first evidence is uncovered of the use of the Knights Templar as cashiers by KingHenry III of England,to safely transfer important sums to the continent, using letters of exchange. This shows that large transfers could take place acrossEurope,even before the emergence of important networks of Italianmerchant-bankers.[112]
Religion
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1229

This section istranscludedfrom1229.(edit|history)

By place

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Sixth Crusade
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  • February 18–Treaty of Jaffa:EmperorFrederick IIsigns a 10-year truce together with SultanAl-Kamiland his representatives; he manages to regain many parts of theHoly Landthrough political negotiation, rather than by resorting to military force or directly confronting the Muslim army. Frederick's achievements, including the control ofJerusalem(without theTemple Mount) andBethlehem,with a corridor running throughLyddato the sea ofJaffa,as well asNazarethand westernGalilee,includingMontfort CastleandToron,and the remaining Muslim districts aroundSidon.All Muslims are to be allowed the right of entry in Jerusalem and freedom of worship.[113]
  • March 17– Frederick II enters Jerusalem, escorted by German and Italian troops. Of the Military Orders only theTeutonic Knightsare represented and some clergy. He receives the formal surrender of the city by Al-Kamil's governor (orQadi), who hands him the keys of Jerusalem. The procession then passes through streets to the old building of the Hospital (or theMuristan), where Frederick takes up his residence in theChristian Quarter.[114]
  • March 18– Frederick II crowns himself asKing of Jerusalemin an impromptu ceremony in theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre.After the ceremony, he proceeds to the palace of theHospitallers– where he holds a council to discuss the defense of Jerusalem. Frederick orders theTower of Davidand theGate of St. Stephenare to be repaired at once and he hands over the royal residence attached to the Tower of David to the Teutonic Order.[115]
  • May 1– Frederick II departs fromAcre,while he and his suite pass down the "Street of the Butchers" to the harbour, the people crowd out of the doors, and pelts him with entrails and dung. Meanwhile,Odo of Montbéliard(orEudes), commander of the Crusader army, andJohn of Ibelin,lord ofBeirut,are left behind to quell the unrest inPalestine.[116]
  • May – Frederick II arrives atCyprus,where he attends the wedding proxy of the 12-year-old KingHenry I(the Fat) toAlice of Montferrat– whose father is one of his staunch supporters inItaly.OnJune 10,Frederick lands atBrindisi,where the papal army under his father-in-lawJohn of Briennehas invaded the Italian territories inCampania.[117]
  • Autumn – Frederick II recovers the lost Italian territories and tries to condemn the leading rebel barons, but avoids crossing the frontiers of thePapal States.Meanwhile, a first serious raid on Jerusalem is made by a mass of unorganizedBeduinsand plunderers of pilgrims. An advance guard encouraged the Christians to expel the Muslims.[118]
Europe
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England
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  • October 13– KingHenry IIIcalls for an army to be assembled atPortsmouthto be transported toNormandyto regain lost territories from the French. A large army of knights turns up ready to go but not enough ships have been provided. Henry blamesHubert de Burghfor the fiasco and in his rage will have killed him ifRanulf of Chesterhas not intervened. This marks the beginning of the rift between Henry and Hubert de Burgh. Meanwhile, the expedition is postponed until mid-1230.
Levant
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Africa
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Asia
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By topic

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Religion
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Significant people

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Births

Transcluding articles:1220,1221,1222,1223,1224,1225,1226,1227,1228,and1229

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1221

1222

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1225

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Deaths

Transcluding articles:1220,1221,1222,1223,1224,1225,1226,1227,1228,and1229

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References

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  1. ^Steven Runciman(1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,p. 139.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  2. ^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,pp. 139–140.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  3. ^John Man (2011).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection,pp. 193–194.ISBN978-0-553-81498-9.
  4. ^According to:Juvaini, Ata-Malik(c. 1260).Tarikh-i Jahangushayتاریخ جهانگشای[History of the World Conqueror] (in Persian). Vol. 1. Translated byBoyle, John Andrew.p. 105.
  5. ^John Man (2011).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection,p. 202.ISBN978-0-553-81498-9.
  6. ^David Nicolle and Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey:Kalka River 1223: Genghis Khan's Mongols invade Russia,p. 14.ISBN1-84176-233-4.
  7. ^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,p. 205.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  8. ^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,p. 206.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  9. ^Hywel Williams (2005).Cassell's Chronology of World History,p. 135.ISBN0-304-35730-8.
  10. ^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,p. 144.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  11. ^abSutton, Ian (1999).Architecture, from Ancient Greece to the Present.London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-20316-3.
  12. ^George Akropolites (2007).The History,p. 160. Trans.Ruth Macrides.New York: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^Steven Runciman(1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,p. 140.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  14. ^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,pp. 140–141.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  15. ^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre,p. 141.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
  16. ^Maalouf, Amin (2006).The Crusades through Arab Eyes,pp. 225–226. Saqi Books.ISBN978-0-863-56023-1.
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