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Acadian architecture

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TheChâteau Albert,designed byNazaire Dugasin 1906, and theIrving Oilservice station, designed by Samuel Roy in 1939.

Acadian architecture,also known as Cadien architecture, is a traditionalstyleof architecture used byAcadiansandCajuns.[N 1]It is prevalent inAcadia[N 2]and, by extension, is employed for architectural purposes in the place.

The settlement of Acadia was established in 1604; the architecture was influenced by French design but adapted to the local climatic conditions and materials. Subsequently,Indigenousconstruction techniques were employed, primarily to improve house insulation. During thedeportation of the Acadiansfrom 1755 to 1763, most Acadian structures were demolished. For several decades afterward, hastily constructed homes of poor quality were built. Despite improving living conditions, the architectural style remained relatively unchanged until the mid-19th century, when French influence declined and American and English influences began to emerge alongside the careers of the first Acadian architects.

The oldest surviving examples of Acadian architecture date back to the early 19th century. Increasingly, municipalities are preserving their heritage, with several buildings having been restored or reconstructed in seven historic villages. However, no comprehensive study has been conducted on Acadian architecture, making it challenging to define a typical Acadianstyle.Nevertheless, some research is being conducted on existing buildings or duringarchaeological excavations,and in recent years, several buildings have been constructed with these findings in mind.

Colonial architecture (1604–1755)

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Early settlements

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Sainte-Croix Island dwelling.

The first European settlers established themselves in Acadia in 1604 during the expedition ofPierre Dugua de Mons.The habitation onSaint Croix Islandwas founded, and a dozen houses were constructed and arranged to give the impression of a fort. The buildings were French-inspired, with their steep four-sided roofs.[1]In 1605, following a harsh winter, the houses were demolished to salvage materials for the reconstruction of theHabitation at Port-Royal,which was rebuilt using the same architectural model.

Habitation at Port-Royal.

Houses and farms

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In 1632, Acadia was revitalized with the arrival of Isaac de Razilly, Menou de Charnizay, and Nicolas Denys, along with 300 elite men and three Capuchins, who departed from Auray (Brittany) France. The architectural designs they developed were influenced by French designs, notably thetimber-framed houses.Local materials were used, mainly wood and sometimes stone for foundations, whilebrickswere rare. By the late 17th century, Acadians had adoptedindigenoustechniques to insulate their homes. One such method was thepoteaux en terre,which involved planting posts in the ground and binding them with small branches. This process made walls sturdier and created air pockets for better insulation. The interiors were coated with mud or clay to fill gaps, while small exterior planks completed the insulation. Chimneys were made similarly to walls but coated with mud and clay to prevent fires.[2]Thedovetail jointwas subsequently introduced.[2]The construction of basic shelters involved two distinct types of assembly.

Four types of houses were constructed in Acadia at the time. The first was thetimber-framehouse, the very first method used at the Sainte-Croix Habitation.[3]Another popular type was thepiece-sur-piecehouse, built with squared logs stacked on each other,[3]allowing for inexpensive and quick construction.[3]This method was mainly used by new families or in remote areas without sawmills.[3]By 1688, all the houses inPort-Royalwere built this way and covered withthatchor plank roofs.[3]A third type of house was built of cob. It consists of a framework whose spaces are filled withbousillageorbauge,made of earth and straw, all held in place by posts calledpalissonsorpalots,installed horizontally between the framework posts.[N 3]This technique originated inUpper Normandy[4]and was likely imported by Abraham Dugas, who leftToulousein 1640.[5]His descendants disseminated the technique across various Acadian regions until the 19th century.[5]At the turn of the 18th century, these houses were onlypaneledinside, leaving thebousillageand frame exposed outside.[6]Some were coated with white clay on the exterior, a local invention.[4]The fourth type of house was built withplanks.[3]Previously, it was thought that stone was rarely used in construction, but an unpublished study has revealed that stone and wood houses were common adaptations of Frenchtimber-framed houses.[7]By 1704, Port-Royal had only one brick house, theRecollects' house, which was French-inspired.[2]

Churches

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TheMusée Culturel du Mont-CarmelAcadian site inGrand Isle,Maine.

The early Acadian churches were often constructed like houses and sometimes barns, exhibiting a combination of both architectural styles.[8]They were characterized by a lack ofbellsand a reliance on drums or shells for summoning parishioners. AtPort-Royal,the church used paper as a means of providing windows. However, this situation underwent a significant transformation around 1689, when SeigneurRichard Denysconstructed his fort atBurnt Church.This fort was surrounded by a woodenpalisadeand several stone buildings, including the church.[9]In approximately 1690, theSaint-Charles-des-Mines Churchwas constructed inGrand-Pré,which had surpassed Port-Royal in population. Recent excavations have revealed that the church's rectory was the only building in Acadia with atiled roof,indicating its significance.[10]Saint-Joseph-des-Mines Churchwas also renowned for its aesthetic appeal, featuring an interior adorned with wooden moldings.

Domestic architecture

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Precarious habitat (1755–1784)

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Maritime provinces

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The Maison Martin was built in 1770 by Jean-Balthazar Martin nearSainte-Anne-des-Pays-Basand moved to theVillage historique acadiende la Rivière-du-Nord (VHA).

Thedeportation of the Acadianscommenced in June 1755 with the fall ofFort Beauséjourto theBritish.Over the following years, numerous villages were destroyed, resulting in the termination of the prosperous,self-sufficientlifestyle that had previously existed.[7]Until 1784, Acadians were persistently pursued by the British, and they were compelled to live without property titles.[11]

The shelters and houses constructed during this period were hastily built. In 1761,Gamaliel Smethurstobserved that after an attack on their village, the Acadians ofNipisiguitconstructed shelters in two or three days.[12]These houses were small, rectangular, and almost square, with a single room and three or four openings, including the door. They were heated by a masonry, a stone fireplace.[11]The most prevalent architectural style was a piece-sur-piece construction, wherein squared wood pieces were joined usingdovetail joints,a technique derived fromAmericaninfluences.[13]Another prevalent style employed wood pieces joined by corner planks and a system oftenonsandmortises.[13]The floor was constructed from squared wood, occasionally comprising round logs or evenpacked earth.The roof was covered withshingles,and the walls were later clad inclapboards.[14]The chimney could be constructed from fieldstone,wattle and daub,or flat stones bound with mortar.[15]The chimney was typically situated in the center of the house, although when positioned on one of thegablewalls, an exteriorbakehousewas sometimes incorporated.[16]Houses were inadequately insulated, with clay, moss, and cow dung serving as the primary insulation material.[17]A loft, accessible via a ladder or occasionally a notched post, served as a storage area for hay and tools and, on occasion,[14]as a boys' bedroom.[16]In some instances, the first floor was partitioned off for the winter, with residents using the warmth of the loft.[18]

Two characteristics emerged during this period to define Acadian houses:[19]the headwall in the façade, which was one to one and a half meters high between the ground-floor windows and thecornice,and the gently sloping gable roof.

The principal tools employed during the construction process included thegodendard(a large two-man saw),[N 4]a handsaw, an axe, a hewing axe, a two-handled knife, and a pocket knife. Nails were rarely used, except for instances involving shingles.Treenails,andoakdowels, are used instead to join the parts; even the hinges are made of wood.[14]

The furniture was utilitarian, typically of a modest height and devoid of embellishments.[20]It was typically crafted by the user, often frompinedue to its workability and abundance. Notches were made on the bench of the window frame to serve as asundial.The fireplace served for heating, cooking, and often for lighting,[6]which could also be done withtinplateor bowls filled with cod or elderberry oil.[21]

Magdalen Islands

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TheMagdalen Islands,which now belong to Quebec, were colonized in successive waves, mainly by Acadians between 1755 and 1792.[22]As was the case elsewhere, the first houses were provisional and were hastily constructed to replace them later with more comfortable houses. However, these houses served for a longer period than was anticipated and retained a rustic character for approximately a century.[23]The initial construction of the houses was accomplished with the use of round logs, which were subsequently replaced byplanks.These planks were caulked with moss andclay.The houses exhibiteddovetail jointsat the corners, although some houses, designated as "corner houses," were constructed with planks joined with woodenplugs.[24]In subsequent periods, houses were constructed with planks split in two and installed vertically.[23]These were tongue-and-groove structures, in which a groove was cut along the length of both sides of the plank and alathwas installed in one of the grooves, allowing the planks to be joined together. The houses were generally square, averaging six meters per side but no more than ten meters. Frequently, a lean-to was added, a smaller room built in the style of the house, used as a kitchen, dining room, and living room. A ladder led to the attic, where seeds and equipment were stored. A flat-roofeddrumwas often constructed at the entrance of the lean-to, serving both as a storage space and protection against the winter wind.[24]

Louisiana

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Approximately 3,000 Acadians were deported toLouisiana.Over a few years, they adopted elements of theLouisiana Creoleculture and became the largest group, with other immigrants assimilating into them.[25]They are now known asCajuns.Some establishedranches,or vacheries, while most remained small farmers.[25]They constructed temporary shelters, supported by poles planted in the ground (techniques ofpoteau-sur-soleorpoteau en terre), with roofs covered inpalmleaves.[25]The second generation of houses was generally of thepieux debouttype, withcypressplanks installed vertically in a trench, while the roof was French-inspired and covered withbark.[25]The floor was always made of packed earth.[25]

Recovery (1784–1840)

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Maritime provinces

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Mazerolle Farm, built in 1852, but typical of the living conditions of the time. It was built atVillage-des-Mazerolleand moved to VHA.
Interior of the Cyr farmhouse, built in 1831 inSaint-Basileand moved to the VHA. Note the corner cupboard on the right.
Grand-Pré willows, early 20th century.

The province ofNew Brunswickwas established in 1784, at which time Acadian families were granted title to their lands. The population increased, and numerous villages and commercial enterprises were established.[11][26]The appearance of the houses changed little and remained much less comfortable than those ofEnglish Canadians.[27]The houses were still low, and some still hadearthen floors.[8]Although they still consisted of a single room,[8]they were larger, having to be at least 20 feet by 16 feet in New Brunswick. The most significant innovation of the 19th century was the introduction of new tools and manufacturing methods.Sawmillswere constructed, facilitating the use ofplanksand enabling the construction of more permanent houses.[28]By 1840,nailshad largely replaced wooden pegs and thorns in construction.[29]The economy shifted from agriculture to fishing and forestry.[11]Farm buildings were subsequently improved to enhance efficiency.[26]Domestically produced candles began to be used for illumination, andtallowcandles were introduced around 1820.[30]Among the wealthiest families, heating was provided by a small square stove added to the fireplace, which was still used for cooking but began to disappear by 1825.[30]This significant improvement allowed houses to be constructed with more windows and at least one partition, thereby creating new rooms.[27]In the case of a house divided into two sections, the larger room was typically used as the kitchen, while the smaller section served as a bedroom where all family members slept.[6]The exterior walls were typically covered with shingles, although some houses were still clapboarded.[19]The roofs of these houses were steeply pitched and often thatched.[31]An 1817 engraving depicts ratherhippedroofs at theeavesand rectangular barns with very gently sloping roofs.[32]

The variety of furniture increased, yet its overall design remained simple.[33]Dressers were introduced, chairs replaced benches, and some furniture was crafted specifically for children. The corner cabinet was the most intricately constructed piece of furniture and reflected a desire for a more comfortable home.[33]This piece was typically built into the wall and often harmonized with the moldings of the house. The windows were sash windows, generally consisting of twelve small glass panes, each measuring 15 centimeters per side.[18]Curtains were constructed from newspapers, with the bottom portion cut to resemble fringe, a practice that persisted until 1930.[34]Wallpaperwas also produced from newspapers.[35]

Madawaska

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Madawaskawas colonized from 1785 onwards by Acadians, as well asFrench CanadiansandEnglish Canadians.The inhabitants of the region were generally referred to asBrayons.The Brayons constructed houses that were similar in design to those found in other Acadian regions.[36]These houses were small, with a single room and no more than two windows, and were built piece by piece using squared logs and heated by a single chimney made of stones bound with a type of clay mortar. Three methods were employed to affix the pieces of wood.[37]The most prevalent was thepost-and-planktechnique, which usedtenons and mortises.The second was the doghead technique or half-dovetail.The third technique, designated "stacked and pinned," entailed sawing the logs at the corners of the house, stacking them alternately one on top of the other, drilling two vertical holes in the logs, and affixing them together with long wooden pins. Only a few known houses were constructed in this manner.[37]Upon their arrival, the settlers adoptedMaliseetconstruction techniques, particularly the use ofbirchbarkfor insulation, both for houses and churches or sawmills.[38]However, as soon as their settlement became more significant, the Acadians ceased covering their buildings with birch, and Maliseet influence in architecture disappeared around 1800.[39]

The Cyr farm dwelling.

Due to the favorable economic situation in Madawaska during the early 19th century, residential construction improved. In 1815, surveyor J. Bouchette observed that the majority of houses were well-constructed.[36]In 1831, American census takers J.G. Deane and E. Kavanagh noted that some houses had up to two rooms, but rarely more, that most were paneled, and some were painted.[36]Houses were constructed along theSaint John Riveruntil the mid-19th century when some were relocated to higher ground along the road. This presented an opportunity for owners to expand their residences or add one or two additional floors, using the original construction techniques.[37]By the mid-century, houses typically exhibited aGeorgianplan, comprising two rooms deep, a central hallway, a central chimney, one to one and a half stories, rarely two, and a simple gable roof. The exterior of the houses resembled those of largeNew Englandresidences, with white-painted edges,neo-Greek-stylepilasters,andcornices.Ceilings were often coffered, and interior moldings often echoed the exterior style of the house. The wealthiest families often covered their houses with vertical planks outside and sometimes inside as well, allowing for better insulation.[37]

Louisiana

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In the late 18th century, the Cajuns began experimenting with various types of mud-built houses. By the early 19th century, they had adopted three distinct architectural styles. The first, the Creole Acadian house, was particularly prevalent in theNew Orleansregion and along the Mississippi River.[25]According to Milton B. Newton, this style was inspired by French houses in theCaribbean.[40]It typically comprised two living rooms, with a central chimney made of clay and wood that opened onto both rooms. In most cases, each room had its exterior door, and two or three small rooms were situated at the rear of the house. These small rooms could be used as an office, storage, servants' quarters, or family bedrooms, particularly for children.[25]A less common type of house had only one room, with the chimney leaning against one of the gables. A more common type of house was the proper Acadian house. According to Milton B. Newton, the Louisiana Acadian house was similar to the Creole Acadian house, with the exception that it lacked a porch and thegarconniere(attic) was accessible by an interior staircase. A typical bourgeois Acadian house is the Acadian House Museum inSt. Martinville,which retains the general plan while having an additional floor.[40]Should the residents require additional space, a one- or two-room annex was later constructed at the rear or on one side. This addition took the form of a lean-to, created by extending the rear roof of the house, with thewimpergover the extension while maintaining a straight slope on the opposite side. Alternatively, the annex represented the main body of the house. A veranda was constructed along the entire length of the facade, integrated into the main body of the house.[41]The roofing material, cedar shingles impregnated withpitch,was similar to that used in France. The entrance doors lacked a threshold, with the floor extending outside to form a porch. Thegarconniere,or attic, was accessible by an exterior staircase installed under the veranda. The house's facade was covered with whitewashed vertical planks, while the other walls were clapboarded but unpainted.

At least three differences exist between Creole and Cajun houses, symbolizing the tensions between these new arrivals and the established aristocracy. One of the reasons for adopting the gable roof, which was less popular among the Creoles, is almost certainly the fact that nearly all the houses in Acadia had gable roofs.[41]Thus, for the emigrants, the gable roof represents and perpetuates part of their lost heritage. In Acadia, the attic was used as a sleeping area for boys, a practice that persisted in Louisiana. In contrast, the Creoles did not reside in the attic, deeming it uncomfortably hot.[41]There was often no staircase leading to the attic. To transform the attic into a habitable space, the Cajuns installed expansive windows in each gable, which could be opened during sultry summer nights. They maintained the use of a steeply pitched roof to provide additional space.[25]As soon as brick became a commercially available material in the mid-19th century, clay chimneys were replaced by brick chimneys.

In the early 19th century, the one- or two-room house with a front gallery and a gable roof became the standard among the Cajuns. These houses were constructed by hand, with squared wooden posts mounted on massivecypressjoists. The roof was supported by a simple frame, in contrast to the complexNorman-origin frame used by the Creoles. The house was constructed with a foundation of two-foot-high cypress blocks, which were later replaced by brick pillars.

The rise in living standards during the 19th century led to an increase in the size and embellishment of houses, which were frequently constructed in theNeo-GrecorSecond Empirestyle.[25]In many instances, the original house was transformed into an outbuilding situated behind the new construction, which was positioned at the front of the property.[25]Following theAmerican Civil War,new houses were constructed using cypress planks, often sourced from sawmill waste.[25]A prevalent decorative style between the 1880s and 1930s was the false gallery, which consisted of a roof extending beyond the facade and supported byconsoles.[25]Another distinctive feature was the facade with multiple doors, which facilitated improved ventilation during the summer months.[25]

France

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"Acadian Line" house in Archigny.

Following their deportation, some Acadians chose to settle permanently in France. Notably, they settled in Brittany on Belle-Île-en-Mer and in Poitou. In 1773, the Acadians arrived in Châtellerault and along the Acadian Line of Poitou (inCenan,Saint-Pierre de Maillé,Archigny,andBonneuil-Matours), where Marquis Louis-Nicolas dePérusse des Cars,with the assistance of the government, settled them on his lands. A total of 58 farms were constructed along long, straight, and wide roads. The dwellings were inspired by local peasant constructions, yet they were not specifically Acadian. They were built according to the same rational plan, where the dwelling and outbuildings were connected in the same long building (or longère), yet they still had some organizational differences. There were two types of houses: one with a single room measuring 22 meters long and the other with two rooms measuring 28 meters long. Each house had a chimney and was designed for a family of 10 people. Due to the scarcity of available stones in the soil, Marquis de Pérusse conceived the idea of utilizing the distinctive earth of the Archigny-La Puye plateau, known as bornais. This earth was extracted on-site and then compacted between twoformworks,mixed with water andheathertwigs, and formed into apiséor bousillis wall. Several houses were renovated or enlarged during the mid-19th century, and 38 of these structures still stand today.[42]

Acadian Renaissance (1840–1880)

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A simple Gothic Revival house in Anse-Bleue.

The Acadian Renaissance, which spanned from 1840 to 1880, was marked by the opening ofCollège Saint-Joseph,the election ofAmand Landry,and the founding of the newspaperLe Moniteur Acadien.[26]

From this period onwards, the construction methods and appearance of houses were no longer determined by the availability of materials and tools, but rather by the lifestyle of the owner.[43]Houses became more spacious, and the log construction method disappeared, except in some isolated villages.[26]The most popular construction method wastimber framing,covered with planks and generally with a stone foundation.[26]This type of construction allowed for even larger houses, with each room now built for a specific use.[26]In particular, around 1860, the large kitchen was divided into two, forming a kitchen at the back of the house and a small living room facing the main entrance.[44]This new room was borrowed from English Canadians.[26]Interior walls were increasinglyplasteredto make them more attractive and easier to maintain.[26]Various types of doors were now used.[26]Henceforth, the kitchen door was most often placed opposite the entrance door.[45]Thestaircase,generally located in the kitchen, became more elaborate.[26]The configuration of stairs remained consistent, with the first two steps leading to a landing where a door provided access to the remainder of the stairs.[44]The trapdoor leading to the cellar remained in the kitchen, situated near the stairs.[44]Around 1850, the square stove was replaced by the double-deck stove, also known as the French stove or the more expensive Star stove. These stoves were used for both cooking and heating.[30]The majority of residences were equipped with two stoves, one in the kitchen and the other upstairs.[44]Some dwellings began to be illuminated byparaffinlamps.[30]

O. Turgeon Home Show, at the VHA.

Acadian houses exhibit both distinctive characteristics and similarities to English houses in theMaritimes.However, there are also some minor differences in the framing.[19]This could be attributed to an adaptation of English construction techniques, but this explanation seems unlikely due to the isolation of many villages by the late 18th century. Moreover, the Acadians were renowned for their expertise in carpentry and would have provided inexpensive labor in the construction of English-speaking houses.[19]In any case, Acadians in the 19th century viewed Canadian-English orAmericanarchitecture as a sign of prosperity and adopted their decorations, albeit more modestly. Existing houses are elongated andgalleriesare added. In the first half of the century, several houses in the neoclassical style are built. They are generally simple, not as decorated as in the United States, but retain the overall layout. A few rare, more elaborate examples of this architectural style exist, such as the former presbytery ofBaie-Egmont.In the second half of the century, the neoclassical aspect of some houses was complemented by the addition of cladding,pilasters,andcornices,while small-paned windows were replaced by four-paned windows.[46]Other houses were renovated in aneo-Gothic style,clad in cladding and featuring more decorative frames and corner boards.[19]The fundamental element of this architectural style is the dormer, which is often continued from the facade wall, traditionally on the long side of the house. The dormer is usually positioned opposite the main entrance, although more elaborate constructions often have two, installed on each side of the door.[47]New furniture is introduced, sofas are upholstered, and walls are decorated with portraits.

Despite the enhanced quality of life, the space economy remained a fundamental aspect of the household.[43]For instance, a cupboard was constructed beneath the stairs, and the expanded attic became a habitable room.

1880–1960

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The final Acadian-style house inLouisianawas constructed in 1911. After this, the Cajuns erected brickbungalowson concrete foundations, ormobile homes,which were similar in design to the houses of other Americans.[25]

Pascal Poirierposits that late 19th-century houses in theMaritime provinceswere constructed with gently sloping roofs.[32]He further asserts that small one-room houses with steep roofs were largely supplanted during the 1920s, with only a few impoverished villages retaining their architectural legacy.[31]These vestiges of French influence in architecture represent the final remnants of a bygone era. While traditional architecture did not disappear entirely, with the continued use ofcedarshinglesandgalleries,houses were now heavily influenced by fashionable styles in the United States and marked by theireclecticism.[48]A frequent decoration at the time was thecorbelsinstalled under thecornice.[48]American colonial-style houses were built towards the end of the century, characterized by their hip roofs, large size, symmetrical fenestration, and two-story square plan.[49]The residence of Dr. Bourgeois, constructed by Acadian architectRené-Arthur Fréchetin Tracadie in 1938, exemplifies the Foursquare style, a prevalent architectural style during the first half of the 20th century, particularly in this town.[50]At the turn of the 20th century, two common elements were the "L" plan and the steeply pitched roof with adormer.[51]TheQueen Anne stylewas the most popular among wealthy families at the time.[52]The house built by theOlivier-Maximin Melansonfamily inShediacin 1898 is characteristic of the style, featuring a truncated roof, averandaon two sides, an octagonal tower, and projecting bays. TheNeo-Gothic styleremained the most popular until the early 20th century.[43]The Château d'Acadie, constructed in 1939 in Tracadie-Sheila, represents a singular instance of the Château style, characterized by its irregular form, stone walls,hip roofwith a steep crossgable,and dormers that disrupt the roofline.[53]With the pervasive adoption ofautomobilesin most communities from the 1940s onwards, the primary entrance became a rarely used feature, often serving merely as a decorative element.

The establishment of theCanadian Confederationhad a detrimental impact on the economic situation of Acadians in the Maritime provinces. To mitigate these effects and liberate the population from the control of fishing companies, the clergy initiated the establishment of new agricultural villages in 1875. The architectural style employed a century earlier was resumed.[17]In response to the economic downturn of theGreat Depression,villages such asAllardvillewere founded, where settlers relocated on foot with their tools and initially constructed branch shelters, subsequently erecting simple plank houses.

Religious architecture

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Following the deportation, mass gatherings were held in private residences. The first Catholic parish in the region that would become known as "New Acadia" was established in 1781 inMemramcook.At the same time, the first chapels and churches were erected. One of the earliest large churches was Saint-Henri deBarachois,currently the oldest wooden church in New Brunswick. Constructed in 1824, the building displays a fusion ofGothic,Neo-Gothic,Neo-Renaissance,andclassicalelements, foreshadowing the architectural trends that would emerge in subsequent decades.[54]

As the population increased, churches were enlarged or rebuilt, thereby differentiating themselves from other buildings and drawing inspiration from various European religious architectural styles.[55]Some churches incorporatedneoclassicalelements, such as those inArichatorSainte-Marie ChurchinChurch Point.In addition, some churches adopted theByzantine style,including Saint-Ambroise inYarmouth(1890) and the Immaculate Conception Church inPobomcoup-East(constructed in 1877, enlarged in 1910).Romanesque-stylechurches also emerged, such as Saint-Michel in Wedgeport (built in 1867, enlarged in 1913), andneo-Gothicexamples like Sainte-Agnès inQuinan(erected in 1885). SeveralBaroquechurches wereeclectic,such as Saint-Pierre deChéticampandSaint-IsidoreChurch, which display Baroque interiors and other styles externally. The interiors of churches such as Saint-Pierre dePobomcoup-WestandSainte-CécileonLamèque Islandexemplify the integration of multiple architectural styles. TheBellotistestyle, which was prevalent inQuebecfrom the 1940s to the 1960s, exerted a notable influence on some Acadian churches, with Saint-Jean-Baptiste Church inBouctoucheserving as a notable illustration.[56]

In 1840, following a period of economic and social crisis, the residents ofMemramcookandSaint-Anselmeconstructed new, substantial churches.[57]At its inauguration in 1855,Saint-Thomas Churchin Memramcook attracted a congregation of 50,000. This impressive turnout inspired theMicmacsofBeaumontto buildSaint-Anne Chapel.[57]Several Acadian churches also distinguished themselves from others in terms of their size. Sainte-Marie Church in Pointe-de-l'Église was claimed to be the largest wooden church in North America, while Saint-Pierre-de-la-Vernière in Îles-de-la-Madeleine was the largest in Quebec and Saint-Simon in the village of the same name was the largest in New Brunswick.[58]

The prevalence of poverty in many communities led inhabitants to develop ingenious techniques. For instance, the first church inSaint-Antoinewas adorned with silk handkerchiefs from the villagers, while the old churches in Barachois andCap-Peléhad broken-neck glass bottles installed in the walls to enhance acoustics.[59]TheRichibouctou-Villagechapel subsequently became thesacristyof the new church, while theNéguacchapel was divided in 1846, with its facade becoming the sacristy of the new church and the remaining portion transformed into a residence.[9]The Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption Church inPré-d'en-Hautwas constructed in 1935 in a relatively simple architectural style. The interior walls were finished in pressed cardboard, and the pews were sourced from Saint-Thomas Church inMemramcook.[60]

Industrial revolution

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The 19th century saw the industrialization of fishing, with thePaspébiacfishing bank andRobin Companyfacilities in Caraquet serving as primary examples. These facilities feature numerous buildings, some in Acadian style, constructed of wood with painted white and reddado.

The opening of numerous railway lines in the latter half of the 19th century had a profound impact on the communities that were served by them. This was since city centers began to develop or appear near railway stations.[61]Before this, Acadians were only minimally involved in commerce, except for occasional involvement in rural areas.[61]Fidèle Poirier is credited with opening the first urban Acadian business inShediacin 1903.[62]The edifice is characterized by a flat roof and is constructed ofbricks,a material introduced to the city in 1887 by his sister Ombéline,[62]one of the first Acadian businesswomen.

TheIntercolonial Railway,and subsequently theCanadian National,designed its stations in itsMonctonoffices, with the participation of some Acadian architects, including Albert Sincennes.[63]In New Brunswick,Arts & Craftsstyle is evident in small stations. TheShediac station,constructed in 1906, exemplifies the typical characteristics of the stone-cut building style. Its simple volume is defined by ahipped roofwitheavesthat overhang on each side, supported by decorative woodenconsoles.

At the time, there were few hotels in the area, with some authors suggesting that the term "hotel" was an inappropriate[61]designation for these establishments, as they were typically houses that had been converted into inns, providing the owner with additional income. According to an 1893 tourist guide, Acadia was a challenging place to visit due to the scarcity of hotels and the often mediocre quality of those that did exist.[61]However, the situation changed significantly in 1886 with the construction of the Intercolonial Railway and secondary lines. Apart from the larger urban centers of Bathurst and Moncton, Caraquet experienced the most significant expansion of lodging establishments until the 1920s.[61]Following the construction of the Rive Hotel, the Seagull Hotel, and the Paulin Hotel, hotel development reached its zenith with theChâteau Albert,which is regarded as one ofNazaire Dugas' masterpieces.[61]One of the most opulent establishments was the Doiron Hotel inBas-Caraquet,[61]which was destroyed by fire in 1961.

The architectural styles of Acadian farm buildings vary not only due to geographical location and farm size but also due to farmers' preferences and skills. The barns inMadawaskaresemble those of Anglophone farmers inNew England,with the main door located on the side and the interior divided into three sections. However, Acadian farmers often add distinctive stables along the entire rear side andhipped-roofcabins on the gable wall.[64]Despite the sale of industrial agricultural tools and machines from the 19th century, this situation changed little,[65]except in Madawaska, where the construction of the railway and the development of the potato industry led to the extension of existing barns[64]and the construction of double barns. These consist of two parallel structures with a gable or mansard roof connected by a two-slope roof, likely inspired byQuebec.[66]

Despite the advent of new machine-made materials, wood remains the material of choice. A report from 1886[67]indicates that the following woods were used by Acadians in house framing:pine,oak,spruce,ash,chestnut,andbirch.

During the first half of the 20th century, shops with aboomtown-styleparapetfacade were particularly prevalent in rural areas.[68]

Modern architecture

[edit]

In the 1960s, Acadian society underwent a profound transformation. The majority of impoverished villages witnessed the construction of larger residences, while older one- or two-room houses were either enlarged or converted into sheds.[8]Outdoor toilets were eradicated, and the last villages also received electricity.[48]Furthermore, the majority of chimneys were replaced by electric heating. Four-pane windows were replaced by aluminum windows, while shingles and wooden boards were covered with plastic or metal.[48]

This era is distinguished by the prevalence ofmodern architecture.TheAcadie Placein Caraquet, constructed in 1978 to serve as the headquarters ofUNI Financial Cooperation,stands in stark contrast to its rural surroundings, featuring expansive horizontal lines, brown brick walls, andskylights.During this period, numerous cities and villages were incorporated as municipalities, resulting in the construction of new city halls, regional schools, hospitals, and other public buildings.

The construction ofskyscrapersinMonctonduring the 1960s is noteworthy. Despite the city's Acadian population comprising only a third of the population, three of the four tallest inhabited buildings housed Acadian institutions. TheUniversity of Monctonopened in 1963, includingLafrance Residence,which stands at 11 stories. Another notable example isAssumption Place,constructed in 1972, which is the tallest building in the city at 81 meters and 20 stories. This is complemented by theOur Lady of the Assumption Cathedral,the city's fourth tallest building at 75 meters, erected in 1955.

In the wake of theSecond Vatican Council,numerous churches underwent significant alterations, with some experiencing irreversible damage.[69]A notable exception is theSainte-Anne-de-Kent Church,designed in theNeo-Gothic stylebyLéon Légerin 1886. The church was nicknamed the "Sistine Chapelof New Brunswick "due to its numerous artworks, including 48 iconographic frescoes by Édouard Gautreau, aMuranochandelier, and sculptures by Léon Léger. Its destruction in a 2005 fire was considered one of the major losses of artwork in New Brunswick's Acadian history. The church was rebuilt in 2007 in a more modern style, incorporating surviving artworks, a new altar, and old paintings and benches from other churches.[70]Other places of worship, such asSaint-Pierre-aux-Liens Churchin Caraquet, saw artworks reinstalled later. Despite this, church construction continues, characterized by their modern style, with main examples inSaint-Léonard,Lakeburn,andSaint-Louis-de-Kent.[55]

Back to origins

[edit]

Architecture study

[edit]
Archaeological excavations at Grand-Pré.

The Acadian material culture, including its architecture, is an important source for understandingAcadian history.[71]The study of architecture predating the deportation primarily relies on period documents due to the absence of intact houses.[N 5][72]These documents often contain vague and incomplete descriptions, along with a few small-scale drawings. Moreover, the authors of that era were primarily interested in politics rather than the daily life and culture of the Acadians.[73]However, archaeological excavations since the 1960s have provided new insights into the subject. The two main sites areMelanson SettlementandBellisle Settlement,both in Nova Scotia.[2]Excavations are currently underway at theGrand-Pré National Historic Site,to uncover the ruins ofSaint-Charles-des-Mines Churchto gain a deeper understanding of both the deportation and the architecture of that period.[74][75]

In 1969,Anselme Chiassonpublished the inaugural article,Les vieilles maisons acadiennes(The Old Acadian Houses).[76]This was followed by a surge of interest in theAcadian Historical Villageproject[76]and an increase in research onQuebecois architecture,[71]which prompted Acadians to recognize the historical value of their architectural heritage. The initial significant study,Social and Architectural Aspects of Acadians in New Brunswick,was conducted in 1971 by J. Rodolphe Bourque for the New Brunswick Historic Resources Administration (ARH).[76]This research continued with the development of the Acadian Historical Village by architects Ross Anderson (employed byParks Canada) and Jacques Boucher (with his firm in Bathurst), Jean Pelletier from theMadawaska Historical Museum,and a team of historians. The research groupÀ la découverte de l'habitation acadienne(Discovering Acadian Dwellings), from theCentre d'études acadiennes(CEA), commenced its investigation in 1976 and subsequently published two volumes. In 1979, Jean-Claude Dupont published an analysis titledHabitation rurale(Rural Dwellings) inHistoire populaire de l'Acadie(Popular History of Acadia), which described the relationship between architecture and its environment, as well as the folklore associated with it.Clarence LeBretonwas the first to conduct field studies at the Acadian Historical Village.[77]

The field of Acadian architecture remains underdeveloped, with a primary focus on domestic architecture. In 1976, the Canadian Encyclopedia Association (CEA) announced a comprehensive study on the subject, but the project was ultimately canceled in 1978 due to a lack of funding.[76]

In the United States, theFrench Heritage Societyhas been a significant contributor to the preservation of French architectural heritage since 1982, including that of theCajuns.

Historical villages

[edit]
View of the historic Acadian village.

TheAcadian Historical VillageofRivière-du-Nordin New Brunswick opened its doors in 1976. Since then, it has undergone continual expansion, recreating daily life in Acadia from 1770 to 1939 through 38 historic buildings and 9 replicas. The Acadian Village ofVan Buren,Maine, also opened in 1976, featuring a train station, church, forge, school, and general store. In Louisiana, there areVermilionvilleand the Acadian Village nearLafayette,as well as theAcadian Historical Villagein St. Martinville. The Village de l'Acadie, located inMont-Carmel,Prince Edward Island, is a recreational-touristic complex installed in a reproduction of an Acadian village. TheAcadian Historical Village of Pobomcoup,Nova Scotia, opened its doors in 1999, recreating society from 1653 to the present. It includes several houses, a forge, and a fish processing plant. Plans are underway to reconstructPhilippe Mius d'Entremont's seigniorial castle.

The proposed historical village project atGrand-Prédid not materialize.[78]

Challenging modern architecture

[edit]

In recent years, there has been a growing trend towards revaluing traditional architecture. One of the pioneering municipalities in this regard is the town of Caraquet. The municipality has established a heritage preservation committee, created a list of protected heritage buildings, and published a preservation guide. As a result of these initiatives, dozens of houses and businesses have been restored, and new buildings are constructed in the traditional style, particularly all recent buildings in theCaraquet port.Several other municipalities have also adopted similar policies, includingCap-aux-Meules,where the new cinema draws inspiration from local architectural styles.

The recent revitalization of railway heritage in Acadian regions is a relatively recent phenomenon. TheSaint-Quentinstation, which was destroyed in 1987, was rebuilt in 2004 and now serves as a tourist information center.[79]A new station is currently under construction inPetit-Rocherin 2008, based on the designs of the former station master's residence from the 1940s. The Acadian Historical Village of New Brunswick will soon include a replica of a railway station.

Since the 1970s, there has been a resurgence of interest in Cajun culture, including its architectural heritage. This has manifested in the construction of numerous new houses in the traditional Cajun style since the 1990s.[80]

The Eco-Center of theBouctouche Dunewas constructed between 1996 and 1997 by the architectural plans of Élide Albert. A 1.8 km woodenpilotitraverses various dune ecosystems. At the entrance, a visitor center is situated, comprising an observation tower and a small single-room building with an ecological sewage system. The architectural style of the building is inspired by Acadian architecture, yet it bears resemblance to similar structures inNew England,particularly in terms of its pyramidal roofs.[81]

In addition, thePays de la Sagouinewas constructed between 1991 and 1999 in Bouctouche, following the designs of Élide Albert and Dianne Van Dommelen. This park recreates a fictional Acadian village, as depicted inAntonine Maillet's literary workLa Sagouine.[82]The village is constructed on stilts to prevent damage to the surrounding marshes, while the buildings and roads are built on the foundations of former structures. The buildings' simple forms, wooden framework, exterior walls paneled with boards or shingles, andmullionedwindows are inspired by rural architecture in New Brunswick.[82]

Distinct buildings

[edit]
Hay huts inBassin.

Some architectural structures are distinctive to the Acadian region.

Thecamp à façade abritée(sheltered facade camp), also known ascasque à paletteand comparable to a Swisschalet,was once a common architectural feature. The facade of this type of building opens into agabledwall. Theverandaresults from the extension of thefarmson thegables.This architectural style was employed for a variety of purposes, including the storage ofIndian corninLouisiana,the construction of animal shelters inSaint-Théophile,and the establishment oflumberjackcamps in New Brunswick and inMatapediaandBonaventure.[83]

Thebaraque à foin(hay barrack) is a square structure measuring 4 to 4.5 meters wide, designed to store hay. It is constructed with four posts 5 meters high, supporting a pyramidal roof. At the end of each post is apulleyoperated by cables, allowing the roof to be raised according to the amount of hay to be preserved. The walls can bepaneledto prevent animals from eating the hay. The structures were discovered inChéticamp,theMagdalen Islands,Prince Edward Island, until the early 20th century. However, they have since been found only in the Magdalen Islands and among the Anglophones ofNewfoundland.[84]The origin of the hay barrack is uncertain, and there is a possibility that they originated inPennsylvania,but they were larger and probably had a fixed roof.[84]Additionally, they have been identified inRomania.[85]

Somegreen roofhangarsstill exist in Newfoundland.[86]These are low-rise buildings constructed with long woodframing,where the posts are spaced approximately forty centimeters apart. The roof is supported by closely spacedrafters,resting securely onbents.The roofing is covered with sods of grass, clumps of earth covered with grass.

Continuous dwellings are most prevalent in theChaleur Region,as well as in theCapsandBaie-Sainte-Marie.[87]This architectural style involves the integration of the house with all its outbuildings, including sheds, barns, and other structures, regardless of their architectural style.

Thesmokehouseis a small building constructed fromcedarorspruceboards used for preparing boucanéherring.Its use is complex, as the fire must produce a substantial quantity of smoke with minimal flame damage to the structure. Around the 1910s, modern commercial smokehouses emerged in theCap-Peléregion, based on techniques learned from the smoke-curing practitioners ofGrand Manan.[88]However, some artisanal installations still exist, especially inAnse-Bleue.

Influence of the environment

[edit]

Sea

[edit]
Île du Portagelighthouse inShippagan.Some buildings are decorated with theAcadian flag,Gabriel andEvangelineand other cultural symbols.

The sea is a significant aspect of Acadian culture. Architectural elements reminiscent oflighthousescan be observed in various structures, includingwellshelters, birdhouses, gardenkiosks,and formerlatrines.[89]The bell tower of the Kouchibouguac church is shaped like a lighthouse. In recent years, the lighthouse has also emerged as a symbol of tourism in Acadia. InCaraquet,a lighthouse was constructed in Foley Park, while two port buildings in the vicinity incorporate lighthouses into their architectural design.

In the 18th century, families established their year-round homes further inland, and many built fishing cabins by the sea. This way of life lasted until the early 20th century and was observed mainly inQuebecbetweenNatashquanandBlanc-Sablonand in northernNew Brunswick,[90]where the village ofMaisonnetteis said to have been named for this reason.[91]Windy places were usually avoided for founding villages, and houses were usually protected on one side.

InChéticampand theMagdalen Islands,winds can be particularly strong, and half-gable roofs are preferred over full gables or three-quarter gables.[90]This is due to the prevalence of theSuetes,a formidable southeast wind. In response, Chéticamp residents adapted their architecture by reinforcing the exposed side of the house with stones, having a lower roof on the exposed side than on the opposite side, and shorteavesto prevent it from being torn off.[90]It is not uncommon for house and barn frames to be reinforced on the seaward side.

In coastal regions, oldfishing netsare occasionally used as fences.[89]Windbreaks, fences constructed of stakes approximately 3.6 meters in height, are employed to safeguard residences and, on occasion, agricultural lands from offshore winds.[89]In the Magdalen Islands, fences were typically constructed of intertwined branches.[89]

The occurrence of shipwrecks involving timber-laden vessels was a common phenomenon, and the use of salvaged materials in construction was a significant practice during the 18th and 19th centuries. This was particularly evident in the Magdalen Islands, where the forest cover was rapidly depleted.[92]The church ofL'Étang-du-Nordis believed to have been constructed using wood from a shipwrecked English vessel.[93]

Houses were rarely painted originally, and if they were, it was usually in red.[94]Subsequently, Acadian settlements often became distinctive through the use of brightly colored boats and houses, with fishermen using leftover boat paint to paint their houses.[95]

AlthoughMadawaskais situated a considerable distance from the sea, certain maritime elements can be discerned in its architectural style. One such element is the "coudes," which are pieces of wood installed in the attic to reinforce the structure. Additionally, some houses featured boat ladders in lieu of staircases.[37]

Riparian materials traditionally used in construction[96]
Material Addition Transformation Use
Shellfish water lime Lime whitewash for wood and mortar, interior and exterior.
water and sand mortar Wood and other material covering, caulking.
mud, animal hair mortar Wood and other material covering, caulking.
Sea bassoil gray earth painting Interior paint.
red earth, redochre painting Exterior paint.
Marsh grass Roof covering, exterior wall siding.
Shore rush Roof covering, wall siding, wall caulking.
Hay from dyked meadows Roof covering, wall siding, wall caulking.
mud and water hollow-core slab Interior wall plastering on wooden laths, chimney masonry on wooden laths.
Chondrus Exterior wall siding.
Kelp Exterior wall siding.
Shore mud water kiln-fired brick Chimneys.

Forest

[edit]

Some Acadian communities situated at a distance from the sea developed distinctive aspects of their culture about farming and forestry. This is exemplified by theBrayonsofMadawaska.Their traditional economy is based onflaxcultivation, which was employed for various purposes, includingcaulkingwalls. Forestry, where sawdust rejected from sawmills was used similarly, also played a role.Mosswas also used similarly.Birchbark was employed to cover exterior walls, a technique borrowed from theMaliseet.

Architects

[edit]

Works by English and Quebecois architects

[edit]
Saint-Pierre church in Chéticamp.

In the 19th century, buildings were typically designed in a simple manner, with more elaborate structures being entrusted toEnglish-CanadianorQuebecoisarchitects. Among these,David Ouelletstands out as the designer of theSaint-Pierre churchinChéticamp,which is regarded as one of the finest examples ofQuebecois architecturein Acadia.[97]Thomas Raymond designed theSaint-Isidore church,while Edgard Courchesnes contributed to the Saint-Jean-Baptiste church in Bouctouche.

The Acadian Eucher Duguay was a prominent contractor in theAcadian Peninsuladuring the late 19th century. Among his many contributions, he is known for having built theSainte-Rose-de-Lima church.

Acadian architects

[edit]
One of Samuel Roy's service stations, reproduced here at Village Historique Acadien.
University of Montreal, by Ernest Cormier.

The first Acadian architect wasLéon Léger[fr](1848–1918), originally fromBarachois.He studied various art forms atSt. Joseph Collegeand inBostonbut focused on architecturalornamentation.Only a few of his works survive, but he is credited with one of the greatest achievements of the 19th century in New Brunswick:[98]the Sacred Heart Chapel of theImmaculate Conception ConventinBouctouche.

In contrast to Léon Léger, the brothersNazaire Dugas(1864–1942) and Henri Dugas, originally fromCaraquet,were the first to pursue higher studies in architecture inMontreal.Henri concentrated on construction and material fabrication, while Nazaire designed numerous buildings in the Acadian Peninsula, including the well-known Saint-Paul church in Bas-Caraquet, Saint-Joachim church in Bertrand, andChâteau Albertin Caraquet.[99]

Another architect of note from this period was Anselme Roy (1895–1978), who is also known as Samuel Roy and hails originally fromSainte-Marie-de-Kent.He is responsible for designing many notable buildings, including the old Saint-Jean-Baptiste church inBouctoucheandKenneth Colin Irving's manor. His most celebrated architectural achievement is the inauguralIrving Oilservice station, constructed in the 1920s. This structure incorporates elements ofNeo-Gothic,Tudor Revival,andQueen Anne styles,reflecting Roy's aspiration to establish a novel architectural idiom for a nascent business enterprise.[100]

In the 20th century, René-Arthur Fréchette fromMonctondesigned the Grand-Prémemorial churchand numerous churches in New Brunswick, including those inSaint-Antoine,Scoudouc,andTracadie.Ernest Cormier(1885–1980), aMontrealnative and graduate of thePolytechnique Montréaland theÉcole Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Artsin Paris, is the architect of theSupreme Court building of Canadaand the University of Montreal. He is regarded as one of Montreal's most accomplished architects.[101]Pierre Gallant, born in 1949 in Moncton and a graduate of theTechnical University of Nova Scotia,is the architect responsible for several significant buildings in the city, including the National Bank and the Farmers' Market. He also contributed to the design of thenew terminal.Elide Albert, born in 1939 in Caraquet and a graduate ofSt. Joseph Collegeand theUniversity of Montreal,is the author of theBouctouche DuneEco-park and contributed to the design ofPays de la Sagouine.

The first Acadian architecture firms were established in 1954 inMoncton(Leblanc et Gaudet) andEdmundston(Bélanger et Roy). In the 1960s, they demonstrated a certain creative autonomy, parallel to the work of sculptorClaude Roussel.[102]

Schools

[edit]

Canada boasts ten architecture schools, yet despite improvements in teaching over the past century,[103]the Faculty of Architecture and Planning atDalhousie UniversityinHalifaxis the only one located in the Acadian region. It offers courses only in English, although French-language schools exist atLaval Universityand theUniversity of Montreal.

Folklore

[edit]
Maisonnettewas so named either because fishermen had cabins there, or because the village's houses look very small when seen from Caraquet.

Architecture plays a significant role in Acadianfolklore.During the construction of churches, recent coins and newspapers were buried, allowing for dating during the demolition process. It was believed that a church with buried coins under its doorstep would never experience financial difficulties.[104]A custom observed byQuebecAcadians involved the father installing amilestonemade of various objects and buried coins in the presence of a young child. This was done to help the child remember and to ensure that the plot of land was not encroached upon.[104]The practice of salvaging wood from shipwrecks gave rise to a prayer that was recited by children in the Acadian region of Quebec: "My God, I would be a good girl/boy, but make sure for Dad that there is a shipwreck, no later than tomorrow."[105]Construction projects, particularly those involving the construction of churches, were completed through the use ofcorvées.[106]In the region ofMadawaska,themaypolewas planted after the last rafter of the frame had been nailed. Subsequently, a fir tree was positioned on theridgepole,which was then dislodged after a shot was discharged.[107]A banquet would then be convened. Upon the completion of the construction, a priest would arrive to bestow a blessing upon it.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^TheCajuns,also known as Acadians, reside mainly inLouisiana,in the Southern United States, and form an ethnic group closely linked to the Acadians.
  2. ^The termAcadiais used to refer to the northern and eastern parts of the Canadian province ofNew Brunswick,as well as to more isolated localities inPrince Edward Island,Newfoundland and Labrador, andNova Scotia.In a broader sense, the term "Acadia" is also used to refer toAcadian diasporacommunities located inQuebecand the United States. People of Acadian descent are also found in France, theFalkland Islands,and theAntilles.Although not officially recognized, Acadia would constitute a nation by its language, culture, institutions, and symbols.
  3. ^Several ancient texts mention 'bousillées' houses, which could be interpreted as timber-framed houses. This is a similar technique, with the main difference lying in the spacing between the posts.
  4. ^The "godendard" is a particularly large saw used by carpenters.
  5. ^Some houses inAnnapolis Royalare believed to date from before 1755. The Louis Cannes house is thought to have been constructed around 1708–1710, while the oldest part of the former Farmer's Hotel is believed to be the Jean-Baptiste Soulard house, built around 1710. According to tradition, the oldest part of the Jeremiah Calkin house inGrand-Préwould be an old Acadian house.

References

[edit]
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  3. ^abcdefLeblanc, Bernard V.; Leblanc, Ronnie-G (1993). "La culture matérielle acadienne".L'Acadie des Maritimes(in French). Moncton: Chaire d'études acadiennes. p. 627.ISBN2921166062.
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  7. ^abLebreton, Clarence (1982). "Material Culture in Acadia".The Acadians of the Maritimes.Moncton: Chaire d'études acadiennes. p. 432.ISBN0916910210.
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  23. ^abChiasson 1981,p. 23
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Bibliography

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  • Chiasson, Anselme (1981).Les Îles de la Madeleine, vie matérielle et sociale de l'en premier(in French). Montreal: Leméac.ISBN978-2-7609-5293-5.
  • Dupont, Jean-Claude (1978).Histoire populaire de l'Acadie(in French). Montreal: Leméac.ISBN978-2-7609-5278-2.
  • Équipe du Village historique acadien (2003).Les Défricheurs d'eau(in French). Les Éditions de la Francophonie.ISBN978-2-923016-14-6.
  • Brun, Régis (1988).Les bâtiments anciens de la Mer Rouge(in French). Moncton: M. Henry.
  • Katz, Ron (2004).La France en Amérique: héritage architectural de la colonisation à la naissance d'une nation(in French). Translated and illustrated by Arielle de La Tour d'Auvergne. Paris: Les Éditions du Pacifique.ISBN978-2-87868-076-8.
  • Cook, Jane Leigh (2001).Coalescence of styles: the ethnic heritage of St. John River Valley regional furniture, 1763–1851(in French). McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP.ISBN978-0-7735-2056-1.
  • Mannell, Steven (2004).Atlantic Modern: The Architecture of the Atlantic Provinces 1950-2000.Halifax: Tuns Press.ISBN0-929112-47-4.

Filmography

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