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Affricate

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This article containsphonetic transcriptionsin theInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA).For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.For the distinction between[ ],/ /and ⟨⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Anaffricateis aconsonantthat begins as astopand releases as africative,generally with the sameplace of articulation(most oftencoronal). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a singlephonemeor a consonant pair.[1]English has two affricate phonemes,/t͜ʃ/and/d͜ʒ/,often spelledchandj,respectively.

Examples

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TheEnglishsounds spelled "ch" and "j" (broadly transcribedas[t͡ʃ]and[d͡ʒ]in theIPA),GermanandItalianz[t͡s]andItalianz[d͡z]are typical affricates, and sounds like these are fairly common in the world's languages, as are other affricates with similar sounds, such as those inPolishandChinese.However, voiced affricates other than[d͡ʒ]are relatively uncommon. For several places of articulation they are not attested at all.

Much less common arelabiodentalaffricates, such as[p͡f]inGermanandIzi,orvelaraffricates, such as[k͡x]inTswana(writtenkg) or in High AlemannicSwiss Germandialects. Worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the correspondingstop consonants,[p]and[k],are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the fricative release islateral,such as the[t͡ɬ]sound found inNahuatlandNavajo.Some otherAthabaskan languages,such asDene Suline,have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral:[t̪͡θ],[t̪͡θʰ],[t̪͡θʼ],[t͡s],[t͡sʰ],[t͡sʼ],[t͡ʃ],[t͡ʃʰ],[t͡ʃʼ],[t͡ɬ],[t͡ɬʰ],and[t͡ɬʼ].

Notation

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Affricates are transcribed in theInternational Phonetic Alphabetby a combination of two letters, one for the stop element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, atie baris generally used. The tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because it is more legible.[2]Thus:

⟨p͡f b͡v, t͡s d͡z, t͡ɬ d͡ɮ, t͡ʃ d͡ʒ, t͡ᶘ d͡ᶚ, t͡ɕ d͡ʑ, ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ , k͡x⟩

or

⟨p͜f b͜v, t͜s d͜z, t͜ɬ d͜ɮ, t͜ʃ d͜ʒ, t͜ɕ d͜ʑ, ʈ͜ʂ ɖ͜ʐ , k͜x⟩.

A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript:

⟨pᶠ bᵛ, tˢ dᶻ, t𐞛 d𐞞, tᶴ dᶾ, t𝿣 d𝿧[pending in Unicode 17], tᶝ dᶽ, tᶳ dᶼ, kˣ⟩

This is derived from the IPA convention of indicating other releases with a superscript. However, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate.

Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available inUnicodefor the sibilant affricates, which remain in common use:

⟨ʦʣ,ʧʤ,𝼜𝼙,ʨʥ,ꭧꭦ⟩.[note 1]

Approved for Unicode in 2024, per request from the IPA, are the remaining coronal affricates:[3]

⟨𝼤𝼟,𝼢𝼠,𝼣𝼡,𝼬𝼫⟩ for[t͜θ][d͜ð],[t͜ɬ][d͡ɮ],[t͡ꞎ][d͡𝼅],[t͜ʆ][d͡ʓ].

Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a stop plus a fricative, which is contrastive in languages such as Polish. However, in languages where there is no such distinction, such as English or Turkish, a simple sequence of letters is commonly used, with no overt indication that they form an affricate.

In other phonetic transcription systems, such as theAmericanistsystem, affricates may be transcribed with single letters. The affricate[t͜s]may be transcribed as⟨c⟩or⟨¢⟩;[d͜z]as⟨j⟩,⟨ƶ⟩or (older)⟨ʒ⟩;[t͜ʃ]as⟨c⟩or⟨č⟩;[d͡ʒ]as⟨ǰ⟩,⟨ǧ⟩or (older)⟨ǯ⟩;[t͜ɬ]as⟨ƛ⟩;and[d͡ɮ]as⟨λ⟩.

This also happens with phonemic transcription in IPA:[tʃ]and[dʒ]are sometimes transcribed with the symbols for the palatal stops, ⟨c⟩ and ⟨ɟ⟩, for example in the IPAHandbook.

Affricates vs. stop–fricative sequences

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In some languages, affricates contrast phonemically with stop–fricative sequences:

  • Polishaffricate/t͡ʂ/inczysta'clean(f.)' versus stop–fricative/tʂ/intrzysta'three hundred'.[4]
  • Klallamaffricate/t͡s/ink'ʷə́nc'look at me' versus stop–fricative/ts/ink'ʷə́nts'he looks at it'.

The exact phonetic difference varies between languages. In stop–fricative sequences, the stop has a release burst before the fricative starts; but in affricates, the fricative elementisthe release. Phonologically, stop–fricative sequences may have asyllableboundary between the two segments, but not necessarily.

In English,/ts/and/dz/(nuts,nods) are considered phonemically stop–fricative sequences. They often contain amorphemeboundary (for example,nuts=nut+s). The English affricate phonemes/t͡ʃ/and/d͡ʒ/do not contain morpheme boundaries.

The phonemic distinction in English between the affricate/t͡ʃ/and the stop–fricative sequence/t.ʃ/(found across syllable boundaries) can be observed by minimal pairs such as the following:

  • worst shin/wɜː(ɹ)st.ʃɪn/→[wɜː(ɹ)sʔʃɪn]
  • worse chin/wɜː(ɹ)s.t͡ʃɪn/→[wɜː(ɹ)st͡ʃɪn]

In some accents of English, the/t/in 'worst shin'debuccalizesto aglottal stopbefore/ʃ/.

Stop–fricatives can be distinguishedacousticallyfrom affricates by therise timeof the frication noise, which is shorter for affricates.[5][6][7]

List of affricates

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In the case of coronals, the symbols ⟨t, d⟩ are normally used for the stop portion of the affricate regardless of place. For example, ⟨t͡ʂ⟩ is commonly seen for ⟨ʈ͡ʂ⟩.

The exemplar languages are ones that have been reported to have these sounds, but in several cases, they may need confirmation.

Sibilant affricates

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Voiceless Languages Voiced Languages
Voiceless alveolar affricate Germanz,tz
Japaneseつ/ツ[tsu͍]
Kʼicheʼ
Mandarinz(pinyin)
Italianz
Pashtoڅ 		Voiced alveolar affricate Japanese (some dialects)
Italianz
Pashtoځ
Voiceless dental affricate Hungarianc
Macedonianц
Serbo-Croatianc/ц
Polishc 		Voiced dental affricate Hungariandz
Macedonianѕ
Bulgarianдз
Polishdz
Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate Japanese ち/チ[tɕi]

Mandarinj(pinyin)
Polishć,ci
Serbo-Croatianć/ћ
Thaiจ

Vietnamese ch

Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate Japanese じ/ジ, ぢ/ヂ[dʑi]
Polishdź,dzi
Serbo-Croatianđ/ђ
Koreanㅈ
Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate Englishch,tch
Frenchtch
Portuguesetch
Germantsch
Hungariancs
Italianci,ce
Romanianci,ce
Kʼicheʼch
Persianچ
Spanishch
 Voiced palato-alveolar affricate Arabicج
Englishj,g
Frenchdj
Portuguesedj
Hungariandzs
Italiangi,ge
Romaniangi,ge
Voiceless retroflex affricate Mandarinzh(pinyin)
Polishcz
Serbo-Croatianč/ч
Slovakč
Vietnamesetr 		Voiced retroflex affricate Polishdż
Serbo-Croatiandž/џ
Slovakdž

TheNorthwest Caucasian languagesAbkhazandUbykhboth contrast sibilant affricates at four places of articulation: alveolar, postalveolar, alveolo-palatal and retroflex. They also distinguish voiceless, voiced, andejectiveaffricates at each of these.

When a language has only one type of affricate, it is usually a sibilant; this is the case in e.g.Arabic([d̠ʒ]), most dialects ofSpanish([t̠ʃ]), andThai([tɕ]).

Non-sibilant affricates

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Sound (voiceless) IPA Languages Sound (voiced) IPA Languages
Voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ] Present allophonically inKaingangandTaos.Not reported as a phoneme in any natural language. Voiced bilabial affricate [bβ] Allophonic inBanjun[8]andShipibo[9]
Voiceless bilabial-labiodental affricate [pf] German,Teke Voiced bilabial-labiodental affricate [bv] Teke[citation needed]
Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f] XiNkunaTsonga Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v] XiNkuna Tsonga
Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate [t̪θ] New York English,Luo,Dene Suline,Cun,some varieties ofVenetianand other North Italian dialects Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate [d̪ð] New York,[10]Dublin,[11]andMaori English,[12]Dene Suline
Voiceless retroflex non-sibilant affricate [tɻ̝̊] Mapudungun[citation needed],Malagasy Voiced retroflex non-sibilant affricate [dɻ̝] Malagasy
Voiceless palatal affricate [cç] Skolt Sami(younger speakers),Hungarian(casual speech),Albanian(transcribed as [c]), allophonically in Kaingang Voiced palatal affricate [ɟʝ] Skolt Sami (younger speakers), Hungarian (casual speech),Albanian(transcribed as [ɟ]), someSpanishdialects. Not reported to contrast with avoiced palatal plosive[ɟ]
Voiceless velar affricate [kx] Tswana,[citation needed]High Alemannic German Voiced velar affricate [ɡɣ] Allophonic in someEnglish English[13][14]
Voiceless uvular affricate [qχ] Nez Percé,Wolof,Bats,Kabardian,Avar,Tsez.Not reported to contrast with avoiceless uvular plosive[q]in natural languages. Voiced uvular affricate [ɢʁ] Reported from theRaivavaedialect ofAustral[15]andEkagiwith a velar lateral allophone[ɡʟ]before front vowels.
Voiceless pharyngeal affricate [ʡħ] Haida.Not reported to contrast with anepiglottal stop[ʡ] Voiced pharyngeal affricate [ʡʕ] Somali.Only pronounced as [ʡʢ] when 'c' occurs initially, otherwise realized as [ʡ][16]
Voiceless glottal affricate [ʔh] Yuxi dialect,allophonic inReceived Pronunciation[17] Voiced glottal affricate [ʔɦ] Not attested in any natural language

Lateral affricates

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Sound (voiceless) IPA Languages Sound (voiced) IPA Languages
Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [tɬ] Cherokee,Nahuatl,Navajo,Tswana,etc. Voiced alveolar lateral affricate [dɮ] Gwich'in,Sandawe.Not reported to ever contrast with avoiced alveolar lateral fricative[ɮ].
Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate [ʈꞎ] Bhadrawahi,apical post-alveolar. Realization of phonemic/ʈl/inKamkata-variandKamvari.[18] Voiced retroflex lateral affricate [ɖ𝼅] Bhadrawahi,apical post-alveolar. Realization of phonemic/ɖl/in Kamkata-vari and Kamviri.
Voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆] as ejective[c𝼆ʼ]inDahalo;in free variation with[t𝼆]inHadza. Voiced palatal lateral affricate [ɟʎ̝] Allophonic inSandawe.
Voiceless velar lateral affricate [k𝼄] as a prevelar inArchiand as an ejective[k𝼄ʼ]inZulu,[citation needed]also exist in theLaghuu language. Voiced velar lateral affricate [ɡʟ̝] Laghuu.

Trilled affricates

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Main article:Trilled affricate
Sound (voiceless) IPA Languages Sound (voiced) IPA Languages
Voicelesstrilled bilabialaffricate [pʙ̥] Not attested in any natural language. Voicedtrilled bilabialaffricate [bʙ] KeleandAvava.Reported only in an allophone of [mb] before [o] or [u].
Voicelesstrilled alveolaraffricate [tr̥] Ngkoth. Voicedtrilled alveolaraffricate [dr] Nias.FijianandAvavaalso have this sound after [n].
Voiceless epiglottal affricate [ʡʜ] HydaburgHaida. Voiced epiglottal affricate [ʡʢ] HydaburgHaida.Cognate to Southern Haida[ɢ],Masset Haida[ʕ].[19]

PirahãandWari'have adental stop with bilabial trilled release[t̪ʙ̥].

Heterorganic affricates

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Although most affricates arehomorganic,NavajoandChiricahua Apachehave a heterorganic alveolar-velar affricate[tx].[20][21][22][23][24][25]Wari'andPirahãhave a voiceless dental bilabially trilled affricate [t̪ʙ̥] (see#Trilled affricates),Blackfoothas[ks].Other heterorganic affricates are reported forNorthern Sotho[6]and otherBantu languagessuch asPhuthi,which has alveolar–labiodental affricates[tf]and[dv],andSesotho,which has bilabial–palatoalveolar affricates[pʃ]and[bʒ].Djeoromitxihas[ps]and[bz].[26]

Phonation, coarticulation and other variants

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The coronal and dorsal places of articulation attested asejectivesas well:[tθʼ,tsʼ,tɬʼ,tʃʼ,tɕʼ,tʂʼ,c𝼆ʼ,kxʼ,k𝼄ʼ,qχʼ].Several Khoisan languages such asTaaare reported to have voiced ejective affricates, but these are actuallypre-voiced:[dtsʼ,dtʃʼ].Affricates are also commonlyaspirated:[ɱp̪fʰ,tθʰ,tsʰ,tɬʰ,tʃʰ,tɕʰ,tʂʰ],murmured:[ɱb̪vʱ,dðʱ,dzʱ,dɮʱ,dʒʱ,dʑʱ,dʐʱ],andprenasalized:[ⁿdz,ⁿtsʰ,ᶯɖʐ,ᶯʈʂʰ](as inHmong).Labialized,palatalized,velarized,andpharyngealizedaffricates are also common. Affricates may also have phonemic length, that is, affected by achroneme,as inItalianandKarelian.

Phonological representation

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In phonology, affricates tend to behave similarly to stops, taking part in phonological patterns that fricatives do not.Kehrein (2002)analyzes phonetic affricates as phonological stops.[27]A sibilant or lateral (and presumably trilled) stop can be realized phonetically only as an affricate and so might be analyzed phonemically as a sibilant or lateral stop. In that analysis, affricates other than sibilants and laterals are a phonetic mechanism for distinguishing stops at similar places of articulation (like more than one labial, coronal, or dorsal place). For example,Chipewyanhas laminal dental[t̪͡θ]vs. apical alveolar[t];other languages may contrast velar[k]with palatal[c͡ç]and uvular[q͡χ]. Affricates may also be a strategy to increase the phonetic contrast between aspirated or ejective and tenuis consonants.

According toKehrein (2002),no language contrasts a non-sibilant, non-lateral affricate with a stop at the same place of articulation and with the same phonation and airstream mechanism, such as/t̪/and/t̪θ/or/k/and/kx/.

Infeature-based phonology,affricates are distinguished from stops by the feature [+delayed release].[28]

Affrication

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Affrication (sometimes calledaffricatization) is asound changeby which a consonant, usually astoporfricative,changes into an affricate. Examples include:

Pre-affrication

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In rare instances, a fricative–stop contour may occur. This is the case in dialects ofScottish Gaelicthat have velar frication[ˣ]where other dialects havepre-aspiration.For example, in theHarrisdialect there isseachd[ʃaˣkʰ]'seven' andochd[ɔˣkʰ]'eight' (or[ʃax͜kʰ],[ɔx͜kʰ]).[31]Richard Wiese argues this is the case for word-initial fricative-plosive sequences in German, and coined the termsuffricatefor such contours.[32]Awngihas 2 suffricates/s͡t/and/ʃ͡t/according to some analyses.[33]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^John Lavercreated the para-IPA letters ⟨ ᶘ ᶚ⟩ for the not-quite retroflex fricatives of Polishszandż;the affricates ⟨𝼜 𝼙⟩ are Polishczanddż.

References

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  1. ^Roach, Peter(2009)."English Phonetics and Phonology Glassary"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on April 12, 2015.
  2. ^For example, inNiesler, Thomas; Louw, Philippa; Roux, Justus (November 2005)."Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases".Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies.23(4): 459–474.doi:10.2989/16073610509486401.ISSN1607-3614.S2CID7138676.
  3. ^Unicode pipeline:L2/24-051
  4. ^Gussmann, Edmund (2007),The Phonology of Polish,Oxford University Press, p. 7,ISBN978-0-19-926747-7
  5. ^Howell & Rosen (1983).
  6. ^abJohnson (2003).
  7. ^Mitani, Kitama & Sato (2006).
  8. ^"Phoible 2.0 -".Archivedfrom the original on 2021-02-04.Retrieved2020-12-27.
  9. ^Valenzuela, Márquez Pinedo & Maddieson (2001).
  10. ^Labov, William (1966),The Social Stratification of English in New York City(PDF)(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–37, archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-08-24,retrieved2014-06-27
  11. ^Collins & Mees (2003),p. 302.
  12. ^Warren, Paul; Bauer, Laurie (2004), "Maori English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.),A handbook of varieties of English,vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 614–624,ISBN3-11-017532-0
  13. ^Gimson, Alfred Charles (2014), Cruttenden, Alan (ed.),Gimson's Pronunciation of English(8th ed.), Routledge, p. 172,ISBN9781444183092
  14. ^Wells, John C.(1982).Accents of English 2: The British Isles.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–323, 372.ISBN0-521-24224-X.
  15. ^Zamponi, Raoul (1996). "Multiple sources of glottal stop in Raʔivavaean".Oceanic Linguistics.35(1): 6–20.doi:10.2307/3623028.JSTOR3623028.
  16. ^Edmondson, Jerold A.; Esling, John H.; Harris, Jimmy G.Supraglottal cavity shape, linguistic register, and other phonetic features of Somali(PDF)(Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2012-03-15.Retrieved2020-11-21.
  17. ^Collins & Mees (2003),p. 148.
  18. ^Strand, Richard F. (2010)."Nurestâni Languages".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Archived fromthe originalon 2016-11-06.Retrieved2015-06-20.
  19. ^Bessell, Nicola J."Preliminary Notes on Some Pacific Northwest Coast Pharyngeals"(PDF).Institute for Research in Cognitive Science, University of Pennsylvania. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-03-04.Retrieved2015-06-05.
  20. ^Hoijer & Opler (1938).
  21. ^Young & Morgan (1987).
  22. ^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996).
  23. ^McDonough (2003).
  24. ^McDonough & Wood (2008).
  25. ^Iskarous, McDonough & Whalen (2012).
  26. ^Pires (1992).
  27. ^Kehrein (2002),p. 1.
  28. ^Hayes, Bruce (2009).Introductory Phonology.Blackwell. pp.79–80.ISBN978-1-4051-8411-3.
  29. ^Takayama, Tomoaki (2015). "15– Historical Phonology". In Kubozono, Haruo (ed.).Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology.Walter de Gruyter. pp. 629–630.ISBN9781614511984.Archivedfrom the original on 2 May 2016.Retrieved12 June2015.
  30. ^Csúcs, Sándor (2005).Die Rekonstruktion der permischen Grundsprache.Bibliotheca Uralica (in German). Vol. 13. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 139.ISBN963-05-8184-1.
  31. ^Laver, John(1994).Principles of Phonetics.Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 374.ISBN978-0-521-45031-7.
  32. ^Harry van der Hulst & Nancy Ritter (2012: 175)The Syllable: Views and Facts.De Gruyter.
  33. ^Joswig, Andreas (2010).The Phonology of Awngi(PDF).SIL Electronic Working Papers. SIL International.

Sources

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