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French Academy of Sciences

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For The National Academy of Medicine, seeAcadémie Nationale de Médecine.

Colbert Presenting the Members of the Royal Academy of Sciences to Louis XIV in 1667,byHenri Testelin;in the background appears the newParis Observatory

TheFrench Academy of Sciences(French:Académie des sciences,[akademidesjɑ̃s]) is alearned society,founded in 1666 byLouis XIVat the suggestion ofJean-Baptiste Colbert,to encourage and protect the spirit of Frenchscientific research.It was at the forefront of scientific developments inEuropein the 17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliestAcademies of Sciences.[1]

Currently headed byPatrick Flandrin(President of the academy), it is one of the five Academies of theInstitut de France.[2]

History

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A heroic depiction of the activities of the Academy from 1698

The Academy of Sciences traces its origin to Colbert's plan to create a general academy. He chose a small group of scholars who met on 22 December 1666 in the King's library, near the present-dayBibliothèque Nationale,and thereafter held twice-weekly working meetings there in the two rooms assigned to the group.[3]The first 30 years of the academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for the institution.

In contrast toits British counterpart,the academy was founded as an organ of government. In Paris, there were not many membership openings, to fill positions there were contentious elections.[4]The election process was at least a 6-stage process with rules and regulations that allowed for chosen candidates to canvas other members and for current members to consider postponing certain stages of the process if the need would arise.[5]Elections in the early days of the academy were important activities, and as such made up a large part of the proceedings at the academy, with many meetings being held regarding the election to fill a single vacancy within the academy. That is not to say that discussion of candidates and the election process as a whole was relegated to the meetings. Members that belonged to the vacancy's respective field would continue discussion of potential candidates for the vacancy in private.[6]Being elected into the academy did not necessarily guarantee being a full member, in some cases, one would enter the academy as an associate or correspondent before being appointed as a full member of the academy.[7]

The election process was originally only to replace members from a specific section. For example, if someone whose study was mathematics was either removed or resigned from his position, the following election process nominated only those whose focus was also mathematics in order to fill that discipline's vacancy. That led to some periods of time in which no specialists for specific fields of study could be found, which left positions in those fields vacant since they could not be filled with people in other disciplines.[8]

The needed reform came late in the 20th century, in 1987, when the academy decided against the practice and to begin filling vacancies with people with new disciplines. This reform was not only aimed at further diversifying the disciplines under the academy, but also to help combat the internal aging of the academy itself.[9]The academy was expected to remain apolitical, and to avoid discussion of religious and social issues.[10]

Louis XIVVisiting the Royal Academy of Sciences, (Sébastien Leclerc I, France, 1671)

On 20 January 1699, Louis XIV gave the Company its first rules. The academy received the name ofRoyal Academy of Sciencesand was installed in theLouvrein Paris. Following this reform, the academy began publishing a volume each year with information on all the work done by its members and obituaries for members who had died. This reform also codified the method by which members of the academy could receive pensions for their work.[11]

The academy was originally organized by the royal reform hierarchically into the following groups: Pensionaires, Pupils, Honoraires, and Associés.[12]

The reform also added new groups not previously recognized, such as Vétéran. Some of these role's member limits were expanded and some roles even removed or combined throughout the course of academy's history.[13]The Honoraires group establish by this reform in 1699 whose members were directly appointed by the King was recognized until its abolishment in 1793.[14]

Membership in the academy the exceeded 100 officially-recognised full members only in 1976, 310 years after the academy's inception in 1666.[15]The membership increase came with a large-scale reorganization in 1976. Under this reorganization, 130 resident members, 160 correspondents, and 80 foreign associates could be elected.[16]

A vacancy opens only upon the death of members, as they serve for life. During elections, half of the vacancies are reserved for people less than 55 years old.[16]This was created as an attempt to encourage younger members to join the academy.[16]

The reorganization also divided the academy into 2 divisions:[16]

One division, Division 1, covers the applications of mathematics and physical sciences,

the other, Division 2, covers the applications of chemical, natural, biological, and medical sciences.[16]

On 8 August 1793, theNational Conventionabolished all the academies. On 22 August 1795, aNational Institute of Sciences and Artswas put in place, bringing together the old academies of the sciences, literature and arts, among them theAcadémie françaiseand the Académie des sciences.

Also in 1795, The academy determined these 10 titles (first 4 in Division 1 and the others in Division 2) to be their newly accepted branches of scientific study:

  1. Mathematics
  2. Mechanics
  3. Astronomy
  4. Physics
  5. Chemistry
  6. Mineralogy
  7. Botany
  8. Agriculture
  9. AnatomyandZoology
  10. MedicineandSurgery[4]

The last two sections are bundled since there were many good candidates fit to be elected for those practices, and the competition was stiff. Some individuals likeFrancois Magendiehad made stellar advancements in their selected fields of study, that warranted a possible addition of new fields. However, even someone like Magendie that had made breakthroughs inPhysiologyand impressed the academy with his hands-onvivisectionexperiments, could not get his study into its own category.[4][circular reference]Despite Magendie being one of the leading innovators of his time, it was still a battle for him to become an official member of the academy, a feat he would later accomplish in 1821.[4]He further improved the reverence of the academy when he and anatomistCharles Bellproduced the widely known "Bell-Magendie Law".

From 1795 until 1914, the first world war, the French Academy of Science was the most prevalent organization of French science.[17]Almost all the old members of the previously abolished Académie were formally re-elected and retook their ancient seats. Among the exceptions wasDominique, comte de Cassini,who refused to take his seat. Membership in the academy was not restricted to scientists: in 1798Napoleon Bonapartewas elected a member of the academy and three years later a president in connection with hisEgyptian expedition,which had a scientific component.[18]In 1816, the again renamed "Royal Academy of Sciences" became autonomous, while forming part of theInstitute of France;the head of State became its patron. In theSecond Republic,the name returned to Académie des sciences. During this period, the academy was funded by and accountable to theMinistry of Public Instruction.[19] The academy came to control French patent laws in the course of the eighteenth century, acting as the liaison of artisans' knowledge to the public domain. As a result,academiciansdominated technological activities in France.[20] The academy proceedings were published under the nameComptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences(1835–1965). TheComptes rendusis now a journal series with seven titles. The publications can be found on site of theFrench National Library.

In 1818 the French Academy of Sciences launched a competition to explain the properties of light. The civil engineerAugustin-Jean Fresnelentered the competition by submitting a newwave theory of light.[21]Siméon Denis Poisson,one of the members of the judging committee, studied Fresnel's theory in detail. Being a supporter of the particle-theory of light, he looked for a way to disprove it. Poisson thought that he had found a flaw when he demonstrate that Fresnel's theory predicts that an on-axis bright spot would exist in the shadow of a circular obstacle, where there should be complete darkness according to the particle-theory of light. ThePoisson spotis not easily observed in every-day situations and so it was only natural for Poisson to interpret it as an absurd result and that it should disprove Fresnel's theory. However, the head of the committee,Dominique-François-Jean Arago,and who incidentally later became Prime Minister of France, decided to perform the experiment in more detail. He molded a 2-mm metallic disk to a glass plate with wax.[22]To everyone's surprise he succeeded in observing the predicted spot, which convinced most scientists of the wave-nature of light.

Illustration fromActa Eruditorum(1737) where was publishedMachines et inventions approuvées par l'Academie Royale des Sciences

For three centuries women were not allowed as members of the academy. This meant that many women scientists were excluded, including two-time Nobel Prize winnerMarie Curie,Nobel winnerIrène Joliot-Curie,mathematicianSophie Germain,and many other deserving women scientists. The first woman admitted as a correspondent member was a student of Curie's,Marguerite Perey,in 1962. The first female full member wasYvonne Choquet-Bruhatin 1979.[23]

Membership in the academy is highly geared towards representing commonFrench populace demographics.French population increases and changes in the early 21st century led to the academy expanding reference population sizes by reform in the early 2002.[15]

The overwhelming majority of members leave the academy posthumously, with a few exceptions of removals, transfers, and resignations. The last member to be removed from the academy was in 1944. Removal from the academy was often for not performing to standards, not performing at all, leaving the country, or political reasons. In some rare occasions, a member has been elected twice and subsequently removed twice. This is the case forMarie-Adolphe Carnot.[24]

Government interference

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The most direct involvement of the government in the affairs of the institute came in the initial nomination of members in 1795, but as its members nominated constituted only one third of the membership and most of these had previously been elected as members of the respective academies under the old regime, few objections were raised. Moreover, these nominated members were then completely free to nominate the remaining members of the institute. Members expected to remain such for life, but interference occurred in a few cases where the government suddenly terminated membership for political reasons. The other main interference came when the government refused to accept the result of academy elections.[25]The academies control by the government was apparent in 1803, when Bonaparte decided on a general reorganization. His principal concern was not the First class but the Second, which included political scientists who were potential critics of his government. Bonaparte abolished the second class completely and, after a few expulsions, redistributed its remaining members, together with those of the Third class, into a new Second class concerned with literature and a new Third class devoted to the fine arts. Still this relationship between the academy and the government was not a one-way affair, as members expected to receive their payment of an honorarium.[26]

Decline

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Although the academy still exists today, after World War I, the reputation and status of the academy was largely questioned.[17]One factor behind its decline was the development from ameritocracytogerontocracy:a shift from those with demonstrated scientific ability leading the academy to instead favoring those with seniority.[17]It became known as a sort of "hall of fame" that lost control, real and symbolic, of the professional scientific diversity in France at the time.[17]Another factor was that in the span of five years, 1909 to 1914, funding to science faculties considerably dropped, eventually leading to a financial crisis in France.[27]

Present use

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TheInstitut de Francein Paris where the academy is housed

Today the academy is one of five academies comprising theInstitut de France.Its members are elected for life. Currently, there are 150 full members, 300 corresponding members, and 120 foreign associates. They are divided into two scientific groups: theMathematicalandPhysicalsciences and their applications and theChemical,Biological,Geological and Medical sciences and their applications. The academy currently has five missions that it pursues. These being the encouraging of the scientific life, promoting the teaching of science, transmitting knowledge between scientific communities, fostering international collaborations, and ensuring a dual role of expertise and advise.[28]The French Academy of Science originally focused its development efforts into creating a true co-development Euro-African program beginning in 1997. Since then they have broadened their scope of action to other regions of the world. The standing committee COPED is in charge of the international development projects undertaken by the French Academy of Science and their associates.[29]The current president of COPED isPierre Auger,the vice president isMichel Delseny,and the honorary president isFrancois Gros.All of which are current members of the French Academy of Science. COPED has hosted several workshops or colloquia in Paris, involving representatives from African academies, universities or research centers, addressing a variety of themes and challenges dealing with African development and covering a large field spectrum. Specifically higher education in sciences, and research practices in basic and applied sciences that deal with various aspects relevant to development (renewable energy, infectious diseases, animal pathologies, food resources, access to safe water, agriculture, urban health, etc.).[30]

Current committees and working parties

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The Academic Standing Committees and Working Parties prepare the advice notes, policy statements and the Academic Reports. Some have a statutory remit, such as the Select Committee, the Committee for International Affairs and the Committee for Scientists' Rights, some are created ad hoc by the academy and approved formally by vote in a members-only session.

Today the academies standing committees and working parties include:

  • The Academic Standing Committee in charge of the Biennial Report on Science and Technology
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Science, Ethics and Society
  • The Academic Standing Committee for the Environment
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Space Research
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Science and Metrology
  • The Academic Standing Committee for the Science History and Epistemology
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Science and Safety Issues
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Science Education and Training
  • The Academic Standing La main à la pâte Committee
  • The Academic Standing Committee for the Defense of Scientists' Rights (CODHOS)
  • The Academic Standing Committee for International Affairs (CORI)
  • The French Committee for International Scientific Unions (COFUSI)
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Scientific and Technological International Relations (CARIST)
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Developing Countries (COPED)
  • The Inter-academic Group for Development (GID) – Cf. for further reading
  • The Academic Standing Commission for Sealed Deposits
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Terminology and Neologisms
  • The Antoine Lavoisier Standing Committee
  • The Academic Standing Committee for Prospects in Energy Procurement
  • The Special Academic Working Party on Scientific Computing
  • The Special Academic Working Party on Material Sciences and Engineering[31]

Medals, awards and prizes

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Each year, the Academy of Sciences distributes about 80 prizes. These include:

  • Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie Polish-French Science Award, created in 2022.[32]
  • theGrande Médaille,awarded annually, in rotation, in the relevant disciplines of each division of the academy, to a French or foreign scholar who has contributed to the development of science in a decisive way.
  • theLalande Prize,awarded from 1802 through 1970, for outstanding achievement in astronomy
  • theValz Prize,awarded from 1877 through 1970, to honor advances in astronomy
  • theRichard Lounsbery Award,jointly with theNational Academy of Sciences
  • thePrix Jacques Herbrand,for mathematics and physics
  • the Prix Paul Pascal, for chemistry
  • theLouis Bachelier Prizefor major contributions to mathematical modeling in finance[33]
  • the Prix Michel Montpetit for computer science and applied mathematics, awarded since 1977[34]
  • theLeconte Prize,awarded annually since 1886, to recognize important discoveries in mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history or medicine
  • the PrixTchihatcheff(Tchihatchef; Chikhachev)

People

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The following are incomplete lists of the officers of the academy. See alsoCategory:Officers of the French Academy of Sciences.

For a list of the academy's members past and present, seeCategory:Members of the French Academy of Sciences

Presidents

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Source:French Academy of Sciences

Treasurers

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Permanent secretaries

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General

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Mathematical Sciences

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Physical Sciences

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Chemistry and Biology

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Publications

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^"More about the Academie des Sciences | About us".www.academie-sciences.fr.Retrieved6 September2023.
  2. ^"Les Académies".Institut de France.Retrieved4 March2019.
  3. ^Watson, E. (1939). "The Early Days of the Académie des Sciences as Portrayed in the Engravings of Sébastien Le Clerc".Osiris.7:556–587.doi:10.1086/368508.S2CID143371098.
  4. ^abcdCrosland, Maurice (April 2007). "The French Academy of Sciences As a Patron of the Medical Sciences in the Early Nineteenth Century".Annals of Science.
  5. ^Crosland, Maurice (1978). "The French Academy of Sciences in the Nineteenth Century".Minerva.16:78–79.doi:10.1007/BF01102182.S2CID143905211.
  6. ^Crosland, Maurice (1978). "The French Academy of Sciences in the Nineteenth Century".Minerva.16:78.doi:10.1007/BF01102182.S2CID143905211.
  7. ^Crosland, Maurice (1978). "The French Academy of Sciences in the Nineteenth Century".Minerva.16:83.doi:10.1007/BF01102182.S2CID143905211.
  8. ^Crosland, Maurice (1978). "The French Academy of Sciences in the Nineteenth Century".Minerva.16:80.doi:10.1007/BF01102182.S2CID143905211.
  9. ^Leridon, Henri (2004). "The Demography of a Learned Society: The Académie des Sciences (Institut de France), 1666–2030".Population.59:86.
  10. ^Hahn, Roger (1971).Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666–1803.Berkeley: University of California Press. pp.1-34.ISBN0-520-01818-4.
  11. ^Moak, David, ed. (2007). "The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project".Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert - Collaborative Translation Project.Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library: 54–55.hdl:2027/spo.did2222.0000.874.
  12. ^"Academy of Sciences | French History & Research".www.britannica.com.Retrieved6 September2023.
  13. ^Leridon, Henri (2004). "The Demography of a Learned Society: The Académie des Sciences (Institut de France), 1666–2030".Population.59:84.
  14. ^Henri, Leridon (2004). "The Demography of a Learned Society: The Académie des Sciences (Institut de France), 1666–2030".Population.59:96.
  15. ^abLeridon, Henri (2004). "The Demography of a Learned Society: The Académie des Sciences (Institut de France), 1666–2030".Population.59:86.
  16. ^abcdeCrosland, Maurice (30 July 2007)."Academy of Sciences".britannica.Retrieved7 May2020.
  17. ^abcdAlter, Peter (June 1995). "Science under Control. The French Academy of Sciences".The English Historical Review.110:783.
  18. ^Alder, Ken (2002),The Measure of All Things – The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error that Transformed the World,The Free Press,ISBN0-7432-1675-X
  19. ^Crosland 1992
  20. ^Hahn, Roger (1971).The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666–1803.Berkeley: University of California Press. pp.187-189.ISBN0-520-01818-4.
  21. ^Fresnel, A.J. (1868),OEuvres Completes 1,Paris: Imprimerie impériale
  22. ^Fresnel, A.J. (1868),OEuvres Completes 1,Paris: Imprimerie impériale, p. 369
  23. ^Fechete, Ioana (2016)."Accomplishments of Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat: The first woman member of the French Academy of Sciences".Comptes Rendus Chimie.19(11–12): 1382–1387.doi:10.1016/j.crci.2016.09.005.
  24. ^Leridon, Henri (2004). "The Demography of a Learned Society: The Académie des Sciences (Institut de France), 1666–2030".Population.59:90.
  25. ^Crosland 1992,p. 303
  26. ^Crosland 1992,p. 302
  27. ^Shinn, Terry (1979). "The French Science Faculty System, 1808 to 1914: Institutional Change and Research Potential in Mathematics and the Physical Sciences".Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences.10:271–332.doi:10.2307/27757392.JSTOR27757392.
  28. ^"Five basic missions in the Academy's remit | About us".
  29. ^"Actions targeted towards development | Overview".
  30. ^"Standing Committee for Developing Countries (COPED) | Actions targeted towards development | Fostering International Collaboration".
  31. ^"Academic Standing Committees and Working Parties - French Academie des sciences".
  32. ^"Creation of a new Polish-French scientific prize Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie | International awards | Bilateral cooperation | Fostering International Collaboration".www.academie-sciences.fr.Retrieved6 September2023.
  33. ^"Prix Louis Bachelier de la Fondation Natixis pour la recherche quantitative et de la SMAI – les grands Prix de l'Académie des sciences".Archived fromthe originalon 26 October 2014.Retrieved13 August2014.
  34. ^French wikipedia article;both "MonpetitArchived2 September 2011 at theWayback Machine"and"MontpetitArchived14 January 2015 at theWayback Machine"is found in Academy publications.
  35. ^"Présidents de l'Académie des sciences de 1666 à nos jours".Archived fromthe originalon 12 November 2014.Retrieved12 February2015.

References

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