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1916 Virgin Islands hurricane

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1916 Virgin Islands hurricane
Surface weather analysisof the hurricane moving north in theSargasso Seaon October 11
Meteorological history
FormedOctober 6, 1916(October 6, 1916)
DissipatedOctober 15, 1916(October 15, 1916)
Category 3 major hurricane
1-minute sustained(SSHWS/NWS)
Highest winds120 mph (195 km/h)
Lowest pressure963mbar(hPa); 28.44inHg
(Lowest directly measured[note 1])
Overall effects
Fatalities41 total
Damage<$2 million (1916USD)
Areas affected
[3]
Part of the1916 Atlantic hurricane season

The1916 Virgin Islands hurricanewas a strongtropical cyclonethat inflicted extensive damage across theVirgin Islandsin October 1916. It was the region's most destructive storm since at least the1867 San Narciso hurricane;Consul GeneralChristopher Payneand archaeologistTheodoor de Booyconsidered the 1916 storm as the archipelago's most damaging. Its peak intensity was equivalent to aCategory 3on the modernSaffir–Simpson scale.The storm began as atropical depressionsoutheast ofBarbadoson October 6, though little is known about the storm's origins or its developing stages; by the time its center was first located, the cyclone was already a hurricane and causing damage in the Virgin Islands. Afterforming,the storm moved northwest into the easternCaribbean Seaand strengthened quickly. Rough seas were produced in theWindward IslandsatDominicaandSaint Kittsas the storm passed nearby between October 7–8, damaging coastal villages.

On the evening of October 9, the hurricane traversed the Virgin Islands with an intensity equivalent to a Category 2 on the modernSaffir–Simpson scale,passing directly overSaint Croixand producing gusts as high as 160 mph (260 km/h). Of theDanish West Indies,Saint Thomasfared worst, with virtually every building sustaining damage. The island harbor suffered greatly and numerous ships were grounded or sunk. Entire towns in Saint Croix andTortolawere destroyed. There were four deaths in Saint Thomas, five in the remainder of the Danish West Indies, and thirty-two in Tortola. After battering theLesser Antilles,the hurricane continued harmlessly out to sea on a northward and later northeastward trajectory. While well southeast ofBermuda,the storm's intensity peaked on October 12 withmaximum sustained windsof 120 mph (190 km/h). Steady weakening ensued thereafter, and the storm transitioned into anextratropical cycloneon October 14 before being absorbed by another cyclone east ofNewfoundlanda day later. Amid the storm's aftermath,coal carrierssuccessfully went on strike for increased wages. Crop production in 1917 was significantly curtailed by the widespread damage wrought to agriculture by the hurricane.

Meteorological history

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Map of the western Atlantic depicting the track of the hurricane
Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
Unknown
Storm type
triangleExtratropical cyclone,remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

The 1916 Virgin Islands hurricane was the thirteenth known tropical cyclone of the1916 Atlantic hurricane season.[2]Owing to a paucity of weather observations in the region, the precise location of the storm was not known contemporaneously until it was already traversing theVirgin Islandsas a fully-fledged hurricane.[4]According to areanalysisof the hurricane in 2008, conducted by theAtlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory,the storm began just southeast ofBarbadosas atropical depressionon October 6. Over the next three days, it traveled on a northwestward course into theCaribbean Sea.[2]Winds in the southernLesser Antillesremained low as the system passed betweenSaint LuciaandSaint Vincenton October 7.[2][5]However, the emergence of lowair pressuresinDominicaprompted theUnited States Weather Bureauto begin monitoring the disturbance, requesting additional weather observations to better diagnose the developing tropical cyclone.[4]The tropical storm strengthened into a hurricane on October 9.[1]

Curving towards the north,[5]the storm intensified quickly and madelandfallon theDanish West IndiesatSaint Croixon the evening of October 9.[2]According to a Weather Bureau report published in theMonthly Weather Review,"The storm was of small area and of great intensity."[6]An air pressure of 963mbar(hPa;28.44inHg) was registered on the island,[2]lower than any other reading in the island's history;[7]based on this reading, theAtlantic hurricane reanalysis projectestimated that the hurricane possessedmaximum sustained windsof at least 110 mph (180 km/h) during its passage through theVirgin Islands,equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the modernSaffir–Simpson scale.The project also noted that the storm may have been amajor hurricaneat landfall.[2][note 2]Gusts may have been as high as 140–160 mph (230–260 km/h).[9][10]After crossing the islands, the hurricane continued north, its winds increasing further to a peak of 120 mph (190 km/h) southeast ofBermudaon October 12.[5][4]A ship caught in the hurricane that day reported winds of 105 mph (169 km/h).[2]The storm curved towards the northeast and weakened following this peak intensity,transitioninginto anextratropical cycloneon October 14; the system continued its trajectory into the northern Atlantic before it was absorbed by another extratropical cyclone east ofNewfoundlandon October 15.[2][5]

Impact

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Wind-battered and downed trees along a road
Saint Thomas was the most heavily impacted of the Danish West Indies.

Windward Islands and Puerto Rico

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Inclement weather prevailed over theWindward Islandsbetween October 7–8, yielding the storm's only discernible effects during its unclear origins. The developing system generated rough seas off Dominica; damaging waves inRoseauadvanced well-inland.[6]Jetties and shore roads were washed away by the surf. Parts of coastal villages and small craft were lost to the heavy seas.[11]Buildings that had stood for 60–70 years were destroyed.[12]Rural parts of the island experienced significant damage.[13]Similar seas were reported on the evening of October 8 atBasseterreinSaint Kitts,where waves overtopped the island'sseawall.[6]Strong winds swept over easternPuerto Ricoon October 9 as the hurricane passed to the east.[14]AtSan Juan,peak winds were just undergale-force,[15]while winds faster than 50 mph (80 km/h) were measured farther east.[14]AtNaguabo,the winds held at or above gale-force for 14 hours, with a peak velocity of 70–75 mph (113–121 km/h).[14]Buildings on a mostly abandoned U.S. naval station onCulebrawere destroyed by the storm.[16]

Virgin Islands

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The hurricane greatly affected the entire Virgin Islands archipelago between the evening of October 9 through the morning of October 10.[17][18]The islands' resources were already strained due toWorld War I,exacerbating the hurricane's impacts and thwarting measures implemented by the colonial authorities to bolster the economy of the Danish West Indies.[19][20]One account called it the most destructive storm since the1867 San Narciso hurricane.[21]TheAmerican consulate in the Danish West Indiessent a cablegram to theU.S. State Departmentremarking that the hurricane was "the most disastrous known".[22]Accounts of the hurricane inThe BulletinandLightbourn's Mail Notes,newsletters in Saint Thomas, made similar judgements, as did American archaeologistTheodoor de Booy.[23][24][25]There was little warning in advance of the storm's approach: the U.S. Weather Bureau transmitted general notices of the hurricane's path to points in theWest Indieson October 8 while hurricane signals were sounded[note 3]on the Virgin Islands on the afternoon of October 9 hours before landfall, leaving little time for residents to batten down.[9]

Saint Thomas

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With a mighty hand the storm king as with utmost fury struck an island-wide blow that has swept it from end to end, leaving it its path a trail of desolation and misery from which it will be slow, and in a sense impossible, to recover if outside help—prompt and ample—be not obtained.

Account of the storm inThe Bulletin,October 11, 1916[23]

Of the Danish West Indies,Saint Thomasexperienced the most severe effects from the hurricane.[18]Nearly every building on the island incurred damage, and several among them were destroyed.[13]Many buildings that remained standing were nonetheless wrecked beyond repair.[26]Slave cabins were separated from their foundations and smashed into flinders against other buildings or trees.[25]The severity of impacts was largely uniform throughout the island, though Savanne and Frenchman's Hill were most seriously affected.[27]Severe flooding occurred inCharlotte Amalie,Frenchtown,and Lindbergh Bay.[28]The 6–10 ft (1.8–3.0 m)storm surgetore buildings away from their foundations and inundated large tracts of land.[29][30]Extensive losses were wrought upon shipping.[11]The harbor at Saint Thomas, normally shielded from most tropical disturbances, saw extensive impacts;[27][31]the harbor was most susceptible to a hurricane approaching from the south, as was the case in the 1916 hurricane.[32]Steamers were grounded upon the island by the force of the wind-driven waves.[13]Beached ships included theocean linersCalabriaandWasgenwaldof theHamburg America Lineand the Danish dredgeSt. Hilda.[33]CalabriaandWasgenwald,both German ships, were interned in the Danish West Indies since the start ofWorld War I.[29]Calabriawas considered a total loss andSt. Hildawas reduced to smaller fragments.[33][29]Two other Danish ships were severely damaged and many smaller vessels capsized.[33]The distress vesselBlandfordwas the only ship in the harbor not moved from her moorings.[27]Two electric harbor cranes operated by theWest Indian Companyand built to withstand a 100-mph (160 km/h) wind were mangled and partially strewn in the sea.[34][11][35][36]Recent additions to the Saint Thomas harbor also sustained heavy blows.[11]Amachine shopwas swept away by the sea.[36]

A downed coal crane
The harbor in Saint Thomas suffered a heavy blow.

Electric wires were blown down and warehouses were unroofed across Saint Thomas.[37]The iron sheet roofs of homes were pried off by the wind.[38]Many trees were uprooted or debarked. In the market square, trees laid mangled with communication and electric wires,[26]littering public thoroughfares alongside amalgamations of wind-torn gutters and rooftop tiling.[38]At the supply station of the West India and Panama Telegraph Company, ancillary buildings and storehouses were destroyed. Nearby, a coconut plantation was rendered infertile due to damage sustained to the tops of trees.[39]As more sturdier structures,places of worshipfared comparably well but were nevertheless subject to the violence of the winds; rectories were seriously damaged and a chapel was destroyed.[36]Some people sought shelter in parsonages.[40]In addition to the winds and surge, the hurricane also produced heavy rainfall; at Charlotte Amalie, the storm's rainfall total in 24 hours was a1-in-20 year event.[41][note 4]Merchant stocks were tarnished by the rainfall.[38]Four deaths—all drownings—were documented at Saint Thomas;[18]these occurred at the harbor in addition to several injuries.[36]

Other islands

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Rubble from homes on a hillside
Damage in Saint Croix

On Saint Croix, destruction befell entire towns and many factories.[42]The town ofChristianstedreported extensive damage.[37]TheschoonerVigilantcapsized in the Christiansted reef;[43]the ship was raised after sinking in the1876 San Felipe hurricaneonly to suffer the same fate in 1916.[44]InFrederiksted,saltwater was found on the upper-stories of residences, marking the height of the storm's waves. The roof of one home destroyed a stable and a few rooms after being blown away. Ninety percent of fences and most trees were knocked down.[45]Heavy damage was also wrought in rural areas of Saint Croix,[13]where telecommunications were disrupted.[11]At several settlements, homes were badly damaged; only 4 homes of 23–25 at an estate inAnnalywere destroyed.[46]Anegada,Tortola,andSaint Johnof the Virgin Islands were devastated by the hurricane.[17]At Tortola the hurricane's winds were strongest on the evening of October 9, holding at around 100 mph (160 km/h) for an hour.[6]A report sent toThe Sun,a New York-based newspaper, enumerated thirty-two fatalities in Tortola and eight in Saint John. However, a later report indicated five deaths combined in Saint Croix and Saint John from injuries caused by falling walls or trees.[18]More than 50 people were injured in Saint John.[47]Nearly all houses on the Saint John and Tortola were destroyed.[48]Most boats at Tortola were destroyed, and some were dispersed by the storm's wind and waves on inland hills.[48]Significant damage was dealt to the island's crops. Two thousand people were displaced by the storm in Tortola.[12]Across three settlements in Saint John, all houses except one were razed. Swaths of trees were denuded in some areas of the island.[49]Although the force of the storm was stronger on Saint John than on Saint Thomas, the island's lower population led to a lesser monetary toll to infrastructure;[50]however, total casualties were higher in Saint John due to a lack of communications, leaving the island's residents unaware of the storm's approach.[47]

Aftermath

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Many residents across the Danish West Indies were rendered destitute, with two-thirds in need of food and clothing and a third needing shelter. Damage from the hurricane was initially estimated by the American consulate at $2 million.[13][note 5]However, further surveys of the damage suggested a smaller toll.[18]Christopher Payne,the American Consul General to the Danish West Indies, appealed for $50,000 in immediate relief.[51]The government of the Danish West Indies provisioned $5,000 for relief on October 11.[52]Some of the funds allowed the poor to build new homes, though other parts were loaned without interest. Crews were dispatched to repair effaced mountain roads.[53]Further assistance was provided by theDanish Ministry of Finance.[54]HMSValkyrienembarked on a search-and-rescue operation following the storm, extracting survivors from the strickenbarquentineThor.[55]TheValkyrien's junior surgeon was sent to Saint John to render assistance due to a lack of any medical personnel on the island.[56]Galvanized by the devastation wrought by the hurricane,coal carriers—workers who refueled coal-powered ships[57]—in Saint Thomas went on a successful strike to demand increased wages, ultimately forming aunionwith 2,700 members and negotiating a doubling of their pay.[58][57]

The loss of trees and foliage on Saint Croix caused by the storm led to decreased outputs of bananas, cocoa, mangoes, oranges, and pineapples;[59]virtually every fruit tree was destroyed by the hurricane.[60]In Saint John, oil extraction from thebay tree(Pimenta acris) in 1917 was a quarter of the annual average; many of the trees were stripped of their leaves. The lime industry was suspended by the severity of damage inflicted upon lime trees;[61]the storm struck amid an effort to establish lime groves on abandoned estates.[62]Difficult living conditions for older populations following the loss of homes and roofs led to increased mortality rates among those older than 40 years old in 1917; mortality rates recovered to longer-term averages by 1918.[63]The extent of the damage to Saint Thomas's harbor may have increased support for the sale of the Danish West Indies to the United States in the1916 Danish West Indian Islands sale referendum.[64]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^A pressure of 963 mbar (963 hPa; 28.4 inHg) was measured at 23:00 UTC on October 9 inSt. Croix.TheAtlantic hurricane reanalysis projectdetermined that this reading was likely taken at the center of the storm, and as such it is listed as the hurricane's official pressure at 18:00 UTC on October 9 in the officialAtlantic hurricane database.[1][2]However, no other pressures are listed for the storm at other times, including when the hurricane attained its maximum winds.[1]
  2. ^A major hurricane is a storm that ranks as Category 3 or higher on theSaffir–Simpson hurricane scale.[8]
  3. ^On Saint Thomas, the hurricane signal was sounded by the ship HMSValkyrienfiring heralarm gunstwice, in addition to the hoisting of hurricane warning flags.[24][7]
  4. ^The return period refers to the probability of a given flood peak occurring over a period of time. A 20-year event, by definition, has a 5% chance happening in a specific year, although it is possible for such events to happen more than once over 20 years.[41]
  5. ^All monetary values are in 1916 United States dollars unless otherwise indicated.

References

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Citations

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  1. ^abc"Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)"(Database). United StatesNational Hurricane Center.April 5, 2023.RetrievedOctober 1,2024.Public DomainThis article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
  2. ^abcdefghiLandsea, Chris;Anderson, Craig; Bredemeyer, William; Carrasco, Cristina; Charles, Noel; Chenoweth, Michael; Clark, Gil; Delgado, Sandy; Dunion, Jason; Ellis, Ryan; Fernandez-Partagas, Jose; Feuer, Steve; Gamanche, John; Glenn, David; Hagen, Andrew; Hufstetler, Lyle; Mock, Cary; Neumann, Charlie; Perez Suarez, Ramon; Prieto, Ricardo; Sanchez-Sesma, Jorge; Santiago, Adrian; Sims, Jamese; Thomas, Donna; Lenworth, Woolcock; Zimmer, Mark (May 2015)."Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT".Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory(Metadata).Miami, Florida:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.1916/13 - 2008 Revision.RetrievedMarch 23,2020.
  3. ^group = note
  4. ^abcFrankenfield, Harry Crawford (October 1916)."Forecasts and Warnings for October, 1916"(PDF).Monthly Weather Review.44(10).Boston, Massachusetts:American Meteorological Society:582–587.Bibcode:1916MWRv...44..582F.doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1916)44<582:FAWFO>2.0.CO;2.RetrievedMarch 23,2020.[permanent dead link]Open access icon
  5. ^abcd"1916 Hurricane NOT_NAMED (1916280N12301)".International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS).Asheville, North Carolina:University of North Carolina at Asheville.RetrievedMarch 22,2020.
  6. ^abcdWeightman, Richard Hanson (December 1916)."Hurricanes Of 1916 And Notes On Hurricanes Of 1912–1915".Monthly Weather Review.44(12). Boston, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society: 686–688.Bibcode:1916MWRv...44..686W.doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1916)44<686:HOANOH>2.0.CO;2.RetrievedFebruary 7,2023.Open access icon
  7. ^abZabriskie,p. 230.
  8. ^Goldenburg, Stan (June 1, 2018)."A3 What is a super-typhoon? What is a major hurricane? What is an intense hurricane?".Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ). 4.11.Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory.RetrievedAugust 2,2019.
  9. ^abZabriskie,p. 222.
  10. ^Bowden,p. 5.
  11. ^abcde"Big Cyclone At St. Thomas: Much Damage".Muncie Evening Press.Vol. 17, no. 40.Muncie, Indiana.October 13, 1916. p. 11.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– viaNewspapers.com.
  12. ^ab"The Lesser Antilles and the Seacoast of Venezuela",p. 147.
  13. ^abcde"Natives Of The Danish W. Indies In Dire Need Of Food & Shelter".Miami Daily Metropolis.No. 259. Miami, Florida. Associated Press. October 12, 1916. p. 1.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  14. ^abcHartwell, F. E. (October 1916)."Porto Rico Section"(PDF).Climatological Data.18(10). San Juan, Puerto Rico: National Centers for Environmental Information. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on March 24, 2020.RetrievedMarch 24,2020.
  15. ^"The Lesser Antilles and the Seacoast of Venezuela",p. 54.
  16. ^"Culebra Island Naval Station is Destroyed".The Boston Globe.Vol. 90, no. 108. Boston, Massachusetts. October 16, 1916. p. 14.RetrievedMarch 27,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  17. ^ab"Virgin Islands Suffer From Tropical Hurricane".The Montgomery Advertiser.Vol. 87, no. 288.Montgomery, Alabama.Associated Press. October 14, 1916.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  18. ^abcdeZabriskie,p. 221.
  19. ^O'Neal, Eugenia (2001). "Constructing Self".From the Field to the Legisulature: a history of women in the Virgin Islands.Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press. p. 63.ISBN0313317569.OCLC469853296.RetrievedMarch 24,2020– via Google Books.
  20. ^Hatch,p. 161.
  21. ^Zabriskie,p. 221b: "Hurricane of October 9–10, 1916—Most destructive since fearful catastrophe of 1867"
  22. ^"Severe Hurricane Sweeps West Indies".Cape Fear News.Vol. 1, no. 370.Fayetteville, North Carolina.International News Service.October 11, 1916. p. 1.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  23. ^abZabriskie,p. 223.
  24. ^abZabriskie,p. 227.
  25. ^abde Booy,p. 65.
  26. ^abZabriskie,p. 224.
  27. ^abcZabriskie,p. 228.
  28. ^Torres-Sierra, Heriberto (1998).Storm-Tide Elevations Caused by Hurricane marilyn on the U.S. Virgin Islands, September 15–16, 1995(PDF)(Report). San Juan, Puerto Rico: United States Geological Survey. p. 2.RetrievedMarch 24,2020.
  29. ^abc"St. Thomas Ravished By Cyclone And Heavy Seas".Hawaiian Gazette.Vol. 9, no. 86.Honolulu, Hawaii.Associated Press.October 13, 1916. p. 2.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  30. ^Bowden,p. 28.
  31. ^Hartley,p. 13.
  32. ^de Booy,p. 62.
  33. ^abc"Danish West Indies Hurricane Kills 6".The Sun.Vol. 84, no. 42. New York, New York. October 12, 1916. p. 2.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  34. ^"Hurricane In The West Indies".The Times.No. 41296.London, Greater London, England.October 12, 1916. p. 15.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  35. ^Bowden,p. 19.
  36. ^abcdZabriskie,p. 225.
  37. ^ab"Damage By Hurricane In Danish West Indies".The Pensacola Journal.Vol. 29, no. 286.Pensacola, Florida.Associated Press. October 12, 1916. p. 1.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  38. ^abcde Booy,p. 66.
  39. ^de Booy,p. 118.
  40. ^Zabriskie,p. 229–230.
  41. ^abHaire, W. J.; Johnson, K. G. (1974)."Floods of November 12, 1974 in the Charlotte Amalie Area, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands"(PDF).United States Geological Survey.RetrievedMarch 24,2020.
  42. ^"Devastation By Cyclone In Danish West Indies".Norwich Bulletin.Vol. 58, no. 247.Norwich, Connecticut.October 13, 1916. p. 1.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  43. ^de Booy, Theodoor (November 1917). "The Virgin Islands of the United States".Geographical Review.4(5). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 359–373.doi:10.2307/207831.JSTOR207831.
  44. ^de Booy,p. 218.
  45. ^Zabriskie,p. 231.
  46. ^Zabriskie,p. 233.
  47. ^abHatch,p. 162.
  48. ^ab"Hurricane Killed Forty".The Sun.Vol. 84, no. 45. New York, New York. October 15, 1916. p. 6.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  49. ^Hatch,p. 53.
  50. ^de Booy,p. 142.
  51. ^"Thousands Left Hungry And Homeless".The Kane Republican.Vol. 23, no. 24.Kane, Pennsylvania.International News Association. October 12, 1916. p. 1.RetrievedMarch 23,2020– via Newspapers.com.
  52. ^Zabriskie,p. 226.
  53. ^de Booy,p. 67.
  54. ^Zabriskie,p. 236.
  55. ^Zabriskie,p. 229.
  56. ^Hatch,p. 163.
  57. ^abKnight, David Jr. (November 19, 2017)."'Hurricane Edition' of Dollar fo' Dollar Tour Remembers 1916 Gale and Coal Carrier Strike ".The St. Croix Source.Virgin Islands Source.RetrievedMarch 24,2020.
  58. ^Zabriskie,p. 138.
  59. ^Hartley,p. 25.
  60. ^Hartley,p. 124.
  61. ^Hartley,p. 26.
  62. ^Hatch,p. 94.
  63. ^Birth and mortality statistics of the Virgin Island of the United States, 1901-1919(Report). Washington, D.C.: United States Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. 1920.LCCN20026901.OCLC14792219.RetrievedMarch 24,2020– via University of Florida Digital Collections.
  64. ^Caron, Aimery (March 31, 2014)."The Urgency for the Acquisition of the Danish West Indies"(PDF).Caribbean Genealogy Library. p. 9.RetrievedMarch 24,2020.

General sources

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