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Abenaki

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Abenaki
Wαpánahki
Total population
~21,000
Regions with significant populations
Canada18,420(2021)[1]
Quebec16,400[2]
United States (Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine), self-identified2,544(2000)[3]
Languages
Abenaki,French,English
Religion
Wabanaki mythology,Christianity
Related ethnic groups
OtherAlgonquian peoples
EspeciallyWolastoqiyik,Mi'kmaq,Passamaquoddy,andPenobscot
PeopleAlnôbak (Wôbanakiak)
LanguageAlnôbadôwawôgan,
Môgiadawawôgan
CountryNdakinna
 Wabanaki

TheAbenaki(Abenaki:Wαpánahki) areIndigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlandsof Canada and the United States. They are anAlgonquian-speaking people and part of theWabanaki Confederacy.The EasternAbenaki languagewas predominantly spoken inMaine,while the Western Abenaki language was spoken inQuebec,Vermont,andNew Hampshire.

While Abenaki peoples have shared cultural traits, they did not historically have a centralized government.[4]They came together as a post-contact community after their original tribes weredecimated by colonization, disease, and warfare.

Names

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The wordAbenakiand itssyncope,Abnaki,are both derived fromWabanaki,orWôbanakiak,meaning "People of the Dawn Land" in theAbenaki language.[3]While the two terms are often confused, the Abenaki are one of several tribes in theWabanaki Confederacy.

Alternate spellings include:Abnaki,Abinaki,Alnôbak,[5]Abanakee,Abanaki,Abanaqui,Abanaquois,Abenaka,Abenake,Abenaki,Abenakias,Abenakiss,Abenakkis,Abenaque,Abenaqui,Abenaquioict,Abenaquiois,Abenaquioue,Abenati,Abeneaguis,Abenequa,Abenkai,Abenquois,Abernaqui,Abnaqui,Abnaquies,Abnaquois,Abnaquotii,Abasque,Abnekais,Abneki,Abonakies,Abonnekee.[6]

Wôbanakiakis derived fromwôban( "dawn" or "east" ) andaki( "land" )[7](compareProto-Algonquian*wa·panand*axkyi) — the aboriginal name of the area broadly corresponding toNew Englandandthe Maritimes.It is sometimes used to refer to all theAlgonquian-speaking peoplesof the area—Western Abenaki, Eastern Abenaki,Wolastoqiyik-Passamaquoddy,andMi'kmaq—as a single group.[3]

The Abenaki people also call themselvesAlnôbak,meaning "Real People" (c.f.,Lenape language:Lenapek) and by theautonymAlnanbal,meaning "men".[4]

Historically, ethnologists have classified the Abenaki by geographic groups:Western AbenakiandEastern Abenaki.Within these groups are the Abenaki bands:

Western Abenaki

[edit]
Historical territories of Western Abenaki tribes,c. 17th century
  • Arsigantegok(alsoArrasaguntacook,Ersegontegog,Assagunticook,Anasaguntacook), lived along theSt. Francis Riverin Québec. Principal village: St. Francis (Odanak). The people were referred to asSt. Francis River Abenakis,and this term gradually was applied to all Western Abenaki.[8]
  • Cowasuck(alsoCohass, Cohasiac, Koasek, Koasek, Coos– "People of the Pines" ), lived in the upperConnecticut RiverValley. Principal village:Cowass,nearNewbury, Vermont.
  • Missiquoi(alsoMasipskwoik,Mazipskikskoik,Missique,Misiskuoi,Missisco,Missiassik– "People of the Flint" ), also known as the Sokoki. They lived in theMissisquoi Valley,fromLake Champlainto theheadwaters.Principal village aroundSwanton, Vermont.[9]
    • Sokoki(alsoSokwaki,Squakheag,Socoquis,Sokoquius,Zooquagese,Soquachjck,Onejagese– "People Who Separated" ), lived in the Middle and Upper Connecticut River Valley. Principal villages:Squakheag,Northfield, Massachusetts,and Fort Hill.
  • Pennacook(alsoPenacook,Penikoke,Openango), lived in theMerrimack Valley,therefore sometimes calledMerrimack.Principal villagePenacook, New Hampshire.The Pennacook were once a large confederacy who were politically distinct and competitive with their northern Abenaki neighbors.

Smaller tribes:

Wabanaki Nation

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Eastern Abenaki

[edit]
Eastern Abenaki

Smaller tribes:

Wolastoqiyik and Passamaquoddy:

Location

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Abenakiwigwamwithbirchbark covering.

The homeland of the Abenaki, calledNdakinna(Our Land; alternately written asN'dakinnaorN'Dakinna), previously extended across most of what is now northernNew England,southernQuebec,and the southernCanadian Maritimes.The Eastern Abenaki population was concentrated in portions ofNew BrunswickandMaineeast ofNew Hampshire'sWhite Mountains.The other major group, the Western Abenaki, lived in theConnecticut Rivervalley in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts.[10]The Missiquoi lived along the eastern shore ofLake Champlain.ThePennacooklived along theMerrimack Riverin southern New Hampshire. The maritime Abenaki lived around theSt. CroixandWolastoq(Saint John River) Valleys near theboundary linebetween Maine andNew Brunswick.

English colonial settlement in New England and frequent violence forced many Abenaki to migrate toQuebec.The Abenaki settled in theSilleryregion of Quebec between 1676 and 1680, and subsequently, for about twenty years, lived on the banks of theChaudière Rivernear the falls, before settling inOdanakandWôlinakin the early eighteenth century.[11]

In those days, the Abenaki practiced asubsistence economybased on hunting, fishing, trapping, berry picking and on growing corn, beans, squash, potatoes and tobacco. They also produced baskets, made of ash and sweet grass, for picking wild berries, and boiledmaple sapto make syrup.Basket weavingremains a traditional activity practiced by some tribal members.[12]

During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki were allies of France, having been displaced from Ndakinna by immigrating English settlers. An anecdote from the period tells the story of a Wolastoqew war chief namedNescambuit(variant spellings include Assacumbuit), who killed more than 140 enemies of KingLouis XIV of Franceand received the rank of knight. Not all Abenaki natives fought on the side of the French, however; many remained on their native lands in the northern colonies. Much of thetrappingwas done by the people and traded to the English colonists for durable goods. These contributions by Native American Abenaki peoples went largely unreported.[citation needed]Two tribal communities formed in Canada, one once known asSaint-Francois-du-lacnearPierreville, Quebec(now calledOdanak,Abenaki for "coming home" ), and the other nearBécancour(now known asWôlinak) on the south shore of theSt. Lawrence River,directly across the river fromTrois-Rivières.These two Abenaki reserves continue to grow and develop. Since the year 2000, the total Abenaki population (on and off reserve) has doubled to 2,101 members in 2011. Approximately 400 Abenaki reside on these two reserves, which cover a total area of less than 7 square kilometres (2.7 sq mi). The unrecognized majority are off-reserve members, living in various cities and towns across Canada and the United States.[citation needed]

There are about 3,200 Abenaki living in Vermont and New Hampshire, without reservations, chiefly aroundLake Champlain.[citation needed]The remaining Abenaki people live in multi-racial towns and cities across Canada and the US, mainly in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and northern New England.[4]

In December 2012, the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation created a tribal forest in the town ofBarton, Vermont.This forest was established with assistance from the Vermont Sierra Club and theVermont Land Trust.It contains a hunting camp andmaple sugaring facilitiesthat are administered cooperatively by the Nulhegan. The forest contains 65 acres (26 ha).[13]The Missiquoi Abenaki Tribe owns forest land in the town ofBrunswick, Vermont,centered around the Brunswick Springs. These springs are believed to be a sacred Abenaki site.

Language

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Main article:Abenaki language

The Abenaki language is closely related to thePanawahpskek(Penobscot) language. Other neighboring Wabanaki tribes, thePestomuhkati(Passamaquoddy),Wolastoqiyik(Maliseet), andMi'kmaq,and otherEastern Algonquian languagesshare many linguistic similarities. It has come close to extinction as a spoken language. Tribal members are working to revive the Abenaki language at Odanak (means "in the village" ), a First Nations Abenaki reserve nearPierreville, Quebec,and throughoutNew Hampshire,Vermont,andNew Yorkstate.

The language ispolysynthetic,meaning that a phrase or an entire sentence is expressed by a single word. For example, the word for "white man"awanochis a combination of the wordsawanimeaning "who" andujimeaning "from". Thus, the word for "white man" literally translates to "Who is this man and where does he come from?"

History

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There is archeological evidence of indigenous people in what is today New Hampshire for at least 12,000 years.[14][15]

InReflections in Bullough's Pond,historianDiana Muirargues that the Abenakis' neighbors, pre-contact Iroquois, were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of thecorn/beans/squash agricultural complexenabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboringAlgonquian peoples,including the Abenaki. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest.[16][page needed]

In 1614, Thomas Hunt captured 24 Abenaki people, includingSquanto(Tisquantum) and took them to Spain, where they were sold intoslavery.[17]During the European colonization of North America, the land occupied by the Abenaki was in the area between the new colonies of England in Massachusetts and the French in Quebec. Since no party agreed to territorial boundaries, there was regular conflict among them. The Abenaki were traditionally allied with the French; during the reign ofLouis XIV,ChiefAssacumbuitwas designated a member of the French nobility for his service.

Around 1669, the Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists andepidemicsof new infectious diseases. The governor ofNew Franceallocated twoseigneuries(large self-administered areas similar tofeudal fiefs). The first, of what was later to becomeIndian reserves,was on theSaint Francis Riverand is now known as theOdanakIndian Reserve; the second was founded nearBécancourand is called theWôlinakIndian Reserve.

Abenaki wars

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Main article:French and Indian Wars

When theWampanoag peopleunder King Philip (Metacomet) fought the English colonists in New England in 1675 inKing Philip's War,the Abenaki joined the Wampanoag. For three years they fought along the Maine frontier in theFirst Abenaki War.The Abenaki pushed back the line of white settlement through devastating raids on scattered farmhouses and small villages. The war was settled by a peace treaty in 1678, with the Wampanoag more than decimated and many native survivors having been sold into slavery in Bermuda.[18]

DuringQueen Anne's Warin 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous English colonial settlements in Maine, fromWellstoCasco,killing about 300 settlers over ten years. They also occasionally raided into Massachusetts, for instance inGrotonandDeerfieldin 1704. The raids stopped when the war ended. Somecaptiveswere adopted into theMohawkand Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade.[19]

The Third Abenaki War (1722–25), called theDummer's Waror Father Rale's War, erupted when the FrenchJesuitmissionarySébastien Rale(or Rasles, ~1657?-1724) encouraged the Abenaki to halt the spread of Yankee settlements. When the Massachusetts militia tried to seize Rale, the Abenaki raided the settlements atBrunswick,Arrowsick,andMerry-Meeting Bay.The Massachusetts government then declared war and bloody battles were fought atNorridgewock(1724), where Rale was killed, and ata daylong battleat the Indian village near present-dayFryeburg, Maine,on the upperSaco River(1725).Peace conferencesat Boston andCasco Baybrought an end to the war. After Rale died, the Abenaki moved to a settlement on theSt. Francis River.[20]

The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier duringFather Le Loutre's War(seeNortheast Coast campaign (1750)) and theFrench and Indian War.

Canada

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The development of tourism projects has allowed the Canadian Abenaki to develop a modern economy, while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the Quebec-Montreal axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually.[citation needed]Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs a dozen natives, with annual sales exceeding C$3 million.[citation needed]Odanak is now active in transportation and distribution.[citation needed]Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmakerAlanis Obomsawin(National Film Board of Canada).[21]

United States

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Maine: federally recognized tribes

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ThePenobscot Indian Nation,Passamaquoddypeople, andHoulton Band of Maliseet Indianshave beenfederally recognizedas tribes in the United States.[22]

Vermont: state-recognized tribes

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Flag ofMissisquoi Abenaki Tribe,a state-recognized tribe in Vermont

Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation,Koasek Abenaki Tribe,Elnu Abenaki Tribe,and theMissisquoi Abenaki Tribeare, as of 2011, allstate-recognized tribes in the United States.

The Missisquoi Abenaki applied for federal recognition as an Indian tribe in the 1980s but failed to meet four of the seven criteria.[23][24]TheBureau of Indian Affairsfound that less than 1% of the Missisquoi's 1,171 members could show descent from an Abenaki ancestor. The bureau's report concluded that the petitioner is "a collection of individuals of claimed but mostlyundemonstrated Indian ancestrywith little or no social or historical connection with each other before the early 1970s. "[25]

State recognition allows applicants to seek certain scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to for members to market artwork as American Indian or Native American-made under the 1990Indian Arts and Crafts Act.[26]

In 2002, the State of Vermont reported that the Abenaki people have not had a "continuous presence" in the state and had migrated north toQuebecby the end of the 17th century.[27]Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669.[citation needed]

"Race-shifting" controversy
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The Abenaki Nation, based in Quebec, claim that those self-identifying as Abenaki in Vermont are settlers making false claims to Indigenous ancestry.[28][25][29][30]While the Odanak and Wolinak Abenaki First Nations in Quebec initially believed claims from residents of Vermont who said they were Abenaki, the Odanak reversed their position in 2003, calling on the groups in Vermont to provide them with genealogical evidence of Indigenous ancestry.[25]

Scholars have not been able to find credible evidence of the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Indigenous ancestry.[25]Anthropological research from the first half of the 20th century indicates that no Abenaki community actively existed in Vermont during that time period.[31]

Researcher Darryl Leroux characterizes the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Abenaki ancestry as "race-shifting",arguing that genealogical and archival evidence shows that most members of the state-recognized tribes are descended from whiteFrench Canadians.[31]Leroux found that only 2.2 percent of the Missisquoi Abenaki membership has Abenaki ancestry, with the rest of the organization's root ancestors being primarily French Canadian and migrating to Vermont in the mid-19th century.[31]The Abenaki Nation of Missisquoi's shifting claims about its root ancestors as well as loose membership critieria are consistent with race-shifting patterns.[31]

Leroux's research prompted renewed calls by the Abenaki First Nations to reassess Vermont's state recognition process.[32]

New Hampshire and minority recognition

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36-foot-tall (11 m) statue ofKeewakwa Abenaki Keenahbehin Opechee Park in Laconia, New Hampshire

New Hampshire does not recognize any Abenaki tribes.[23]It has no federally recognized tribes or state-recognized tribes; however, it established the New Hampshire Commission on Native American Affairs in 2010.[33]The variousCowasuck,Abenaki and other Native and heritage groups are represented to the Commission.

In 2021, a bill was introduced to the New Hampshire legislature to allow New Hampshire communities to rename locations in the Abenaki language.[34]This bill did not pass.[35]

Culture

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There are a dozen variations of the name "Abenaki", such as Abenaquiois, Abakivis, Quabenakionek, Wabenakies and others.

The Abenaki were described in theJesuit Relationsas notcannibals,and as docile, ingenious, temperate in the use of liquor, and not profane.[36]

Abenaki lifeways were similar to those ofAlgonquian-speaking peoplesof southern New England. They cultivated food crops and built villages on or near fertile river floodplains. They also hunted game, fished, andgathered wild plants and fungi.[4]

Unlike theHaudenosaunee,the Abenaki werepatrilineal.Each man had different hunting territories inherited through his father.

Most of the year, Abenaki lived in dispersed bands of extended families. Bands came together during the spring and summer at seasonal villages near rivers, or somewhere along the seacoast for planting and fishing. During the winter, the Abenaki lived in small groups further inland. These villages occasionally had to be fortified, depending on the alliances and enemies of other tribes or of Europeans near the village. Abenaki villages were quite small with an average number of 100 residents.[4]

Most Abenaki crafted dome-shaped, bark-coveredwigwamsfor housing, though a few preferred oval-shapedlonghouses.[4][37]During the winter, the Abenaki lined the inside of their conical wigwams with bear and deer skins for warmth.

Gender, food, division of labor, and other cultural traits

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The Abenaki were a farming society that supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. Generally the men were the hunters. The women tended the fields and grew the crops.[38]In their fields, they planted the crops in groups of "sisters". The three sisters were grown together: the stalk of corn supported the beans, and squash or pumpkins provided ground cover and reduced weeds.[38]The men would hunt bears, deer, fish, and birds.

The Abenaki were a patrilineal society, which was common among New England tribes. In this they differed from thesix Iroquois tribesto the west in New York, and from many other North American Native tribes who hadmatrilinealsocieties.

Groups used theconsensusmethod to make important decisions.

Storytelling

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Storytellingis a major part of Abenaki culture. It is used not only as entertainment but also as a teaching method. The Abenaki view stories as having lives of their own and being aware of how they are used. Stories were used as a means of teaching children behavior. Children were not to be mistreated, and so instead of punishing the child, they would be told a story.[39]

One of the stories is of Azban the Raccoon. This is a story about a proudraccoonthat challenges awaterfallto a shouting contest. When the waterfall does not respond, Azban dives into the waterfall to try to outshout it; he is swept away because of hispride.This story would be used to show a child the pitfalls of pride.[40]

Mythology

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See also:Abenaki mythology

Ethnobotany

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The Abenaki smash the flowers and leaves ofRanunculus acrisand sniff them for headaches.[41][42]They consume the fruit ofVaccinium myrtilloidesas part of their traditional diet.[43]They also use the fruit[44]and the grains ofViburnum nudum var. cassinoides[45]for food.[46]

Many other plants are used for various healing and treatment modalities, including for the skin, as a disinfectant, as a cure-all, as a respiratory aid, for colds, coughs, fevers, grippe, gas, blood strengthening, headaches and other pains,rheumatism,demulcent,nasal inflammation,anthelmintic,for the eyes,abortifacent,for the bones,antihemorrhagic,as asedative,anaphrodisiac,swellings, urinary aid, gastrointestinal aid, as ahemostat,pediatric aid (such as for teething), and other unspecified or general uses.[47]

They useHierochloe odorata(sweetgrass),Apocynum(dogbane),Betula papyrifera(paper birch),Fraxinus americana(white ash),Fraxinus nigra(black ash),Laportea canadensis(Canada nettle), a variety ofSalixspecies, andTilia americana(basswood, or American linden) var.americanafor making baskets, canoes, snowshoes, and whistles.[48]They useHierochloe odorataand willow to make containers,Betula papyriferato create containers, moose calls and other utilitarian pieces, and the bark ofCornus sericea(red osier dogwood) ssp. sericea for smoking.[49]

They also useAcer rubrum,Acornus calamus,an unknownAmelanchierspecies,Caltha palustris,Cardamine diphylla,Cornus canadensis,an unknownCrataegusspecies,Fragaria virginiana,Gaultheria procumbens,Osmunda cinnamomea,Phaseolus vulgaris,Photinia melanocarpa,Prunus virginiana,Rubus idaeusand another unknownRubusspecies,Solanum tuberosum,Spiraea albavar.latifolia,Vaccinium angustifolium,andZea maysas a tea, soup, jelly, sweetener,condiment,snack, or meal.[50]

The Abenaki use the gum ofAbies balsameafor slight itches and as an antiseptic ointment.[51]They stuff the leaves,[52]needles and wood into pillows as apanacea.[53]

Population and epidemics

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Before the Abenaki, except the Pennacook andMi'kmaq,had contact with the European world, their population may have numbered as many as 40,000. Around 20,000 would have been Eastern Abenaki, another 10,000 would have been Western Abenaki, and the last 10,000 would have been Maritime Abenaki. Early contact with European fishermen resulted in two major epidemics that affected Abenaki during the 16th century. The first epidemic was an unknown sickness occurring sometime between 1564 and 1570, and the second one wastyphusin 1586. Multiple epidemics arrived a decade prior to the English colonization of Massachusetts in 1620, when three separate sicknesses swept across New England and theCanadian Maritimes.Maine was hit very hard during the year of 1617, with a fatality rate of 75%, and the population of the Eastern Abenaki fell to about 5,000. The more isolated Western Abenaki suffered fewer fatalities, losing about half of their original population of 10,000.[4]

The new diseases continued to strike in epidemics, starting withsmallpoxin 1631, 1633, and 1639. Seven years later, an unknown epidemic struck, withinfluenzapassing through the following year. Smallpox affected the Abenaki again in 1649, anddiphtheriacame through 10 years later. Smallpox struck in 1670, and influenza in 1675. Smallpox affected the Native Americans in 1677, 1679, 1687, along withmeasles,1691, 1729, 1733, 1755, and finally in 1758.[4]

The Abenaki population continued to decline, but in 1676, they took in thousands of refugees from many southern New England tribes displaced by settlement andKing Philip's War.Because of this, descendants of nearly every southern New England Algonquian tribe can be found among the Abenaki people. A century later, fewer than 1,000 Abenaki remained after theAmerican Revolution.

In the1990 US census,1,549 people identified themselves as Abenaki. So did 2,544 people in the2000 US census,with 6,012 people claiming Abenaki heritage.[3]In 1991 Canadian Abenaki numbered 945; by 2006 they numbered 2,164.[3]

Fiction

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Lydia Maria Childwrote of the Abenaki in her short story, "The Church in the Wilderness" (1828). Several Abenaki characters and much about their 18th-century culture are featured in theKenneth Roberts' novelArundel(1930). The filmNorthwest Passage(1940) is based on a novel of the same name by Roberts.

The Abenaki are featured inCharles McCarry's historical novelBride of the Wilderness(1988), andJames Archibald Houston's novelGhost Fox(1977), both of which are set in the eighteenth century; and inJodi Picoult'sSecond Glance(2003) andLone Wolf(2012) novels, set in the contemporary world. Books for younger readers both have historical settings:Joseph Bruchac'sThe Arrow Over the Door(1998) (grades 4–6) is set in 1777; and Beth Kanell's young adult novel,The Darkness Under the Water(2008), concerns a young Abenaki-French Canadian girl during the time of the Vermont Eugenics Project, 1931–1936.

The first sentence inNorman Mailer's novelHarlot's Ghostmakes reference to the Abenaki: "On a late-winter evening in 1983, while driving through fog along the Maine coast, recollections of old campfires began to drift into the March mist, and I thought of the Abnaki Indians of the Algonquin tribe who dwelt nearBangora thousand years ago. "

Non-fiction

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Letters and other non-fiction writing can be found in the anthologyDawnland Voices,edited by Siobhan Senier. Selections include letters from leader of the early praying town,Wamesitin Massachusetts Samuel Numphow,[clarification needed]Sagamore Kancamagus,[clarification needed]and writings on the Abenaki language by former chief of the reserve atOdanakin Quebec,Joseph Laurent,as well as many others.[citation needed]

Accounts of life with the Abenaki can be found in thecaptivity narrativeswritten by women taken captive by the Abenaki from the early New England settlements:Mary Rowlandson(1682),Hannah Duston(1702);Elizabeth Hanson(1728);Susannah Willard Johnson(1754); andJemima Howe(1792).[54]

Maps

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Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of theWabanaki Confederacy(from north to south):

Notable historic Abenaki people

[edit]

Please list living people under their First Nation or state-recognized tribe.

Notable contemporary Abenaki people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

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  1. ^"Canada Census Profile 2021".Census Profile, 2021 Census.Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. May 7, 2021.RetrievedJanuary 3,2023.
  2. ^"Québec Census Profile 2021".Census Profile, 2021 Census.Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. May 7, 2021.RetrievedJanuary 3,2023.
  3. ^abcde"Abenaki".U*X*L Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes.2008. Archived fromthe originalon June 11, 2014.RetrievedAugust 14,2012– via HighBeam Research.
  4. ^abcdefghLee Sultzman (July 21, 1997)."Abenaki History".Archived fromthe originalon April 11, 2010.RetrievedMarch 20,2010.
  5. ^A Time Before New Hampshire by Michael J. Caduto
  6. ^Clark, Patricia Roberts (October 21, 2009).Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced.McFarland. p. 10.ISBN978-0-7864-5169-2.
  7. ^Snow, Dean R. 1978. "Eastern Abenaki". InNortheast,ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 ofHandbook of North American Indians,ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 137. Cited in Campbell, Lyle (1997).American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America.Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 401. Campbell uses the spellingwabánahki.
  8. ^Colin G. Calloway:The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People,University of Oklahoma Press, 1994,ISBN978-0806125688
  9. ^"Who We Are".Abenaki Nation. Archived fromthe originalon February 10, 2010.RetrievedMarch 22,2010.
  10. ^Waldman, Carl.Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes: Third Edition(New York: Checkmark Books, 2006) p. 1
  11. ^Noël, Michel (1997).The Native Peoples of Québec.Éditions S. Harvey. p. 22.ISBN978-2-921703-07-9.After having lived for several decades around the city of Lévis, the Abenaki settled in Odanak and Wôlinak in 1700 in one of the most picturesque and rich farming districts in Québec.
  12. ^"Culture".Penobscot Nation.RetrievedJuly 5,2017.
  13. ^"Nulhegan Abenaki attain first tribal forestland in more than 200 years".VTDigger.December 18, 2012. Archived fromthe originalon November 16, 2018.RetrievedNovember 15,2018.
  14. ^"12,000 Years Ago in the Granite State".New Hampshire Humanities.RetrievedOctober 4,2023.
  15. ^Harris, Michael (2021)."N'dakinna: Our Homeland...Still – Additional Examples of Abenaki Presence in New Hampshire".Spectrum.10(1): 1.RetrievedOctober 5,2023.
  16. ^Muir, Diana,Reflections in Bullough's Pond,University Press of New England.
  17. ^Bourne, Russell (1990).The Red King's Rebellion, Racial Politics in New England 1675–1678.Atheneum. p. 214.ISBN0-689-12000-1.
  18. ^Peters, Paula (July 14, 2002)."Worlds rejoined".Cape Cod Times.RetrievedJuly 12,2024.
  19. ^Kenneth Morrison,The Embattled Northeast: the Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations(1984)
  20. ^Spencer C. Tucker; et al., eds. (2011).The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History.ABC-CLIO. p. 249.ISBN9781851096978.
  21. ^"Administration".Cbodanak.com. Archived fromthe originalon July 20, 2012.RetrievedOctober 30,2012.
  22. ^"Tribal Directory".U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Archived fromthe originalon December 23, 2012.RetrievedDecember 26,2012.
  23. ^ab"State-Recognized Tribes".National Conference of State Legislatures.Archived fromthe originalon October 25, 2022.RetrievedMarch 20,2022.
  24. ^Bureau of Indian Affairs (July 2, 2007)."Final Determination against Federal Acknowledgment of the St. Francis / Sokoki Band of Abenakis of Vermont".Federal Register.
  25. ^abcdRobinson, Shaun (November 14, 2023)."'A false narrative': Abenaki leaders dispute the legitimacy of Vermont's state-recognized tribes ".VTDigger.RetrievedMarch 26,2024.
  26. ^Hallenbeck, Terri.Abenaki Turn to Vermont Legislature for RecognitionBurlington Free Press[permanent dead link]January 20, 2011. Retrieved January 20, 2011
  27. ^Dillon, John (March 20, 2002)."State Says Abenaki Do Not Have" Continuous Presence "".Vermont Public Radio.Archived fromthe originalon January 31, 2022.RetrievedJanuary 30,2022.
  28. ^Abenakis of Odanak (June 2, 2023)."Letter to Vermont conservation groups".
  29. ^Fennario, Tom (September 12, 2022)."Abenaki Nation in Quebec says tribes bearing its name in Vermont should not be recognized".APTN News.
  30. ^Rancourt, Joanie (November 25, 2019)."DÉNONCIATION DE GROUPES AUTOPROCLAMÉS ACTIFS SUR LE NDAKINA".
  31. ^abcdLeroux, Darryl (July 14, 2023)."State Recognition and the Dangers of Race Shifting".American Indian Culture and Research Journal.46(2).doi:10.17953/aicrj.46.2.leroux.ISSN0161-6463.
  32. ^"Press release:ABENAKIGROUP OF MISSISQUOI: RESEARCH FINDINGS REVEAL TROUBLING IRREGULARITIES IN THE STATE OF VERMONT'S RECOGNITION PROCESS "(PDF).Abenaki Heritage.July 31, 2023.
  33. ^"Commission on Native American Affairs".New Hampshire Department of Natural & Cultural Resources.RetrievedMarch 20,2022.
  34. ^Ramer, Holly (January 21, 2021)."Bill promotes Native American history through NH place names".Associated Press.No. 161.
  35. ^"New Hampshire Senate Bill 33 (Prior Session Legislation)".LegiScan.RetrievedMarch 20,2022.
  36. ^Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed. (1900).Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610—1791.The Burrows Company. Archived fromthe originalon September 7, 2006.RetrievedNovember 7,2006.
  37. ^Waldman, Carl (2006).Encyclopedia of Native American tribes(3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File.ISBN9780816062737.OCLC67361229.
  38. ^ab"What We Ate".Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook-Abenaki People.Archivedfrom the original on July 16, 2011.RetrievedMarch 22,2010.
  39. ^Joe Bruchac."The Abenaki Perspective on Storytelling".Abenaki Nation. Archived fromthe originalon February 10, 2010.RetrievedMarch 22,2010.
  40. ^"Raccoon and the Waterfall".Abenaki Nation.RetrievedMarch 22,2010.
  41. ^Rousseau, Jacques 1947 Ethnobotanique Abenakise. Archives de Folklore 11:145–182 (p. 166)
  42. ^Johns, Timothy; Hebda, Richard; Arnason, Thor (November 1981)."Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples of eastern Canada".Canadian Journal of Botany.59(11): 107.doi:10.1139/b81-287.RetrievedFebruary 16,2023.
  43. ^Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 152, 171
  44. ^Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 152
  45. ^Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 173
  46. ^A full list of their ethnobotany can be found at theNative American Ethnobotany Database(159 documented plant uses).
  47. ^"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database".naeb.brit.org.RetrievedDecember 17,2019.
  48. ^"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database".naeb.brit.org.RetrievedDecember 17,2019.
  49. ^"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database".naeb.brit.org.RetrievedDecember 17,2019.
  50. ^"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database".naeb.brit.org.RetrievedDecember 17,2019.
  51. ^Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 164
  52. ^Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 155
  53. ^Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 163-164
  54. ^Women's Indian Captivity Narratives,ed. Kathryn Zabelle Derounian-Stodola, Penguin, London, 1998
  55. ^Johnson, Arthur (2007)."Biography of Indian Joe".nedoba.org.Ne-Do-Ba (Friends), A Maine Nonprofit Corporation. Archived fromthe originalon March 4, 2016.RetrievedOctober 11,2018.
  56. ^"Conseil des Abenakis Odanak".Archived fromthe originalon April 4, 2015.
  57. ^Brooks, Lisa (2008).The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast(NED - New ed.).University of Minnesota Press.ISBN9780816647835.JSTOR10.5749/j.ctttsd1b.
  58. ^Chamberlain, Alexander F.(April 1903)."Algonkian Words in American English: A Study in the Contact of the White Man and the Indian".The Journal of American Folklore.16(61).American Folklore Society:128–129.doi:10.2307/533199.JSTOR533199.
  59. ^"Miniature Baskets by Jeanne Brink".Dawnland Voices.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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Other grammar books and dictionaries include:

  • Gordon M. Day's two-volumeWestern Abenaki Dictionary(August 1994), Paperback: 616 pages, Publisher:Canadian Museum Of Civilization
  • Chief Henry Lorne Masta'sAbenaki Legends, Grammar, and Place Names(1932), Odanak, Quebec, reprinted in 2008 by Global Language Press
  • Joseph Aubery'sFather Aubery's French-Abenaki Dictionary(1700), translated into English-Abenaki by Stephen Laurent, and published in hardcover (525 pp.) by Chisholm Bros. Publishing.
  • Lisa Brooks,Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip's War(New Haven; London:Yale University Press,2018).
  • Lisa Brooks,The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast(Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,2008).
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