Actor

For other uses, seeActor (disambiguation).

"Actress" redirects here. For other uses, seeActress (disambiguation).

David GarrickinRichard IIIon stage

Anactororactressis a person who portrays acharacterin a production.The actor performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of thetheatreor in modern media such asfilm,radio,andtelevision.The analogous Greek term isὑποκριτής(hupokritḗs), literally "one who answers".The actor's interpretation of a role—the art ofacting—pertains to the role played, whether based on a real person or fictional character. This can also be considered an "actor's role", which was called this due toscrollsbeing used in the theaters. Interpretation occurs even when the actor is "playing themselves", as in some forms of experimentalperformance art.

Formerly, inancient Greeceand themedieval world,and in England at the time ofWilliam Shakespeare,only men could become actors, and women's roles were generally played by men or boys.While Ancient Rome did allow female stage performers, only a small minority of them were given speaking parts. Thecommedia dell'arteof Italy, however, allowed professional women to perform early on;Lucrezia Di Siena,whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, withVincenza ArmaniandBarbara Flaminiaas the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses inItaly(and in Europe).After theEnglish Restorationof 1660, women began to appear onstage in England. In modern times, particularly in pantomime and some operas, women occasionally play the roles of boys or young men.

History

The first recorded case of a performing actor occurred in 534 BC (though the changes in the calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the Greek performerThespisstepped onto the stage at theTheatre Dionysusto become the first known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Before Thespis' act, Grecian stories were only expressed insong,dance, and inthird personnarrative. In honor of Thespis, actors are commonly calledThespians.The exclusively male actors in thetheatre of ancient Greeceperformed in three types ofdrama:tragedy,comedy,and thesatyr play.This developed and expanded considerably under theRomans.Thetheatre of ancient Romewas a thriving and diverse art form, ranging fromfestivalperformances ofstreet theatre,nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of situationcomedies,tohigh-style,verbally elaboratetragedies.

As theWestern Roman Empirefell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman power was moved eastward toConstantinople.Records show thatmime,pantomime,scenes or recitations fromtragediesandcomedies,dances,and other entertainments were very popular. From the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a period of general disorder. Small nomadic bands of actors traveled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they could find an audience; there is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes.Traditionally, actors were not of high status; therefore, in theEarly Middle Ages,traveling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. Early Middle Ages actors were denounced by theChurchduring theDark Ages,as they were viewed as dangerous, immoral, andpagan.In many parts of Europe, traditional beliefs of the region and time meant actors could not receive a Christian burial.

In theEarly Middle Ages,churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of biblical events. By the middle of the 11th century,liturgical dramahad spread from Russia to Scandinavia to Italy. TheFeast of Foolsencouraged the development of comedy. In theLate Middle Ages,plays were produced in 127 towns. These vernacularMystery playsoften containedcomedy,with actors playingdevils,villains,andclowns.The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. Amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers.

There were several secular plays staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which isThe Play of the GreenwoodbyAdam de la Hallein 1276. It contains satirical scenes andfolkmaterial such asfaeriesand other supernatural occurrences.Farcesalso rose in popularity after the 13th century. At the end of theLate Middle Ages,professional actors began to appear in England and Europe.Richard IIIandHenry VIIboth maintained small companies of professional actors. Beginning in the mid-16th century,Commedia dell'artetroupes performed lively improvisational playlets across Europe for centuries. Commedia dell'arte was an actor-centred theatre, requiring little scenery and very few props. Plays were loose frameworks that provided situations, complications, and the outcome of the action, around which the actors improvised. The plays usedstock characters.A troupe typically consisted of 13 to 14 members. Most actors were paid a share of the play's profits roughly equivalent to the sizes of their roles.

A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on thethrust stageofThe Swan,a typicalElizabethanopen-roof playhouse

Renaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as themystery plays,"morality plays",and the" university drama "that attempted to recreate Athenian tragedy. The Italian tradition ofCommedia dell'arte,as well as the elaboratemasquesfrequently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre. Since before the reign of Elizabeth I,companies of playerswere attached to the households of leading aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations. These became the foundation for the professional players that performed on theElizabethan stage.

The development of the theatre and opportunities for acting ceased whenPuritanopposition to the stage banned the performance of all plays within London. Puritans viewed the theatre as immoral. The re-opening of the theatres in 1660 signalled a renaissance of English drama. Englishcomedieswritten and performed in theRestorationperiod from 1660 to 1710 are collectively called "Restoration comedy". Restoration comedy is notorious for itssexualexplicitness. At this point, women were allowed for the first time to appear on the English stage, exclusively in female roles. This period saw the introduction of the first professional actresses and the rise of the first celebrity actors.

19th century

Henry Irving inThe Bells,1874

In the 19th century, the negative reputation of actors was largely reversed, and acting became an honored, popular profession and art.The rise of the actor as celebrity provided the transition, as audiences flocked to their favorite "stars". A new role emerged for theactor-managers,who formed their own companies and controlled the actors, the productions, and the financing.When successful, they built up a permanent clientele that flocked to their productions. They could enlarge their audience by going on tour across the country, performing a repertoire of well-known plays, such as those by Shakespeare. The newspapers, private clubs, pubs, and coffee shops rang with lively debates evaluating the relative merits of the stars and the productions.Henry Irving(1838–1905) was the most successful of the British actor-managers.Irving was renowned for his Shakespearean roles, and for such innovations as turning out the house lights so that attention could focus more on the stage and less on the audience. His company toured across Britain, as well as Europe and the United States, demonstrating the power of star actors and celebrated roles to attract enthusiastic audiences. His knighthood in 1895 indicated full acceptance into the higher circles of British society.

20th century

Playbill cover for theShubert Theatrepresentation of John Hudson's Wife

By the early 20th century, the economics of large-scale productions displaced the actor-manager model. It was too hard to find people who combined a genius at acting as well as management, so specialization divided the roles asstage managersand latertheatre directorsemerged. Financially, much larger capital was required to operate out of a major city. The solution was corporate ownership of chains of theatres, such as by theTheatrical Syndicate,Edward Laurillard,and especiallyThe Shubert Organization.By catering to tourists, theaters in large cities increasingly favored long runs of highly popular plays, especially musicals. Big name stars became even more essential.

Techniques

Main article:List of acting techniques

• Classical actingis a philosophy of acting that integrates the expression of the body, voice, imagination, personalizing, improvisation, external stimuli, and script analysis. It is based on the theories and systems of select classical actors and directors includingKonstantin StanislavskiandMichel Saint-Denis.
• InStanislavski's system,also known as Stanislavski's method, actors draw upon their own feelings and experiences to convey the "truth" of the character they portray. Actors puts themselves in the mindset of the character, finding things in common to give a more genuine portrayal of the character.
• Method actingis a range of techniques based on for training actors to achieve better characterizations of the characters they play, as formulated byLee Strasberg.Strasberg's method is based upon the idea that to develop an emotional and cognitive understanding of their roles, actors should use their own experiences to identify personally with their characters. It is based on aspects of Stanislavski's system. Other acting techniques are also based on Stanislavski's ideas, such as those ofStella AdlerandSanford Meisner,but these are not considered "method acting".
• Meisner techniquerequires the actor to focus totally on the other actor as though they are real and they only exist in that moment. This is a method that makes the actors in the scene seem more authentic to the audience. It is based on the principle that acting finds its expression in people's response to other people and circumstances. Is it based on Stanislavski's system.

As the opposite gender

Formerly, in some societies, only men could become actors. Inancient Greeceandancient Romeand themedieval world,it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on stage; nevertheless, women did perform in Ancient Rome, and again entered the stage in theCommedia dell'artein Italy in the 16th century;Lucrezia Di Sienabecame the perhaps first professional actress since Ancient Rome. France and Spain, too, also had female actors in the 16th century. InWilliam Shakespeare'sEngland, however, women's roles were generally played by men or boys.

When an eighteen-yearPuritanprohibition ofdramawas lifted after theEnglish Restorationof 1660, women began to appear on stage in England.Margaret Hughesis often credited as the first professional actress on the English stage.Previously,Angelica Martinelli,a member of a visiting Italian Commedia dell'arte company, did perform in England as early as 1578,but such foreign guest appearances had been rare exceptions and there had been no professional English actresses in England. This prohibition ended during the reign ofCharles IIin part because he enjoyed watching actresses on stage.Specifically, Charles II issuedletters patenttoThomas KilligrewandWilliam Davenant,granting them themonopolyright to form two London theatre companies to perform "serious" drama, and the letters patent were reissued in 1662 with revisions allowing actresses to perform for the first time.

According to theOED,the first occurrence of the termactresswas in 1608 and is ascribed toMiddleton.In the 19th century, many viewed women in acting negatively, as actresses were oftencourtesansand associated with promiscuity. Despite these prejudices, the 19th century also saw the first female acting "stars", most notablySarah Bernhardt.

In Japan,onnagata,or men taking on female roles, were used inkabukitheatre when women were banned from performing on stage during theEdo period;this convention continues. In some forms of Chinese drama such asBeijing opera,men traditionally performed all the roles, including female roles, while inShaoxing operawomen often play all roles, including male ones.

In modern times, women occasionally played the roles of boys or young men. For example, the stage role ofPeter Panis traditionally played by a woman, as are mostprincipal boysin Britishpantomime.Operahas several "breeches roles"traditionally sung by women, usuallymezzo-sopranos.Examples are Hansel inHänsel und Gretel,CherubinoinThe Marriage of Figaroand Octavian inDer Rosenkavalier.

Women playing male roles are uncommon in film, with notable exceptions. In 1982,Stina Ekbladplayed the mysterious Ismael Retzinsky inFanny and Alexander,andLinda Huntreceived theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing Billy Kwan inThe Year of Living Dangerously.In 2007,Cate Blanchettwas nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing Jude Quinn, a fictionalized representation ofBob Dylanin the 1960s, inI'm Not There.

In the 2000s, women playing men in live theatre is particularly common in presentations of older plays, such as Shakespearean works with large numbers of male characters in roles where gender is inconsequential.

Having an actor dress as the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long-standing tradition incomic theatreand film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of overtcross-dressing,such asFrancis FluteinA Midsummer Night's Dream.The movieA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the ForumstarsJack Gilforddressing as a young bride.Tony CurtisandJack Lemmonfamously posed as women to escape gangsters in theBilly WilderfilmSome Like It Hot.Cross-dressing for comic effect was a frequently used device in most of theCarry On films.Dustin HoffmanandRobin Williamshave each appeared in a hit comedy film (TootsieandMrs. Doubtfire,respectively) in which they played most scenes dressed as a woman.

Occasionally, the issue is further complicated, for example, by a woman playing a woman acting as a man—who then pretends to be a woman, such asJulie AndrewsinVictor/Victoria,orGwyneth PaltrowinShakespeare in Love.InIt's Pat: The Movie,film-watchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main charactersPatand Chris (played byJulia SweeneyandDave Foley). Similarly, in the aforementioned example ofThe Marriage of Figaro,there is a scene in which Cherubino (a male character portrayed by a woman) dresses up and acts like a woman; the other characters in the scene are aware of a single level of gender role obfuscation, while the audience is aware of two levels.

A few modern roles are played by a member of the opposite sex to emphasize the gender fluidity of the role. Edna Turnblad inHairspraywas played byDivinein the1988 original film,Harvey Fiersteinin theBroadway musical,andJohn Travoltain the2007 movie musical.Eddie Redmaynewas nominated for anAcademy Awardfor playingLili Elbe(atrans woman) in 2015'sThe Danish Girl.

The term actress

Helena Modrzejewska,a Polish-American actress, byTadeusz Ajdukiewicz,1880

In contrast to Ancient Greek theatre, Ancient Roman theatre did allow female performers. While the majority of them were seldom employed in speaking roles but rather for dancing, there was a minority of actresses in Rome employed in speaking roles, and also those who achieved wealth, fame and recognition for their art, such asEucharis,Dionysia,Galeria CopiolaandFabia Arete,and they also formed their own acting guild, theSociae Mimae,which was evidently quite wealthy.The profession seemingly died out in late antiquity.

While women did not begin to perform onstage in England until the second half of the 17th century, they did appear in Italy, Spain and France from the late 16th-century onward.Lucrezia Di Siena,whose name is on an acting contract in Rome from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, withVincenza ArmaniandBarbara Flaminiaas the firstprimadonnasand the first well-documented actresses in Italy (and Europe).

After 1660 in England, when women first started to appear on stage, the termsactororactresswere initially used interchangeably for female performers, but later, influenced by the Frenchactrice,actressbecame the commonly used term for women in theater and film. Theetymologyis a simple derivation fromactorwith-essadded.When referring to groups of performers of both sexes,actorsis preferred.

The actressLaila Fawzi

Within the profession, the re-adoption of the neutral term dates to thepost-warperiod of the 1950s and '60s, when the contributions of women to cultural life in general were being reviewed.WhenThe ObserverandThe Guardianpublished their new joint style guide in 2010, it stated "Use ['actor'] for both male and female actors; do not use actress except when in name of award, e.g. Oscar for best actress".The guide's authors stated that "actress comes into the same category as authoress, comedienne, manageress, 'lady doctor', 'male nurse' and similar obsolete terms that date from a time when professions were largely the preserve of one sex (usually men)." (Seemale as norm.) "AsWhoopi Goldbergput it in an interview with the paper: 'An actress can only play a woman. I'm an actor – I can play anything.'"The UK performers' unionEquityhas no policy on the use of "actor" or "actress". An Equity spokesperson said that the union does not believe that there is a consensus on the matter and stated that the "...subject divides the profession".In 2009, theLos Angeles Timesstated that "Actress" remains the common term used in majoractingawards given to female recipients(e.g.,Academy Award for Best Actress).

With regard to thecinema of the United States,the gender-neutral term "player" was common in film in thesilent filmera and the early days of theMotion Picture Production Code,but in the 2000s in a film context, it is generally deemedarchaic.However, "player" remains in use in thetheatre,often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company, such as theAmerican Players,theEast West Players,etc. Also, actors inimprovisational theatremay be referred to as "players".

The actressKate Winslet

Compensation

Gender pay gap

In 2015,Forbesreported that "...just 21 of the 100 top-grossing films of 2014 featured a female lead or co-lead, while only 28.1 percent of characters in 100 top-grossing films were female..."."In the U.S., there is an" industry-wide [gap] in salaries of all scales. On average, white women earn 78 cents to every dollar a white man makes, while Hispanic women earn 56 cents to a white male's dollar, black women 64 cents and Native American women just 59 cents to that. "Forbes'analysis of US acting salaries in 2013 determined that the "...men on Forbes' list of top-paid actors for that year made⁠2+1/2⁠times as much money as the top-paid actresses. That means that Hollywood's best-compensated actresses made just 40 cents for every dollar that the best-compensated men made. "

Types

Actors working intheatre,film,television,andradiohave to learn specific skills. Techniques that work well in one type of acting may not work well in another type of acting.

In theatre

To act on stage, actors need to learn the stage directions that appear in the script, such as "Stage Left" and "Stage Right". These directions are based on the actor's point of view as they stand on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions "Upstage" (away from the audience) and "Downstage" (towards the audience).Theatre actors need to learn blocking, which is "...where and how an actor moves on the stage during a play". Most scripts specify some blocking. The Director also gives instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop.

Some theater actors need to learnstage combat,which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate hand-to-hand fighting or sword-fighting. Actors are coached byfight directors,who help them learn thechoreographed sequenceof fight actions.

In film

Silent films

From 1894 to the late 1920s, movies weresilent films.Silent film actors emphasizedbody languageandfacial expression,so that the audience could better understand what an actor was feeling and portraying on screen. Much silent film acting is apt to strike modern-day audiences as simplistic orcampy.The melodramatic acting style was in some cases a habit actors transferred from their former stage experience.Vaudevilletheatre was an especially popular origin for many American silent film actors.The pervading presence ofstage actorsin film was the cause of this outburst from directorMarshall Neilanin 1917: "The sooner the stage people who have come into pictures get out, the better for the pictures". In other cases, directors such as John Griffith Wray required their actors to deliver larger-than-life expressions for emphasis. As early as 1914, American viewers had begun to make known their preference for greater naturalness on screen.

Pioneering film directors in Europe and the United States recognized the different limitations and freedoms of the mediums of stage and screen by the early 1910s. Silent films became less vaudevillian in the mid-1910s, as the differences between stage and screen became apparent. Due to the work of directors such asD W Griffith,cinematography became less stage-like, and the then-revolutionary close-up shot allowed subtle and naturalistic acting. In America, D.W. Griffith's companyBiograph Studios,became known for its innovative direction and acting, conducted to suit the cinema rather than the stage. Griffith realized that theatrical acting did not look good on film and required his actors and actresses to go through weeks of film acting training.

Lillian Gishhas been called film's "first true actress" for her work in the period, as she pioneered new film performing techniques, recognizing the crucial differences between stage and screen acting. Directors such asAlbert CapellaniandMaurice Tourneurbegan to insist on naturalism in their films. By the mid-1920s many American silent films had adopted a more naturalistic acting style, though not all actors and directors accepted naturalistic, low-key acting straight away; as late as 1927, films featuring expressionistic acting styles, such asMetropolis,were still being released.

According to Anton Kaes, a silent film scholar from the University of Wisconsin, American silent cinema began to see a shift in acting techniques between 1913 and 1921, influenced by techniques found in German silent film. This is mainly attributed to the influx of emigrants from theWeimar Republic,"including film directors, producers, cameramen, lighting and stage technicians, as well as actors and actresses".

The advent of sound in film

Film actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them.Film actors need to learn to find and stay on their "mark". This is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are optimized. Film actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on-screen tests.Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script.

Unlike theater actors, who develop characters for repeat performances, film actors lack continuity, forcing them to come to all scenes (sometimes shot in reverse of the order in which they ultimately appear) with a fully developed character already.

"Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies it..., cinema demands a lessflamboyantand stylized bodily performance from the actor than does the theater. "" The performance of emotion is the most difficult aspect of film acting to master:...the film actor must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of the eyebrow to create a believable character. "Some theatre stars "...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully (Laurence Olivier,Glenn Close,andJulie Andrews,for instance), others have not... "

In television

"On a television set, there are typically several cameras angled at the set. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get confused about which camera to look into."TV actors need to learn to use lav mics (Lavaliere microphones).TV actors need to understand the concept of "frame". "The term frame refers to the area that the camera's lens is capturing."Within the acting industry, there are four types of television roles one could land on a show. Each type varies in prominence, frequency of appearance, and pay. The first is known as aseries regular—the main actors on the show as part of the permanent cast. Actors inrecurringroles are under contract to appear in multiple episodes of a series. Aco-starrole is a small speaking role that usually only appears in one episode. Aguest staris a larger role than aco-starrole, and the character is often the central focus of the episode or integral to the plot.

In radio

Recording a radio play in the Netherlands (1949;Spaarnestad Photo)

Radio drama is a dramatized, purely acousticperformance,broadcast onradioor published on audio media, such as tape or CD. With no visual component, radiodramadepends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help the listener imagine the characters and story: "It is auditory in the physical dimension but equally powerful as a visual force in the psychological dimension."

Radio drama achieved widespread popularity within a decade of its initial development in the 1920s. By the 1940s, it was a leading international popular entertainment. With the advent of television in the 1950s, however, radio drama lost some of its popularity, and in some countries has never regained large audiences. However, recordings of OTR (old-time radio) survive today in the audio archives of collectors and museums, as well as several online sites such asInternet Archive.

As of 2011,radio drama has a minimal presence on terrestrial radio in the United States. Much of American radio drama is restricted to rebroadcasts orpodcastsof programs from previous decades. However, other nations still have thriving traditions of radio drama. In the United Kingdom, for example, theBBCproduces and broadcasts hundreds of new radio plays each year onRadio 3,Radio 4,andRadio 4 Extra.Podcasting has also offered the means of creating new radio dramas, in addition to the distribution of vintage programs.

The terms "audio drama"or "audio theatre" are sometimes used synonymously with "radio drama" with one possible distinction: audio drama or audio theatre may not necessarily be intended specifically for broadcast on radio. Audio drama, whether newly produced or OTR classics, can be found onCDs,cassette tapes,podcasts,webcasts,and conventional broadcast radio.

Thanks to advances in digital recording and Internet distribution, radio drama is experiencing a revival.

See also

• Bit part
• Body double
• Cameo appearance
• Cast member
• Character actor
• Child actor
• Commedia dell'arte
• Dramatis personæ
• Droll
• Extra (acting)
• Farce
• GOTE
• Kabuki
• Leading actor
• Lists of actors
• Matinee idol
• Meisner technique
• Mime artist
• Movie star
• Music hall
• Pantomime
• Pornographic film actor
• Practical Aesthetics
• Presentational and representational acting
• Supporting actor
• Understudy
• Vaudeville
• Voice acting

References

Sources

• Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994.The Context of Ancient Drama.Ann Arbor: The U of Michigan P.ISBN0-472-08275-2.
• Elam, Keir. 1980.TheSemioticsof Theatre and Drama.New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen.ISBN0-416-72060-9.
• Weimann, Robert. 1978.Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function.Ed. Robert Schwartz. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN0-8018-3506-2.

Further reading

• An Actor's WorkbyConstantin Stanislavski
• A Dream of Passion: The Development of the MethodbyLee Strasberg(Plume Books,ISBN0-452-26198-8,1990)
• Sanford Meisner on ActingbySanford Meisner(Vintage,ISBN0-394-75059-4,1987)
• Letters to a Young ActorbyRobert Brustein(Basic Books,ISBN0-465-00806-2,2005)
• The Empty SpacebyPeter Brook(1st ed by Atheneum,ISBN0-689-70558-1,1968)
• The Technique of ActingbyStella Adler(Bantam Books,ISBN0-553-05299-3,1988)

External links

• Screen Actors Guild (SAG):a union representing U. S. film and TV actors.
• Actors' Equity Association (AEA):a union representing U. S. theatre actors and stage managers.
• American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA):a union representing U. S. television and radio actors and broadcasters (on-air journalists, etc.).
• British Actors' Equity:a trade union representing UK artists, including actors, singers, dancers, choreographers, stage managers, theatre directors and designers, variety and circus artists, television and radio presenters, walk-on and supporting artists,stunt performersand directors and theatre fight directors.
• Media Entertainment & Arts Alliance:an Australian/New Zealand trade union representing everyone in the media, entertainment, sports, and arts industries.