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Abscisic acid

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Abscisic acid
Stereo, skeletal formula of abscisic acid
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
(2Z,4E)-5-[(1S)-1-Hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-4-oxocyclohex-2-en-1-yl]-3-methylpenta-2,4-dienoic acid[3]
Other names
(2Z,4E)-(S)-5-(1-Hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-4-oxo-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-3-methyl-2,4-pentanedienoic acid; Dormic acid;[citation needed]Dormin[1][2]
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
3DMet
Abbreviations ABA
2698956
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.040.275Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 244-319-5
MeSH Abscisic+Acid
RTECS number
  • RZ2475100
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C15H20O4/c1-10(7-13(17)18)5-6-15(19)11(2)8-12(16)9-14(15,3)4/h5-8,19H,9H2,1-4H3,(H,17,18)/b6-5+,10-7-/t15-/m1/s1checkY
    Key: JLIDBLDQVAYHNE-YKALOCIXSA-NcheckY
  • OC(=O)\C=C(\C)/C=C/[C@@]1(O)C(C)=CC(=O)CC1(C)C
Properties
C15H20O4
Molar mass 264.321g·mol−1
Appearance Colorless crystals
Density 1.193 g/mL
Melting point 163 °C (325 °F; 436 K)[4]
logP 1.896
Acidity(pKa) 4.868
Basicity(pKb) 9.129
Hazards
GHSlabelling:
GHS07: Exclamation mark
Warning
H315,H319,H335
P261,P264,P271,P280,P302+P352,P304+P340,P305+P351+P338,P312,P321,P332+P313,P337+P313,P362,P403+P233,P405,P501
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in theirstandard state(at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Abscisic acid(ABAorabscisin II[5]) is aplant hormone.ABA functions in many plant developmental processes, including seed and buddormancy,the control of organ size andstomatalclosure. It is especially important for plants in the response toenvironmental stresses,includingdrought,soil salinity,cold tolerance,freezing tolerance,heat stressandheavy metal iontolerance.[6]

Discovery[edit]

In the 1940s, Torsten Hemberg, while working at the University of Stockholm, found evidence that a positive correlation exists between the rest period and the occurrence of an acidic ether soluble growth inhibitor inpotatotubers.[7][8]

In 1963, abscisic acid was first identified and characterized as a plant hormone by Frederick T. Addicott and Larry A. Davis. They were studying compounds that causeabscission(shedding) ofcottonfruits (bolls). Two compounds were isolated and calledabscisin Iand abscisin II. Abscisin II is presently called abscisic acid (ABA).[5]

In plants[edit]

Function[edit]

ABA was originally believed to be involved inabscission,which is how it received its name. This is now known to be the case only in a small number of plants. ABA-mediated signaling also plays an important part in plant responses to environmental stress and plant pathogens.[9][10]The plant genes for ABA biosynthesis and sequence of the pathway have been elucidated.[11][12]ABA is also produced by some plant pathogenic fungi via a biosynthetic route different from ABA biosynthesis in plants.[13]

In preparation for winter, ABA is produced interminal buds.[14]This slows plant growth and directs leafprimordiato develop scales to protect the dormant buds during the cold season. ABA also inhibits the division of cells in thevascular cambium,adjusting to cold conditions in the winter by suspending primary and secondary growth.

Abscisic acid is also produced in therootsin response to decreased soilwater potential(which is associated with dry soil) and other situations in which the plant may be under stress. ABA then translocates to the leaves, where it rapidly alters the osmotic potential of stomatalguard cells,causing them to shrink andstomatato close. The ABA-induced stomatal closure reducestranspiration(evaporation of water out of the stomata), thus preventing further water loss from the leaves in times of low water availability. A close linear correlation was found between the ABA content of the leaves and their conductance (stomatal resistance) on a leaf area basis.[15]

Seed germination is inhibited by ABA in antagonism withgibberellin.ABA also prevents loss ofseed dormancy.[citation needed]

Several ABA-mutantArabidopsis thalianaplants have been identified and are available from theNottingham Arabidopsis Stock Centre- both those deficient in ABA production and those with altered sensitivity to its action. Plants that are hypersensitive or insensitive to ABA show phenotypes inseed dormancy,germination,stomatalregulation, and some mutants show stunted growth and brown/yellow leaves. These mutants reflect the importance of ABA in seed germination and early embryo development.[citation needed]

Pyrabactin(apyridylcontaining ABA activator) is anaphthalene sulfonamidehypocotylcell expansion inhibitor, which is an agonist of the seed ABA signaling pathway.[16]It is the first agonist of the ABA pathway that is not structurally related to ABA.[citation needed]

Homeostasis[edit]

Biosynthesis[edit]

Abscisic acid (ABA) is anisoprenoidplant hormone, which is synthesized in theplastidal2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway;unlike the structurally relatedsesquiterpenes,which are formed from themevalonic acid-derived precursorfarnesyl diphosphate(FDP), the C15backbone of ABA is formed after cleavage of C40carotenoidsin MEP.Zeaxanthinis the first committed ABA precursor; a series of enzyme-catalyzedepoxidationsandisomerizationsviaviolaxanthin,and final cleavage of the C40carotenoidby adioxygenationreaction yields the proximal ABA precursor,xanthoxin,which is then further oxidized to ABA. viaabscisic aldehyde.[11]

Abamine has been designed, synthesized, developed and then patented as the first specific ABA biosynthesis inhibitor, which makes it possible to regulate endogenous levels of ABA.[17]

Locations and timing of ABA biosynthesis[edit]

  • Synthesized in nearly all plant tissues, e.g., roots, flowers, leaves andstems
  • Stored inmesophyll(chlorenchyma) cells where it is conjugated to glucose via uridine diphosphate-glucosyltransferase resulting in the inactivated form, ABA-glucose-ester[18]
  • Activated and released from the chlorenchyma in response toenvironmental stress,such as heat stress, water stress, salt stress[18]
  • Released duringdesiccationof the vegetative tissues and when roots encountersoil compaction.[19]
  • Synthesized in greenfruitsat the beginning of the winter period
  • Synthesized in maturingseeds,establishingdormancy
  • Mobile within theleafand can be rapidly translocated from the leaves to the roots (opposite of previous belief) in thephloem
  • Accumulation in the roots modifies lateral root development, improving the stress response
  • ABA is synthesized in almost all cells that contain chloroplasts oramyloplasts

Inactivation[edit]

ABA can be catabolized tophaseic acidviaCYP707A(a group ofP450enzymes) or inactivated by glucose conjugation (ABA-glucose ester) via the enzyme uridine diphosphate-glucosyltransferase (UDP-glucosyltransferase). Catabolism via the CYP707As is very important for ABA homeostasis, and mutants in those genes generally accumulate higher levels of ABA than lines overexpressing ABA biosynthetic genes.[20]In soil bacteria, an alternative catabolic pathway leading to dehydrovomifoliol via the enzymevomifoliol dehydrogenasehas been reported.

Effects[edit]

Signal cascade[edit]

ABA signal pathway in plants

In the absence of ABA, thephosphataseABI1-INSENSITIVE1 (ABI1) inhibits the action of SNF1-related proteinkinases(subfamily 2) (SnRK2s). ABA is perceived by the PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE 1 (PYR1) and PYR1-like membrane proteins. On ABA binding, PYR1 binds to and inhibits ABI1. When SnRK2s are released from inhibition, they activate severaltranscription factorsfrom the ABA RESPONSIVE ELEMENT-BINDING FACTOR (ABF) family. ABFs then go on to cause changes in theexpressionof a large number ofgenes.[6]Around 10% of plant genes are thought to be regulated by ABA.[citation needed]

In fungi[edit]

Like plants, some fungal species (for exampleCercospora rosicola,Botrytis cinerea[28]andMagnaporthe oryzae) have an endogenous biosynthesis pathway for ABA. In fungi, it seems to be theMVAbiosynthetic pathway that is predominant (rather than theMEPpathway that is responsible for ABA biosynthesis in plants). One role of ABA produced by these pathogens seems to be to suppress the plant immune responses.[29]

In animals[edit]

ABA has also been found to be present inmetazoans,fromspongesup tomammalsincluding humans.[30]Currently, its biosynthesis and biological role in animals is poorly known. ABA elicits potent anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic effects in mouse models of diabetes/obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, atherosclerosis and influenza infection.[31]Many biological effects in animals have been studied using ABA as anutraceuticalorpharmacognosticdrug, but ABA is also generated endogenously by some cells (likemacrophages) when stimulated. There are also conflicting conclusions from different studies, where some claim that ABA is essential for pro-inflammatory responses whereas other show anti-inflammatory effects. Like with many natural substances with medical properties, ABA has become popular also innaturopathy.While ABA clearly has beneficial biological activities[citation needed]and many naturopathic remedies will contain high levels of ABA (such aswheatgrassjuice, fruits and vegetables), some of the health claims made may be exaggerated or overly optimistic. In mammalian cells ABA targets a protein known aslanthioninesynthetase C-like 2 (LANCL2), triggering an alternative mechanism of activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma(PPAR gamma).[32]LANCL2 is conserved in plants and was originally suggested to be an ABA receptor also in plants, which was later challenged.[33]

Measurement of ABA concentration[edit]

Several methods can help to quantify the concentration of abscisic acid in a variety of plant tissue. The quantitative methods used are based onHPLCandELISA.Two independentFRETprobes can measure intracellular ABA concentrations in real time in vivo.[34][35]

References[edit]

  1. ^O'Neil, Maryadele J; Heckelman, PE; Koch, CB; Roman, KJ (2006).The Merck Index, 14th.
  2. ^21293-29-8
  3. ^"Abscisic Acid - Compound Summary".PubChem Compound.USA: National Center for Biotechnology Information. 16 September 2004. Identification and Related Records.Retrieved22 October2011.
  4. ^"ChemSpider database - Abscisic acid - Properties".Retrieved27 December2012.The melting point is decided by experimental data by Tokyo Chemical Industry Ltd.
  5. ^abDavis, L. A.; Addicott, F. T. (April 1972)."Abscisic Acid: correlations with abscission and with development in the cotton fruit".Plant Physiology.49(4): 644–648.doi:10.1104/pp.49.4.644.ISSN0032-0889.PMC366021.PMID16658017.
  6. ^abFinkelstein, Ruth (2013-11-01)."Abscisic Acid Synthesis and Response".The Arabidopsis Book.11:e0166.doi:10.1199/tab.0166.PMC3833200.PMID24273463.
  7. ^Hemberg, Torsten (January 1949)."Significance of Growth-Inhibiting Substances and Auxins for the Rest-Period of the Potato Tuber".Physiologia Plantarum.2(1): 24–36.doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1949.tb07645.x.ISSN0031-9317.
  8. ^Dörffling, Karl (2015-12-01)."The Discovery of Abscisic Acid: A Retrospect".Journal of Plant Growth Regulation.34(4): 795–808.doi:10.1007/s00344-015-9525-6.ISSN1435-8107.S2CID253856375.
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  13. ^Siewers, V.; Smedsgaard, J.; Tudzynski, P. (2004)."The P450 Monooxygenase BcABA1 is Essential for Abscisic Acid Biosynthesis in Botrytis cinerea".Applied and Environmental Microbiology.70(7): 3868–76.Bibcode:2004ApEnM..70.3868S.doi:10.1128/AEM.70.7.3868-3876.2004.PMC444755.PMID15240257.
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  15. ^Steuer, Barbara; Thomas Stuhlfauth; Heinrich P. Fock (1988). "The efficiency of water use in water stressed plants is increased due to ABA induced stomatal closure".Photosynthesis Research.18(3): 327–336.Bibcode:1988PhoRe..18..327S.doi:10.1007/BF00034837.ISSN0166-8595.PMID24425243.S2CID30298332.[citation needed]
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  18. ^abZhang, Yuqin; Kilambi, Himabindu Vasuki; Liu, Jie; Bar, Hamutal; Lazary, Shani; Egbaria, Aiman; Ripper, Dagmar; Charrier, Laurence; Belew, Zeinu Mussa; Wulff, Nikolai; Damodaran, Suresh; Nour-Eldin, Hussam Hassan; Aharoni, Asaph; Ragni, Laura; Strader, Lucia (2021-10-22)."ABA homeostasis and long-distance translocation are redundantly regulated by ABCG ABA importers".Science Advances.7(43).doi:10.1126/sciadv.abf6069.ISSN2375-2548.PMC8528425.PMID34669479.
  19. ^DeJong-Hughes, J., et al. (2001) Soil Compaction: causes, effects and control. University of Minnesota extension service
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  21. ^Zhang, Jianhua; Schurr, U.; Davies, W. J. (1987). "Control of Stomatal Behaviour by Abscisic Acid which Apparently Originates in the Roots".Journal of Experimental Botany.38(7): 1174–1181.doi:10.1093/jxb/38.7.1174.
  22. ^Ralls, Eric (2023-06-27)."Plant leaves send signals to their roots on dry days telling them to keep digging deeper for water".www.msn.com/.RetrievedOctober 4,2023.
  23. ^Miernyk, J. A. (1979). "Abscisic Acid Inhibition of Kinetin Nucleotide Formation in Germinating Lettuce Seeds".Physiologia Plantarum.45:63–6.doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1979.tb01664.x.
  24. ^Chandler, P M; Robertson, M (1994). "Gene Expression Regulated by Abscisic Acid and its Relation to Stress Tolerance".Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology.45:113–41.doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.45.060194.000553.
  25. ^Duan, Lina; D. Dietrich; C. H. Ng; P. M. Y. Chan; R. Bhalerao; M. J. Bennett; J. R. Dinneny. (Jan 2013)."Endodermal ABA Signaling Promotes Lateral Root Quiescence during Salt Stress in Arabidopsis Seedlings".The Plant Cell.25(1): 324–341.doi:10.1105/tpc.112.107227.PMC3584545.PMID23341337.
  26. ^Pasin, Fabio; Shan, Hongying; García, Beatriz; Müller, Maren; San León, David; Ludman, Márta; Fresno, David H.; Fátyol, Károly; Munné-Bosch, Sergi; Rodrigo, Guillermo; García, Juan Antonio (2020-09-14)."Abscisic Acid Connects Phytohormone Signaling with RNA Metabolic Pathways and Promotes an Antiviral Response that Is Evaded by a Self-Controlled RNA Virus".Plant Communications.1(5): 100099.doi:10.1016/j.xplc.2020.100099.ISSN2590-3462.PMC7518510.PMID32984814.
  27. ^Alazem, Mazen; Lin, Na-Sheng (2017)."Antiviral Roles of Abscisic Acid in Plants".Frontiers in Plant Science.8:1760.doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.01760.ISSN1664-462X.PMC5641568.PMID29075279.
  28. ^Sievers, Verena; Kokkelink, Leonie; Smedsgaard, Jørn; Tudzynski, Paul (July 2006)."Identification of an Abscisic Acid Gene Cluster in the Grey Mold Botrytis cinerea".Appl Environ Microbiol.72(7): 4619–4626.Bibcode:2006ApEnM..72.4619S.doi:10.1128/AEM.02919-05.PMC1489360.PMID16820452.
  29. ^Lievens, Laurens; Pollier, Jacob; Goossens, Alain; Beyaert, Rudi; Staal, Jens (2017)."Abscisic Acid as Pathogen Effector and Immune Regulator".Frontiers in Plant Science.8:587.doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.00587.ISSN1664-462X.PMC5395610.PMID28469630.
  30. ^Na-Hang, Li; Rui-Lin, Hao; Shan-Shan, Wu; Peng-Cheng, Guo; Can-Jiang, Chen; Li-Ping, Pan; He, Ni (2011). "Occurrence, function and potential medicinal applications of the phytohormone abscisic acid in animals and humans".Biochemical Pharmacology.82(7): 701–712.doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2011.06.042.PMID21763293.
  31. ^Bassaganya-Riera, J; Skoneczka, J; Kingston, DG; Krishnan, A; Misyak, SA; Guri, AJ; Pereira, A; Carter, AB; Minorsky, P; Tumarkin, R; Hontecillas, R (2010)."Mechanisms of action and medicinal applications of abscisic Acid".Current Medicinal Chemistry.17(5): 467–78.doi:10.2174/092986710790226110.PMID20015036.Archived fromthe originalon 2012-04-01.Retrieved2018-09-30.
  32. ^Bassaganya-Riera, J.; Guri, A. J.; Lu, P.; Climent, M.; Carbo, A.; Sobral, B. W.; Horne, W. T.; Lewis, S. N.; Bevan, D. R.; Hontecillas, R. (2010)."Abscisic Acid Regulates Inflammation via Ligand-binding Domain-independent Activation of Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor".Journal of Biological Chemistry.286(4): 2504–16.doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.160077.PMC3024745.PMID21088297.
  33. ^Chen, JG; Ellis, BE (2008)."GCR2 is a new member of the eukaryotic lanthionine synthetase component C-like protein family".Plant Signal Behav.3(5): 307–10.Bibcode:2008PlSiB...3..307C.doi:10.4161/psb.3.5.5292.PMC2634266.PMID19841654.
  34. ^Waadt, R; Hitomi, K; Nishimura, N; Hitomi, C; Adams, SR;Getzoff, ED;Schroeder, JI (2014)."FRET-based reporters for the direct visualization of abscisic acid concentration changes and distribution in Arabidopsis".eLife.3:e01739.doi:10.7554/eLife.01739.PMC3985518.PMID24737861.
  35. ^Jones, AM; Danielson, JA; Manjokumar, SN; Laquar, V; Grossmann, G; Frommer, WB (2014)."Abscisic acid dynamics in roots detected with genetically encoded FRET sensors".eLife.3:e01741.doi:10.7554/eLife.01741.PMC3985517.PMID24737862.
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