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8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41

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8.8 cm Flak 18-36
8.8 cm Flak 36 with Flak Rohr 18 barrel at theImperial War Museumin London
TypeAnti-aircraft gun
Place of originNazi Germany
Service history
In service1936–1945 (Nazi Germany)
Used by
  • Nazi Germany
  • Kingdom of Italy
  • Romania
  • Bulgaria
  • Spain
  • Finland
  • Slovak Republic[1]
  • France
  • Greece
  • Republic of China
  • Brazil
  • Kingdom of Hungary
  • North Vietnam[2]
Wars
Production history
DesignerKrupp
Designed1928
ManufacturerKrupp,Rheinmetall
Unit cost33,600ℛ︁ℳ︁[3]
Produced1933–1945
No.built21,310[3]
Specifications (Flak 36[5])
Mass7,407 kg (16,330 lb) in mounted position
Length5.791 m (20 ft)
Barrellength4.938 m (16 ft 2 in) (56 calibers)
Width2.3 m (7 ft 7 in)[4]
Height2.10 m (6 ft 11 in) (firing)
Crew10[4]
ShellFixed QF88×571mmR[4]
Caliber88 mm (3.46 in)
BarrelsOne, 32 grooves with right-hand increasing twist from 1/45 to 1/30
BreechHorizontal semi-automatic sliding block
RecoilHydro-pneumatic[4]
CarriageSonderanhänger201 (Flak 18) andSonderanhänger202 (Flak 36, 37, 41)
Elevation−3° to +85°
Traverse360°
Rate of fire15–20 rpm
Muzzle velocity840 m/s (2,690 ft/s)
Effective firing range
  • 14,860 m (16,250 yd) ground target
  • 8,000 m (26,000 ft) effective ceiling
Maximum firing range9,900 m (32,500 ft) maximum ceiling
SightsZF.20

The8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41is a German 88mmanti-aircraftandanti-tankartillerygun, developed in the 1930s. It was widely used byGermanythroughoutWorld War IIand is one of the most recognized German weapons of the conflict. The gun was universally known as theAcht-acht( "eight-eight" ) by the Germans and the "eighty-eight" by the Allies.[N 1]Due to its lethality, especially as a tank killer,[7][8]the eighty-eight was greatly feared by Allied soldiers.[9]

Development of the original model led to a wide variety of guns.[10]The name of the gun applies to a series of related guns, the first one officially called the8.8 cm Flak 18,the improved8.8 cm Flak 36,and later the8.8cm Flak 37.[N 2]Flak is a contraction of GermanFlugabwehrkanone(also referred to asFliegerabwehrkanone)[11][N 3]meaning "aircraft-defense cannon", the original purpose of the weapon. In English, "flak"became a generic term for ground anti-aircraft fire.Air defenseunits were usually deployed with either a Kommandogerät ( "command device" ) fire control computer or a portableWürzburg radar,which were responsible for its high level of accuracy against aircraft.

The versatile carriage allowed the 8.8 cm Flak to be fired in a limited anti-tank mode when still on its wheels;[5]it could be completely emplaced in only two and a half minutes.[5]Its successful use as an improvisedanti-tank gunled to the development of a tank gun based upon it: the8.8 cm KwK 36,with the "KwK" abbreviation standing forKampfwagen-Kanone(literally "battle vehicle cannon", or "fighting vehicle cannon" ), meant to be placed in agun turretas the tank's primary armament. This gun served as the main armament of theTiger Iheavy tank.

In addition to theseKruppdesigns,Rheinmetalllater created a more powerful anti-aircraft gun, the8.8 cm Flak 41,[N 2]which was produced in relatively small numbers. Krupp responded with another prototype of the long-barreled 8.8 cm gun, which was further developed into the anti-tank andtank destroyer8.8 cm PaK 43gun used for theElefantandJagdpanther,and turret-mounted8.8 cm KwK 43heavy tankgun of theTiger II.

Development history

[edit]

Background

[edit]
World War I British Empire troops with a captured, German8.8 cm Flak 16anti-aircraft cannon, August 1918
Main article:8.8 cm Flak 16

Initially, anti-aircraft artillery guns ofWorld War Iwere adaptations of existing medium-caliberweapons, mounted to allow fire at higher angles. By 1915, the German command realized that these were useless for anything beyond deterrence, even against the vulnerable balloons and slow-moving aircraft of the period.[14]With the increase of aircraft performance, many armies developed dedicated AA guns with a highmuzzle velocity– allowing the projectiles to reach greater altitudes. It was this muzzle velocity, combined with a projectile of high weight, that made the 8.8 cm Flak one of the greatWorld War II anti-tank guns.[15]The first such German gun was introduced in 1917, using the 8.8 cm caliber common in theKaiserliche Marine(navy).[14]

After losing the war, Germany had been forbidden under the terms of theTreaty of Versaillesfrom procuring new weapons of most types. Nevertheless, the Krupp company started the development of a new gun together withBoforsof Sweden. Krupp had the majority ownership inBoforssince 1921. The original design was a 75 mm model.[14]During the prototype phase, the army asked for a gun with considerably greater capability. The designers started again, using 88 mm caliber.

Prototype 88s were first produced in 1928. This early model, the Flak 18, used a single-piece barrel with a length of 56calibers,leading to the commonly seen designation L/56.

First generation: Flak 18, 36 and 37

[edit]
8.8cm Flak 36 being emplaced, with both bogies already detached
German 88 mm flak gun in action against Allied bombers

TheFlak 18was mounted on a cruciform gun carriage. A simple-to-operate "semi-automatic" loading system ejected fired shells, allowing it to be reloaded by simply inserting a new shell into a tray. The gun would then fire and recoil; during the return stroke, the empty case would be thrown backward by levers, after which a cam would engage and recock the gun. This resulted in firing rates of 15 to 20 rounds a minute, which was better than similar weapons of the era.[16]High explosiveammunition was used against aircraft and personnel, andarmour-piercingandhigh-explosive anti-tankagainst tanks and other armored vehicles.

Widespread production started with theNazirise to power in 1933, and the Flak 18 was available in small numbers when Germany intervened in theSpanish Civil War.It quickly proved to be the best anti-aircraft weapon then available.[17]The flak detachment with 88s proved accurate and versatile in combat against mainly land targets, the high muzzle velocity and large caliber making it an excellent long-range anti-vehicle and anti-bunker weapon. This experience also demonstrated a number of minor problems and potential improvement opportunities.

The Flak 18's carriage allowed it to fire in an emergency when still on its wheels and without itsoutriggers,but with a very limited traverse and elevation.[5]For normal emplacement, one single-axlebogiewas detached from the front outrigger and one from the rear, side outriggers were then hinged from the vertical position to the ground; the total time to set up was estimated at two and a half minutes.[5]Both modes of operation made the gun much more suitable for fast-moving operations, the basic concept of theblitzkrieg.The weight of the gun meant that only large vehicles could move it, theSd.Kfz. 7half-trackbecoming a commonprime mover.

Targeting indicators were attached to the central controller to each of the four guns of a battery, allowing for coordinated fire. Indeed, with the automatic loading system, the gun layers' job was to keep the gun barrel trained on the target area based on the signals from the controller. The loaders would keep the weapon fed with live ammunition which would fire immediately upon insertion—all while the gun layer aimed the weapon according to the data.

North Africa, 8.8cm Flak 18 towed behind aSd.Kfz. 7,with its sideoutriggerslifted for transport visible behind the gun shield

Many of these improvements were incorporated into theFlak 36,which had a two-piece barrel for easier replacement of worn liners. Flak 36s were often fitted with anarmoured shieldthat provided limited protection for the gunners. These shields could be retro-fitted on older Flak 18s as well.

The later model was theFlak 37,which included updated instrumentation to allow the gun layers to follow directions from the single director more easily. In some sources it is mistakenly stated that the Flak 37 was not equipped for anti-armor operation. In fact all 8.8 cm Flak guns were capable of operation in the dual role.[18]

The parts of the various versions of the guns were interchangeable, and it was not uncommon for various parts to be "mixed and matched" on a particular example.

Both Flak 18 and Flak 36 had the same permanently attached fuze setter with two "Zünderstellbecher". The Flak 37/41 had the simplified fuze setter of the 8.8-cm Flak 41.

Second generation: Flak 41

[edit]
8.8 cm Flak 41 atUS Army Ordnance Museum

As early as 1939 theLuftwaffeasked for newer weapons with even better performance, to address the problems of defending against attack by high-flying aircraft. Rheinmetall responded with a new 88 mm design with a longer cartridge and a longer barrel.[19]

A prototype was ready in early 1941[19]leading to the designation8.8 cm Flak 41.The new gun fired a 9.4-kilogram (20 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,000 m/s (3,280 ft/s), giving it an effective ceiling of 11,300 meters (37,100 ft) and a maximum of 14,700 meters (48,200 ft), whichGeneral der FlakartillerieOtto Wilhelm von Renz said to be "almost equal to the128-mm."[14]It featured a lower silhouette on its turntable mounting than did the 8.8-cm Flak 18/36/37 on itspedestalmounting. The barrel was at first a three-section one with a length of 74 calibers, and then redesigned to dual-section with a length of 72 calibers.[19]Improvements in reloading raised the firing rate, with 20 to 25 rounds a minute being quoted.[14]

Because of problems in service, the guns were almost exclusively used in Germany where they could be properly maintained and serviced. The Flak 41 had the disadvantage of complexity, and was prone to problems with ammunition, empty cases often jamming on extraction. Because of the high cost and complexity of this weapon, the Germans manufactured relatively few of them, 556 in all. The first deliveries were made in March 1943[19]and, as of August 1944, only 157 were fielded; with 318 in January 1945.[20]

Given very low production numbers and ongoing problems with the Flak 41, attempts were made to install the Flak 41 barrel onto other guns' chassis. During 1942 tests were made using the Flak 41 barrel and Flak 37 chassis but these identified that the chassis could not take the strain even when strengthened. Work then continued using a Flak 37 barrel re-chambered for the Flak 41 round and with amuzzle brake.After other parts were strengthened this functioned as desired. The resulting piece was 74 calibers long (78 with the muzzle brake). Problems with the multi-part barrel construction of the Flak 37 were encountered and a new barrel based on the monoblock construction of the Flak 18 was designed. Production was cancelled after approximately only 13 units were built as the resources required to build these were similar to those needed to produce a true Flak 41 and those were simply no longer available at the time.[20]

A further attempt was made to use a Flak 41 barrel on an existing mount from the10.5 cm FlaK 39.The resulting unit outperformed the 105 mm original and was called the 8.8 cm Flak 39/41. However, production did not take place as no Flak 41 barrels were available.[20]

Production history

[edit]

Thousands of 88 mm guns were produced throughout the war in various models and mounts.

Heavy flak production numbers
pre-war 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total
8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37[3][21] 2,459 183 1,130 1,998 3,052 4,712 6,482 738 20,754
8.8 cm Flak 41[14] 0 0 0 0 48 122 290 96? 556
10.5 cm Flak 38/39[21] ? 38 290 509 701 1,220[14] 1,331[14] 92 more than4,181
12.8 cm Flak 40(including twins)[14][21] 0 0 0 0 65 298 664 98 1,125

Compared to other artillery types, German industry built for example, 570 heavy (caliber 88–128 mm) flak guns, 1,020 field artillery pieces (caliber 75–210 mm), and 1,300 tank guns, anti-tank guns, plus self-propelled guns in December 1943.

Combat history

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[American troops] knew that the greatest single weapon of the war, theatomic bombexcepted, was the German 88 mm flat-trajectory gun, which brought down thousands of bombers and tens of thousands of soldiers. The Allies had nothing as good, despite one of them designating itself the world's greatest industrial power.

— Paul Fussell,1989[22][23]

German use

[edit]

The 88 mm was used in two main roles: as a mobile heavy anti-aircraft and as an anti-tank gun. Other uses included firing in support of the troops at the front and as a more static anti-aircraft gun forhome defence.

Anti-aircraft defense of the Reich

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Kommandogerät 40,the rangefinder and mechanical analog computer for directing anti-aircraft guns, Manege Military Museum, Helsinki, Finland (2006)
See also:Defence of the Reich

After 1935, the anti-aircraft defense of Germany was controlled by theLuftwaffe.[14]By the beginning ofWorld War IItheLuftwaffe's anti-aircraft artillery employed 6,700 light (2 cm and 3.7 cm) and 2,628 heavy flak guns. Of the latter, a small number were10.5 cm Flak 38s or 39s,the majority were 8.8 cm Flak 18s, 36s or 37s.[14]This was twice as many heavy AA guns as RAF Fighter Command had at the time, with France and the United States having even fewer.[14]

Throughout the entire war, the majority of 88 mm guns were used in their original anti-aircraft role.[14]

The guns were usually equipped with aKommandogerätsystem, which was an analog gunnery computer. TheKommandogerätsystems were introduced starting in 1925, and theKommandogerätp40 was the standard system during the majority of the war. It allowed extremely precise fire, and would even take into account how far away the guns were from one another and the aiming crew, cancelling out the offset and aiming all weapons at the same point. This allowed multiple guns to be aimed precisely at the same target by a single command crew of five men, instead of requiring trained crews on each gun.[24]

Radar aiming systems were also developed to complement these systems. TheWürzburg radarseries of radars was produced in the thousands and used widely. It allowed general area fire without line of sight, but had poor accuracy compared to the visual systems. This resulted in the Giant Würzburg, which had sufficient accuracy to precisely control guns without direct visual contact.

The financial costs associated with anti-aircraft cannon were substantial, especially when compared withfighter aircraft.[14]For example, in January 1943 – at a time when Germany was desperately fighting toregain the strategic initiativein the East and was also facing a heavy bombing campaign in the West – expenditures on anti-aircraft defenses were 39 millionℛ︁ℳ︁,whereas all the remaining weapons and munitions production amounted to 93 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ (including 20 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ of the navy budget and only nine million of the aircraft-related budget).[14]

By August 1944, there were 10,704 Flak 18, 36 and 37 guns in service, now complemented also by the 10.5 cm Flak 38 and 39, and the formidable12.8 cm Flak 40,owing to the increase in US and British bombing raids during 1943 and 1944.

Support of ground troops

[edit]
An 88 mm gun in adirect firerole, USSR, 1942

The 8.8 cm Flak performed well in its original role of an anti-aircraft gun and it proved to be a superb anti-tank gun as well.[22]An American tanker who survived losing three tanks wrote toChryslerafterV-E Daythat "an 88 sure makes quick work of them. They go through them just like they were a piece of paper".[25]Its success was due to its versatility: the standard anti-aircraft platform allowed gunners to depress the muzzle below the horizontal, unlike most of its contemporaries. As WW2 progressed, it was becoming increasingly clear that existing anti-tank weapons were unable to pierce the armor of heavier enemy tanks and ground commanders began increasingly to use the 8.8 cm Flak against tanks.

Similarly to the anti-aircraft role, as an anti-tank weapon the 8.8 cm Flak was tactically arranged into batteries, usually four guns to each. The higher-level tactical unit was usually a mixed anti-aircraft battalion (gemischte Flak-Abteilung).[N 4]It totaled 12 such guns on average, supplemented by light guns.

The GermanCondor Legionmade extensive use of the 8.8 cm Flak 18 in the Spanish Civil War, where its usefulness as an anti-tank weapon and general artillery piece exceeded its role as an anti-aircraft gun. For theBattle of Francein 1940, the army was supported by eighty-eights deployed in twenty-four mixed flak battalions.[14]The 8.8 cm Flak was used against heavily armored tanks such as theChar B1bisandMatilda II,whose frontal armour could not be penetrated by the standard light 3.7 cm anti-tank gun. The 8.8 cm Flak was powerful enough to penetrate over 84 mm of armor at a range of 2 km, making it an unparalleled anti-tank weapon during the early days of the war and still formidable against all but the heaviest tanks at the end.[26]Erwin Rommel's use of the gun to blunt theBritish counterattack at Arrasended any hope of a breakout from the encirclement of May 1940. In the entire Battle of France, the weapon destroyed 152 tanks and 151 bunkers.[14]The Battle of France also saw the introduction of vehicle-mounted 8.8 cm Flak 18s, the so-called "Bunkerknacker" on theSd.Kfz. 8heavy tractor.

Manhandling an 88 on the Russian front

During theNorth African campaign,Rommel made the most effective use of the weapon, as he lured tanks of the BritishEighth Armyinto traps by baiting them with apparently retreating German panzers. A mere two flak battalions destroyed 264 British tanks in 1941.[14]Repeated high tank loss from well-placed 8.8 cm Flak guns in the battles ofHalfaya Passearned it the nickname "Hellfire Pass". Later in that theater, in theBattle of FaidinTunisia,Rommel camouflaged many 8.8 cm Flaks (with additional 7.5 cm Pak 40s and 5 cm Pak 38s) in vegetation-filled areas. Inexperienced U.S. tankers and commanders rushed into a valley at Faid only to be obliterated. When the U.S. Army'sM4 Shermantanks pursued, concealed German guns picked them off at ranges far beyond those of their75 mmguns.

ForOperation Barbarossa,the invasion of the Soviet Union, Germany deployed the 8.8 cm Flak in 51 mixed AA battalions.[27]They were mostly[14]Luftwaffe-subordinated units attached to theHeerat corps or army level, with approximately one battalion per corps.[28]The weapon saw continuous use on the eastern front. The appearance of the outstandingT-34and the laterKVtanks shocked the German panzer crews and anti-tank teams, who could only penetrate the Soviet tanks' armor at extremely close range on the order of 200 yards when using the standard37 mmand50 mmguns, while the Russian 76 mm gun was effective out to 1000 yards.[29]

88 with crew, France, 1944

The 8.8 cm Flak in the anti-tank role was arguably most effective in the flat and open terrain ofLibya,Egypt and theeastern front.The less open terrain inItalyand Northern France was less suitable for long-range AT guns. The success of the German anti-tank weapons caused the Allies to take steps to defend against it in new tank designs.[30]On July 18 and 19 1944 aLuftwaffe8.8 cm anti-aircraft battery was re-purposed by then MajorHans von Luckto attack British tanks near Cagny taking part inOperation Goodwood.Twenty tanks were destroyed by these guns within the first few seconds and at least 40 tanks were knocked out by 8.8 cm Flaks during the engagement.[31]Just as important, the success of the 8.8 cm Flaks spawned the development of dedicated 8.8 cm caliber PAKs (see below) which were even more adept at anti-tank mission due to their lower silhouette design. By February 1945, there were 327 heavy anti-aircraft batteries facing the Red Army, which was 21 percent of those used for anti-aircraft defense.[14]

Coastal defence

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On 14 September 1942, Flak-Abt. I./43 (Major Wegener) employed these guns against a commando landing raid calledOperation Agreementby the BritishRoyal NavynearTobruk.Between them, Italian 155 mm (6-inch) shore batteries and aerial attack, the destroyerHMSSikhwas so severely damaged that she sank while being towed byHMSZulu.

Use by other armed forces

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Italy

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In June 1939Italyhad credits of aboutLit.300 million withGermanyfor the sale of processed materials, therefore theMinistro della Guerra(Ministry of War) proposed that these credits be paid with the sale of 50 batteries of 8.8 Flak (88/55 in the Italian nomenclature), equal to 300 guns with relative ammunition. While the proposal was accepted in principle, the German authorities stated that they did not have that quantity of pieces available, so they paid off the debt in part with 8.8 cm Flak and partly with the 7.5 cmkanon(75/50 in the Italian name).[32]In the proposal presented by the German authorities, the Italian supply of mechanical parts for anti-aircraft guns and anti-tank guns was also envisaged, so the production of components for artillery was started in the workshopsAnsaldoin (GenoaandPozzuoli) andOTO.[33]The batteries were supplied complete with a Zeiss firing station Mod. 36 and related auxiliary equipment.

The batteries began arriving in Italy a few days after Italy entered the war, and were initially assigned in part to theMilizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale(Voluntary Militia for National Security, MACA), for the protection of the Italian main cities and partly sent inLibya,for the protection of ports. Some groups were subsequently assigned to mobile motorcycle sections. However it was immediately evident that theRegio Esercito(Italian Royal Army) did not have at its disposal atractorwith characteristics suitable for towing this piece, given that the task was entrusted toLancia 3Ro,without all-wheel drive. At the end of 1940, 44 pieces and relative firing stations were available. Starting from October 1942, several batteries, while remaining in German possession, were used by Italian personnel (officers and troops) for the protection of military infrastructures and cities, this practice was further intensified in 1943, reaching more than 100 batteries.[34]In addition to the cannons that arrived for the canals established in 1940, in 1943, 24 pieces and their tractors were transferred to Italy intended for equipping the1ª Divisione corazzata "M"(1st Armored Division "M" ). The 88/55 in theRegio Esercitowas used in its natural role, that is, as an anti-aircraft weapon, its use as an anti-tank cannon was limited to the theaters of Northern Africa (Libya and Tunisia) and only for a fewgruppi autocampali(self-transported field artillery groups).

China

[edit]

In 1937, theChinese Nationalist Governmentimported 20 Flak 18 guns and used them to defend the fortifications along theYangtze River.The Flak 18s were extensively deployed during the all-aerial combat of theBattle of Chongqing and Chengdu.[35]

Finland

[edit]
88mm Flak-37, Lauttasaari, Helsinki, Finland

In 1943–1944 Finland bought 90 8.8 cm FlaK 37 cannons from Germany and they were used for air defence of largest cities in Finland. These cannons played an important role against Soviet air raids in Helsinki inFebruary 1944.After the war these cannons remained in Finnish use as AA-guns until 1977 and after that as coastal guns until the early 2000s.[36]The gun had nicknameRämäpää( "Reckless" ) after the manufacturer's initials RMB. Several of the Finnish guns survive in museums and as memorials.

Spain

[edit]

Four batteries (16 guns) of 88 mm guns (Flak 18) initially reached Spain as AA with theCondor Legionin 1936, but it was soon used as anti-tank, anti-bunker and even for counterbattery fire. More guns were sent later, and some 88 mm guns were also supplied to Spanish army units. At the end of the war the Spanish Army was using all of the Flak 18 guns sent, some 52 units.[citation needed]

Initially, the Flak 18 batteries were deployed to protect the airfields and logistics bases of the German Condor legion. The scarcity of artillery among the Nationalist forces and the general low proficiency of the Spanish gun crews forced the usage of the Flak 18 gun in a variety of roles, including as an artillery piece and as an anti-tank gun. Given appropriate ammunition it proved quite capable in both roles.[37]The war in Spain, with its wildly fluctuating front lines and the presence of Russian tanks, forced the Germans to employ the Flak 18 guns in a direct fire mode against ground targets. By the end of the war the 88 mm guns had performed far more missions as an anti-tank and direct-fire Field Artillery gun than as an anti-aircraft gun. During the war German 88 mm guns were involved in 377 combat engagements, only 31 were against enemy aircraft.[citation needed]The use of the 88 mm in direct support of the infantry brought the gun crews in close proximity to the enemy and made the crews susceptible to infantry fire. Casualties among the legion's 88 mm gun batteries in the Spanish Civil War were second only to those among the bomber pilots.[citation needed]

In early 1937 in the fighting around Malaga, a battery of 88 mm guns was assigned to support an infantry brigade. Bad weather grounded the main bomber force, but the assault succeeded, mainly because of the concentrated and accurate fire of the supporting 88 mm guns.[citation needed]Flak 18 batteries were used by the nationalist army at theBattle of Ebro,both fordirect fireagainst pillboxes and also forindirect firein the advance towards Barcelona.

Following the Spanish Civil War, more Flak 36 models arrived in 1943 (88 guns 88/56 mm Flak-36) and since 1943 they were manufactured under license in Trubia under the denomination FT 44 (about 200 guns).[citation needed]

Allied

[edit]

The Flak 36 guns were briefly issued in late 1944 to the American Seventh Army as captured weapons. The 79th Field Artillery Battalion (Provisional) was formed from personnel of the 79th and 179th Field Artillery Groups to fire captured German artillery pieces at the height of an ammunition shortage. Similarly, the 244th Field Artillery Battalion was temporarily equipped with a miscellany of captured German 88 mm guns and 105 mm and 150 mm howitzers. By December 31, 1944, the 244th Field Artillery Battalion had fired a total of 10,706 rounds through captured German weapons.[38]

France

[edit]

In March 1945,Franceequipped its 401st, 403rd and 407 Anti-Aircraft artillery regiment with captured German 8.8 guns, associated with BritishGL Mk. IIandGL Mk. IIIradars.[39]The guns remained in service with second-line units until 1953 and then were used for training for a few years.[40]

Yugoslavia

[edit]

During theYugoslav warsin the 1990s, various Flak guns were used, mainly by the naval artillery of theYugoslav People's Army(JNA). The Yugoslav Army (VJ) also used Flak carriages mounted with double 262 mm rocket launch tubes from theM-87 OrkanMLRS,instead of the 88 mm gun. It was capable of deploying cluster bombs, as well as anti-personnel and anti-tank mines, at up to 50 km. Only a few were built in mid-1993, the entire project was generally regarded as unsuccessful.[41]

Greece

[edit]

Greece had at least 24 guns (8.8) that were used against theRegia Aeronauticaduring the Italian invasion of Greece in 1940. Later these guns were used against the invading German forces in April 1941.

Vietnam

[edit]

Beginning in 1954 the Democratic Republic of Vietnam received a number of Flak 88s from the Soviet Union. These cannons were used against US fighter jets in the early 60s.

Comparison with similar anti-aircraft guns

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The Flak 18/36/37 was roughly comparable to its Italian andAlliedcounterparts. As an anti-aircraft gun it fired a 9.2 kilogram (20 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 m/s to an effective ceiling of 8,000 meters,[42]with a maximum ceiling of 9900 meters.[5]While this was potent against US daylight raids, which generally flew at altitudes of 6,400 to 7,600 m (21,000 to 24,900 ft), some aircraft were able to fly higher than the gun's effective ceiling. Some flak batteries used guns worn out from firing beyond their operational lives, which typically limited their effective ceiling to 7,470 m (24,510 ft).[43]

In comparison, the BritishQF 3.7-inch (94 mm) Mark IIIfired a 13 kg (29 lb) projectile at 790 m/s (2,600 ft/s) to an effective ceiling of 10,600 meters (34,800 ft), and the American90 mm M1fired a 10 kg (22 lb) shell at 820 m/s (2,700 ft/s) to the same height, while the ItalianCannone da 90/53fired a 10.33 kg projectile at 830 m/s to an effective ceiling of 12,000 meters (39,000 ft). TheAlliedweapons' capabilities were augmented by the introduction ofproximity fuzes.The Allies' and Italian weapons were heavier and less mobile, with the Allied weapons being almost useless for ground fire until numerous modifications were carried out.[citation needed]While the US and Italian 90 mm were also used as anti-tank guns—the American gun being in use on theirM36 tank destroyerandM26 Pershingheavy tank—their use was considerably more limited than the German 88 due to German tanks being primarily used defensively by 1944 and the Allies operating dedicated AT guns (both as mobile AT guns and tank cannons); such as theOrdnance QF 17-pounderin British service and the76 mm gun M1in American service.

[edit]

8.8 cm KwK 36

[edit]
Main article:8.8 cm KwK 36

The KwK 36 (abbreviation ofKampfwagenkanone36) was a tank gun developed and built byKruppin parallel to the Flak 36, with which it shared ammunition and ballistics. It was the main armament of theTiger Iheavy tank.

8.8 cm PaK 43 and KwK 43

[edit]
Main articles:8.8 cm Pak 43and8.8 cm KwK 43
The PaK 43/41 used an intermediate split-trail mount with gun shield, instead of thecruciformmount

At the time that Rheinmetall developed the Flak 41, Krupp tried to compete with their8.8 cm Gerät 42proposal, which was not accepted for production as an anti-aircraft gun. Krupp continued development, resulting in the dreaded8.8 cm PaK 43anti-tank gun and the related 8.8 cmKwK 43tank gun.

The PaK 43 (an abbreviation ofPanzerjägerkanone 43[44][45]) used a new cruciform mount with the gun much closer to the ground, making it far easier to hide and harder to hit. It was also provided with a much stronger and more angled armour shield to provide better protection to the crew. In addition to the towed version, there were also self-propelled versions of the PaK 43 gun, including the lightly armoredNashorn,and the strongly armored, fully casemate-enclosedElefantandJagdpanthertank destroyers.

All versions were able to penetrate about 200 mm (7.9 inches) of armour at 1,000 m (3280 feet), allowing it to defeat the armor of any contemporary tank.

The main armament of theTiger IIheavy tank, theKwK 43 tank gun,was the PaK 43 adapted for tank use, and it was considered for thePanther IItank.

Versions

[edit]

Guns using the 88×571R mm cartridge

[edit]
An 8.8cm Flak 37 on display at theImperial War Museum,Duxford, Great Britain.
  • 8.8 cm Flak 18Had a new semi-automatic breech, making it a rapid fire gun. It entered production in Germany in 1933 and used theSonderanhänger201 trailer. its weight was seven tonnes. Its rate of fire was 15 to 20 rounds per minute. It was later fitted with a gun shield to protect the crew when engaging ground targets. It was produced by Krupp.
    • Mod 1938 II:Approximately 50 guns were modified so a single man could adjust the elevation and traverse.
  • 8.8 cm Flak 36Entered service 1936–37. It used the redesigned trailerSonderanhänger202 which enabled a faster time into action from the move. TheSdAnh202 had twin wheels on two similar carriages. It could engage ground targets from the traveling position. Its weight was seven tonnes. Its rate of fire was 15 to 20 rounds per minute. It was produced by Krupp. It was subsequently fitted with a shield to protect the crew when engaging ground targets.
  • 8.8 cm KwK 36:The main gun of theTiger I(PzKw VIAusf.E) tank. Despite its lineage, some[who?]classify it as a parallel development with very similar specifications rather than a derivative of the Flak 36.
  • 8.8 cm Flak 37:It was an updated version of the Flak 36, the main difference beingÜbertragungser37 (a data transmission system). It was produced by Krupp.

Guns using the 88×855R mm cartridge

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  • 8.8 cm Flak 41:This was a weapon developed and produced by Rheinmetall-Borsig to be used with an 855 mm cartridge case.[46]It was fitted to the existingSonderanhänger202 as standard and entered service in 1943. The barrel was at first designed as three-section with a length of 74 calibers, and then redesigned to dual-section with a length of 72 calibers.[19]
  • 8.8 cm Flak 37/41:This weapon was an attempt to allow the Flak 18/36/37 family to fire the more powerful round of the Flak 41. Only 13 built.

Surviving examples

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The following museums include 8.8 cm Flak guns in their collections.

Brazil

  • Museu de Armas, Veículos e Máquinas Andrea Matarazzo, Bebedouro/SP.
  • Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras (AMAN), Resende/RJ
  • 1º Grupo de Artilharia Antiaérea (1º GAAAe) Vila Militar, Rio de Janeiro/RJ
  • Monumento Nacional dos Mortos da Segunda Guerra Mundial, Two Guns
  • Museu Militar Conde de Linhares
Argentina
  • National Naval Museum ofTigre
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
  • Canadian War Museum,Ottawa.
  • The Ontario Regiment Museum,Oshawa.
  • Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston (PAK 43 and Flak 37).
Denmark
Finland
  • Ilmatorjuntamuseo,Hyrylä
  • Kuivasaari Artillery Museum, Helsinki
  • Kauppi forest, on top of Tuomikallio as a memorial, Tampere
  • Lohtaja, army training area square -map link
France
Germany
India
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
South Africa
Spain
United Kingdom
United States
  • 8.8 cm Flak 37 on the fortification mount. Exhibit of Coastal Defence Museum in Świnoujście, Poland.
    8.8 cm Flak 37 on the fortification mount. Exhibit of Coastal Defence Museum in Świnoujście, Poland.
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See also

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Weapons of comparable role, performance and era

[edit]

References

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^The Allied slang for anti-aircraft fire,ack-ack,does not come from theAcht-acht,but isWorld War Isignalers' phonetic spelling of letters "AA".[6]
  2. ^abIn German, the comma is used as the decimal separator, hence official punctuation was actually "8,8 cm" and not "8.8 cm". The spoken version wasAcht-komma-acht Zentimeter.
  3. ^Also many sources sayFlakis a contraction ofFlugabwehrkanone[12]orFliegerabwehrkanoneorFlugzeug-Abwehr-Kanone.[13]In all cases, including the latter, the letter "k" in "Flak" was not capitalized, as it did not signify an abbreviation of the German wordKanone.
  4. ^The light anti-aircraft battalion usually did not deploy any 8.8 cm Flaks, the heavy battalions were rarely used in practice.

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^"ztráty slovenské armády v letech 1939 - 1944 – Druhá světová válka – druhasvetova.com".druhasvetova.com(in Czech).RetrievedAugust 7,2024.
  2. ^abSchuster, Carl O. (July 27, 2016)."The Rise of North Vietnam's Air Defenses".HistoryNet.RetrievedJanuary 6,2020.
  3. ^abc"Fugabwehrwaffen"[Anti-aircraft weapons].Lexikon der Wehrmacht(in German).RetrievedMay 6,2020.
  4. ^abcdFoss, Christopher (1977).Jane's Pocket Book of Towed Artillery.New York: Collier. p. 49.ISBN0-02-080600-0.OCLC911907988.
  5. ^abcdefTM E9-369A: German 88-mm Antiaircraft Gun Materiel – Technical Manual.U.S. War Department. June 29, 1943.RetrievedDecember 23,2014– via Lone Sentry.
  6. ^Hinckley, Paul."A Dictionary of Great War Slang".Old Contemptible's Great War Website.Archived fromthe originalon July 20, 2011.RetrievedDecember 23,2014.
  7. ^"Flak 36 88mm Multipurpose Gun".National Museum of the United States Air Force.
  8. ^"Striking by Night - 88-millimetre Flak gun".Australian War Memorial.
  9. ^Corum, James S.(November 2007)."The Weapon GIs Hated Worst".World War II Magazine.
  10. ^https://plane-encyclopedia.com/ww2/8-8-cm-flak-18-36-37/,retrieved 8/12/2022
  11. ^Biedermann, W. (1923).Die deutsche Sprache als Spiegel deutscher Kultur[The German language as a mirror of German culture] (in German). Frommannsche Buchhandlung. p. 38.Flak (Flugzeugabwehrkanone)
  12. ^Oberkommando des Heeres H.Dv.481/541 – Merkblatt für die Munition der 8,8 cm Flugabwehrkanone 18 (8,8 cm Flak 18) und der 8,8 cm Flugabwehrkanone 36 (8,8 cm Flak 36).Berlin: Oberkommando des Heeres. 1942.
  13. ^Wilhelm Oppermann, 1928.
  14. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstWestermann, Edward B. (2005–2009) [2001].Flak: German Anti-aircraft Defenses 1914–1945.Modern War Studies.University Press of Kansas.pp. 19, 36–38, 44, 53, 58, 83, 90, 108, 128–129.ISBN978-0-7006-1420-2.
  15. ^"88mm Flak Series – Flugabwehrkanone".AchtungPanzer.com.Archived fromthe originalon December 17, 2014.RetrievedDecember 23,2014.
  16. ^Tucker, Spencer C. (July 28, 2015).Instruments of War: Weapons and Technologies That Have Changed History: Weapons and Technologies That Have Changed History.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-4408-3655-8.
  17. ^Skaarup, Harold A. (August 12, 2011)."Ironsides": Canadian Armoured Fighting Vehicle Museums and Monuments.iUniverse.ISBN978-1-4620-3465-9.
  18. ^Chow, Roy (February 6, 2012)."Mistakes and Myths in German 8.8cm Flak Identification".Track-link.com.RetrievedOctober 8,2014.
  19. ^abcdeNorris, John (January 1, 2002).88 Mm FlaK 18/36/37/41 & PaK 43, 1936–1945: 1936–45.Bloomsbury USA. p. 15.ISBN978-1-84176-341-5.
  20. ^abcGander, Terry (July 19, 2012).German 88.Sword and Pen.ISBN978-1-84884-832-0.
  21. ^abc"German Weapon and Ammunition Production".Orbat.com.Archived fromthe originalon June 14, 2011.
  22. ^abFussell, Paul (August 1989)."The Real War 1939-1945".The Atlantic.RetrievedJuly 10,2019.
  23. ^Fussell, Paul (1989).Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War.Oxford University Press. pp. 267–268.ISBN0-19-503797-9.LCCN89002875.
  24. ^Nijboer, Donald (2019).German Flak Defences vs Allied Heavy Bombers: 1942–45.New York City: Random House.ISBN978-1-47283-671-7.
  25. ^Stout, Wesley W. (1946).Tanks are Mighty Fine Things.Chrysler Corporation. p. 117.RetrievedJuly 11,2019.
  26. ^Ankerstjerne, Christian."Armor Penetration Table: Pzgr. 39 ammunition against a 30-degree sloped steel plate".Panzerworld.net.
  27. ^Askey, Nigel (March 2011)."Chapter V-4: The Order of Battle (OOB) of German Land Combat Units from 22nd June to 4th July 1941"(PDF).OperationBarbarossa.net.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on March 17, 2012.RetrievedJuly 24,2011.
  28. ^"Barbarossa Order of Battle".Orbat.com.Archived fromthe originalon April 18, 2012.RetrievedDecember 23,2014.
  29. ^Macksey, Kenneth(1971).Tank Warfare.St Albans: Panther.ISBN978-0-58604-302-8.
  30. ^Carruthers, Bob (January 19, 2013).German Tank Hunters.Pen and Sword.ISBN978-1-78159-132-1.
  31. ^von Luck, Hans(1989).Panzer Commander.New York City: Dell Books. pp. 193–198.ISBN0-440-20802-5.
  32. ^Cappellano 1998, p. 211.
  33. ^Cappellano 1998, p. 216.
  34. ^Cappellano 1998, p. 217.
  35. ^"In Defense of The Chongqing Sky: Chinese Anti-Aircraft Units Operating German Anti-Aircraft Guns in 1941".Võng dịch NetEase(in Chinese). March 22, 2020.RetrievedDecember 8,2020.In March 1941, Carl Mydans, photographer of the American magazine "Life", captured many images of China's wartime capital of Chongqing, which was brutally bombed for years by the Japanese. Through his photos, the world caught a glimpse of how Chinese soldiers and civilians dealt with and suffered under the massive round-the-clock terror bombing campaign by the Imperial Japanese... these are some of the photos of the Chinese elite anti-aircraft artillery units.
  36. ^"Finnish Army 1918–1945: AntiAircraft Guns Part 3".Jaegerplatoon.net.RetrievedDecember 23,2014.
  37. ^"U.S. Military Intelligence Report: German Anti-Aircraft Artillery"(PDF).February 8, 1943. p. 37.RetrievedFebruary 4,2015.
  38. ^"History: December 1944".244th Field Artillery Battalion.RetrievedDecember 23,2014.
  39. ^Petit, Jean-Pierre."Chapitre 7 - Les FTA françaises dans la Reconquête".Base de données Artillerie(in French).RetrievedJuly 17,2020.
  40. ^Petit, Jean-Pierre."Chapitre 9 - Équipements et recherches techniques d'après-guerre, en France".Base de données Artillerie(in French).RetrievedJuly 17,2020.
  41. ^"Kalibar" No. 106, August 2005
  42. ^Askey, Nigel (2014).Operation Barbarossa: the Complete Organisational and Statistical Analysis, and Military Simulation Volume IIB.Lulu Publishing. p. 90.ISBN978-1-31241-326-9.
  43. ^Westermann, Edward B. (2001).Flak: German Anti Aircraft Defenses 1914–45.University Press of Kansas. p. 293.ISBN978-0-70061-420-2.
  44. ^D 2030 – 8,8 cm Panzerjägerkanone 43/2 (L/71),Beschreibung, 28 January 1944. Berlin.
  45. ^D97/1+ Gerätliste,Oberkommando des Heeres, Heereswaffenamt, s.45, Berlin 1.7.43
  46. ^Williams, Anthony G."78-100 mm Calibre Cartridges".Ammunition Data Tables.Archived fromthe originalon November 24, 2011.RetrievedJuly 30,2011.
  47. ^"Cañones para Hitler en A Coruña: el Monte de San Pedro".La Segunda Guerra.com.RetrievedDecember 23,2014.
  48. ^"Flak 36 88 mm Multipurpose Gun".National Museum of the United States Air Force.RetrievedAugust 5,2015.
  49. ^"Exhibits – Texas Air Museum".

Bibliography

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  • Cappellano, Filippo (1998).Le artiglierie del Regio Esercito nella Seconda Guerra Mondiale(in Italian). Parma: Albertelli.ISBN8887372039.
  • Chant, Christopher (2001).Artillery of World War II.London, UK: Brown Partworks.ISBN1-84044-088-0.

Further reading

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  • Gander, Terry (October 19, 2009).German 88: The Most Famous Gun of the Second World War.Pen and Sword Books Ltd.ISBN978-1848840409.
  • Gander, Terry; Chamberlain, Peter (1979).Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939–1945.New York City: Doubleday.ISBN0-385-15090-3.
  • Hogg, Ian V. (1997).German Artillery of World War Two(2nd corrected ed.). Mechanicsville, Penn.: Stackpole Books.ISBN1-85367-480-X.
  • Piekalkiewicz, Janusz(1992).The German 88 Gun in Combat: The Scourge of Allied Armor.translated by Edward Force. Schiffer Military History.ISBN978-0-88740-341-5.
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