Jump to content

Agoraphobia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromAgoraphobic)
Not to be confused withAcrophobia.

Agoraphobia
An ancientagorainDelos,Greece—one of the public spaces after which the condition is named.
Pronunciation
SpecialtyPsychiatry,clinical psychology
SymptomsAnxietyin situations perceived to be unsafe,panic attacks[1][2]
ComplicationsDepression,substance use disorder[1]
Duration> 6 months[1]
CausesGeneticand environmental factors[1]
Risk factorsFamily history, stressful event[1]
Differential diagnosisSeparation anxiety,post-traumatic stress disorder,major depressive disorder[1]
TreatmentCognitive behavioral therapy[3]
PrognosisResolution in half with treatment[4]
Frequency1.9% of adults[1]

Agoraphobia[1]is amentalandbehavioraldisorder,[5]specifically ananxiety disordercharacterized by symptoms ofanxietyin situations where the person perceives their environment to be unsafe with no easy way to escape.[1]These situations can include public transit, shopping centers,crowdsandqueues,or simply being outside their home on their own.[1]Being in these situations may result in apanic attack.[2]Those affected will go to great lengths to avoid these situations.[1]In severe cases, people may become completely unable to leave their homes.[2]

Agoraphobia is believed to be due to a combination ofgeneticand environmental factors. The condition often runs in families, and stressful or traumatic events such as the death of a parent or being attacked may be a trigger.[1]In theDSM-5,agoraphobia is classified as aphobiaalong withspecific phobiasandsocial phobia.[1][3]Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms includeseparation anxiety,post-traumatic stress disorder,andmajor depressive disorder.[1]The diagnosis of agoraphobia has been shown to be comorbid with depression, substance abuse, and suicide ideation.[6][7] Without treatment, it is uncommon for agoraphobia to resolve.[1]Treatment is typically with a type ofcounsellingcalledcognitive behavioral therapy(CBT).[3][8]CBT results in resolution for about half of people.[4]In some instances, those with a diagnosis of agoraphobia have reported taking benzodiazepines and antipsychotics.[6]Agoraphobia affects about 1.7% of adults.[1]Women are affected about twice as often as men. The condition is rare in children, often begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and becomes more common at age 65 or above.[1]

Etymology[edit]

The termagoraphobiawas coined in German in 1871 by pioneering German psychologistKarl Friedrich Otto Westphal(1833–1890), in his article "Die Agoraphobie, eine neuropathische Erscheinung".Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten,Berlin, 1871–72; 3: 138–161. It is derived fromGreekἀγορά(agorā́), meaning'place of assembly'or'market-place'and-φοβία(-phobía), meaning'fear'.[9][10]

Signs and symptoms[edit]

Agoraphobia is a condition where individuals become anxious in unfamiliar environments or where they perceive that they have little control. Triggers for this anxiety may include wide-open spaces, crowds (social anxiety), or traveling (even short distances). Agoraphobia is often, but not always, compounded by a fear of social embarrassment, as a person experiencing agoraphobia fears the onset of a panic attack and appearing distraught in public. Most of the time they avoid these areas and stay in the comfort of a known, controllable space, usually their home.[1]

Agoraphobia is also defined as "a fear, sometimes terrifying, by those who have experienced one or more panic attacks".[11]In these cases, the patient is fearful of a particular place because they have previously experienced a panic attack at the same location. Fearing the onset of another panic attack, the patient is fearful or avoids a location. Some refuse to leave their homes in medical emergencies because the fear of being outside of their comfort areas is too great.[12]

The person with this condition can sometimes go to great lengths to avoid the locations where they have experienced the onset of a panic attack. Agoraphobia, as described in this manner, is a symptom professionals check when making a diagnosis ofpanic disorder.Other syndromes likeobsessive–compulsive disorderorpost-traumatic stress disordercan also cause agoraphobia. Any irrational fear that keeps one from going outside can cause the syndrome.[13]

People with agoraphobia may experience temporaryseparation anxiety disorderwhen certain individuals of the household depart from the residence temporarily, such as a parent or spouse, or when they are left home alone. These situations can result in an increase in anxiety or a panic attack or feeling the need to separate themselves from family or friends.[14][15]

People with agoraphobia sometimes fear waiting outside for long periods of time; that symptom can be called "macrophobia".[16]

Panic attacks[edit]

Agoraphobia patients can experience sudden panic attacks when traveling to places where they fear they are out of control, help would be difficult to obtain, or they could be embarrassed. During a panic attack,epinephrineis released in large amounts, triggering the body's naturalfight-or-flightresponse. A panic attack typically has an abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes, and rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes.[17]Symptoms of a panic attack include palpitations, rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, tightness in the throat, and shortness of breath. Many patients report a fear of dying, fear of losing control of emotions, or fear of losing control of behaviors.[17]

Causes[edit]

Agoraphobia is believed to be due to a combination ofgeneticand environmental factors. The condition often runs in families, and stressful or traumatic events such as the death of a parent or being attacked may be a trigger.[1]

Research has uncovered a link between agoraphobia and difficulties with spatial orientation.[18][19]Individuals without agoraphobia are able to maintain balance by combining information from theirvestibular system,theirvisual system,and theirproprioceptivesense. A disproportionate number of agoraphobics have weak vestibular function and consequently rely more on visual or tactile signals. They may become disoriented when visual cues are sparse (as in wide-open spaces) or overwhelming (as in crowds).[20]Likewise, they may be confused by sloping or irregular surfaces.[20]

In avirtual realitystudy, agoraphobics showed impaired processing of changing audiovisual data in comparison with subjects without agoraphobia.[21]

Substance-induced[edit]

Chronic use oftranquilizersand sleeping pills such asbenzodiazepineshas been linked to onset of agoraphobia.[22]In 10 patients who had developed agoraphobia duringbenzodiazepine dependence,symptoms abated within the first year of assisted withdrawal.[23]Similarly, alcohol use disorders are associated with panic with or without agoraphobia; this association may be due to thelong-term effects of alcohol consumptioncausing a distortion in brain chemistry.[24]

Tobacco smoking has also been associated with the development and emergence of agoraphobia, often with panic disorder; it is uncertain how tobacco smoking results in anxiety-panic with or without agoraphobia symptoms, but the direct effects of nicotine dependence or the effects of tobacco smoke on breathing have been suggested as possible causes.Self-medicationor a combination of factors may also explain the association between tobacco smoking and agoraphobia and panic.[25]

Attachment theory[edit]

Main article:Attachment theory

Some scholars[26][27]have explained agoraphobia as an attachment deficit, i.e., the temporary loss of the ability to tolerate spatial separations from a secure base.[28]Recent empirical research has also linked attachment and spatial theories of agoraphobia.[29]

Spatial theory[edit]

In the social sciences, a perceived clinical bias[30]exists in agoraphobia research. Branches of the social sciences, especiallygeography,have increasingly become interested in what may be thought of as aspatialphenomenon. One such approach links the development of agoraphobia withmodernity.[31]Factors considered contributing to agoraphobia within modernity are the ubiquity of cars and urbanization. These have helped develop the expansion of public space and the contraction of private space, thus creating a conflict in the mind of agoraphobic individuals.

Evolutionary psychology[edit]

Anevolutionary psychologyview is that the more unusual primary agoraphobia without panic attacks may be due to a different mechanism from agoraphobia with panic attacks. Primary agoraphobia without panic attacks may be aspecific phobiaexplained by it once having been evolutionarily advantageous to avoid exposed, large, open spaces without cover or concealment. Agoraphobia with panic attacks may be an avoidance response secondary to the panic attacks, due to fear of the situations in which the panic attacks occurred.[32][33]

Diagnosis[edit]

Most people who present to mental health specialists develop agoraphobia after the onset of panic disorder.[34]Agoraphobia is best understood as an adverse behavioral outcome of repeated panic attacks and subsequent anxiety and preoccupation with these attacks that leads to an avoidance of situations where a panic attack could occur.[35]Early treatment of panic disorder can often prevent agoraphobia.[36]Agoraphobia is typically determined when symptoms are worse than panic disorder, but also do not meet the criteria for other mental disorders such as depression.[37]

Agoraphobia without history of panic disorder[edit]

Agoraphobia without a history of panic disorder(also calledprimary agoraphobia) is ananxiety disorderwhere the individual with the diagnosis does not meet theDSM-5criteria for panic disorder. Agoraphobia typically develops as a result of having panic disorder. In a small minority of cases, however, agoraphobia can develop by itself without being triggered by the onset ofpanic attacks.Agoraphobia can be caused bytraumaticexperiences, such as bullying or abuse. Historically, there has been debate over whether agoraphobia without panic genuinely existed, or whether it was simply a manifestation of other disorders such as panic disorder,generalized anxiety disorder,avoidant personality disorderandsocial phobia.One researcher said: "out of 41 agoraphobics seen (at a clinic) during a period of 1 year, only 1 fit the diagnosis of agoraphobia without panic attacks, and even this particular classification was questionable...Do not expect to see too many agoraphobics without panic".[38]In spite of this earlier skepticism, current thinking is that agoraphobia without panic disorder is indeed a valid, unique illness which has gone largely unnoticed, since those with the condition are far less likely to seek clinical treatment.[citation needed]

According to theDSM-IV-TR,a widely-used manual for diagnosingmental disorders,the condition is diagnosed when agoraphobia is present without panic disorder where symptoms are not caused by or are unreasonable to an underlying medical problem or pharmacological influence.[39]The DSM-5 decoupled agoraphobia and panic disorder, making them separate disorders that can bediagnosed together.[40]

Treatments[edit]

Therapy[edit]

Systematic desensitizationcan provide lasting relief to the majority of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. The disappearance of residual and sub-clinical agoraphobic avoidance, and not simply of panic attacks, should be the aim of exposure therapy.[41]Many patients can deal with exposure easier if they are in the company of a friend on whom they can rely.[42][43]In this approach, it is suggested that people being treated remain in the situation that provokes anxiety until the symptoms anxiety have subsided because if they leave the situation, the phobic response will not decrease and it may even rise.[43]

A related exposure treatment isin vivoexposure, a cognitive behavioral therapy method, that gradually exposes patients to the feared situations or objects.[44]This treatment was largely effective with an effect size fromd =0.78 tod =1.34, and these effects were shown to increase over time, proving that the treatment had long-term efficacy (up to 12 months after treatment).[44]

Psychological interventions in combination with pharmaceutical treatments were overall more effective than treatments simply involving either CBT or pharmaceuticals. Further research showed there was no significant effect between using group CBT versus individual CBT.[44]

Cognitive restructuringhas also proved useful in treating agoraphobia.[citation needed]This treatment involves coaching a participant through a dianoetic discussion, with the intent of replacing irrational, counterproductive beliefs with more factual and beneficial ones.[citation needed]

Relaxation techniquesare often useful skills for the agoraphobic to develop, as they can be used to stop or prevent symptoms of anxiety and panic.[45]

Videoconferencing psychotherapy (VCP) is an emerging modality used to treat various disorders in a remote method.[46]Similar to traditional face-to-face interventions, VCP can be used to administer CBT.[47]

Virtual realitycomputer stimulated therapy has been suggested to help people withpsychosisand agoraphobia manage their avoidance of outside environments. In the therapy, the user wears a headset and a virtual character provides psychological advice and guides them as they explore simulated environments (such as a cafe or a busy street).[48]

Medications[edit]

Antidepressant medications most commonly used to treat anxiety disorders are mainlyselective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.Benzodiazepines,monoamine oxidase inhibitor,andtricyclic antidepressantsare also sometimes prescribed for treatment of agoraphobia.[49]Antidepressants are important because some have anxiolytic effects. Antidepressants should be used in conjunction with exposure as a form of self-help or with cognitive behaviour therapy.[43]A combination of medication and cognitive behaviour therapy is sometimes the most effective treatment for agoraphobia.[43]

Alternative medicine[edit]

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing(EMDR) has been studied as a possible treatment for agoraphobia, with poor results.[50]As such, EMDR is only recommended in cases where cognitive-behavioral approaches have proven ineffective or in cases where agoraphobia has developed following trauma.[51]

Many people with anxiety disorders benefit from joining aself-helporsupport group(telephone conference-call support groups or online support groups being of particular help for completely housebound individuals). Sharing problems and achievements with others, as well as sharing various self-help tools, are common activities in these groups. In particular, stress management techniques and various kinds of meditation practices and visualization techniques can help people with anxiety disorders calm themselves and may enhance the effects of therapy, as can service to others, which can distract from the self-absorption that tends to go with anxiety problems. Also, preliminary evidence suggestsaerobic exercisemay have a calming effect. Since caffeine, certain illicit drugs, and even some over-the-counter cold medications can aggravate the symptoms of anxiety disorders, they should be avoided.[52]

Epidemiology[edit]

Agoraphobia occurs about twice as commonly among women as it does in men. It can develop at any age but is much more common in adolescence and early adulthood and occurs more often in people of above average intelligence.[53]

Panic disorder with or without agoraphobia affects roughly 5.1% of Americans,[44]and about 1/3 of this population with panic disorder have co-morbid agoraphobia. It is uncommon to have agoraphobia without panic attacks, with only 0.17% of people with agoraphobia not presenting panic disorders as well.[44]

Society and culture[edit]

Notable cases[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrsAmerican Psychiatric Association (2013),Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.),Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, pp.217–221, 938,ISBN978-0-89042-555-8
  2. ^abc"Agoraphobia".PubMed Health.Retrieved11 August2016.
  3. ^abcWyatt RJ, Chew RH (2008).Wyatt's Practical Psychiatric Practice: Forms and Protocols for Clinical Use.American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 90–91.ISBN978-1-58562-687-8.Archivedfrom the original on 21 August 2016.
  4. ^abCraske MG, Stein MB (24 June 2016). "Anxiety".Lancet.388(10063): 3048–3059.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30381-6.PMID27349358.S2CID208789585.
  5. ^Drs;Sartorius N,Henderson A, Strotzka H, Lipowski Z, Yu-cun S, You-xin X, et al."The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines"(PDF).www.who.intWorld Health Organization.Microsoft Word.bluebook.doc. pp. 110, 112–3.Archived(PDF)from the original on 17 October 2004.Retrieved23 June2021– viaMicrosoft Bing.
  6. ^abShin J, Park DH, Ryu SH, Ha JH, Kim SM, Jeon HJ (24 July 2020)."Clinical implications of agoraphobia in patients with panic disorder".Medicine.99(30): e21414.doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000021414.ISSN0025-7974.PMC7387026.PMID32791758.
  7. ^Teismann T, Lukaschek K, Hiller TS, Breitbart J, Brettschneider C, Schumacher U, et al. (24 September 2018)."Suicidal ideation in primary care patients suffering from panic disorder with or without agoraphobia".BMC Psychiatry.18(1): 305.doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1894-5.ISSN1471-244X.PMC6154913.PMID30249220.
  8. ^Pompoli A, Furukawa TA, Imai H, Tajika A, Efthimiou O, Salanti G (13 April 2016)."Psychological therapies for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia in adults: a network meta-analysis".The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.2016(4): CD011004.doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011004.pub2.PMC7104662.PMID27071857.
  9. ^"Collins dictionary".Retrieved17 September2020.
  10. ^Elster CH (2009).Verbal Advantage: Ten Easy Steps to a Powerful Vocabulary.Diversified Publishing. p. PT717.ISBN978-0-307-56097-1.Archivedfrom the original on 21 August 2016.
  11. ^"Agoraphobia – Dictionary of Psychotherapy".Archived fromthe originalon 3 April 2016.Retrieved23 March2016.
  12. ^"Agoraphobia".betterhealth.vic.gov.au.Archived fromthe originalon 22 March 2017.Retrieved21 March2017.
  13. ^"Agoraphobia Symptoms".Psych Central.com.17 May 2016.
  14. ^"Agoraphobia – Symptoms and causes".Mayo Clinic.Retrieved1 July2019.
  15. ^"What Are Anxiety Disorders?".www.psychiatry.org.Retrieved1 July2019.
  16. ^Adamec C (2010).The Encyclopedia of Phobias, Fears, and Anxieties, Third Edition.Infobase Publishing. p. 328.ISBN978-1-4381-2098-0.
  17. ^abDavid Satcher, et al. (1999)."Chapter 4.2".Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General.Archived fromthe originalon 27 April 2006.Retrieved7 March2006.
  18. ^Yardley L, Britton J, Lear S, Bird J, Luxon LM (May 1995). "Relationship between balance system function and agoraphobic avoidance".Behav Res Ther.33(4): 435–9.doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00060-W.PMID7755529.
  19. ^Jacob RG, Furman JM, Durrant JD, Turner SM (1996). "Panic, agoraphobia, and vestibular dysfunction".Am J Psychiatry.153(4): 503–512.doi:10.1176/ajp.153.4.503.PMID8599398.
  20. ^abJacob RG, Furman JM, Durrant JD, Turner SM (1997). "Surface dependence: a balance control strategy in panic disorder with agoraphobia".Psychosom Med.59(3): 323–30.doi:10.1097/00006842-199705000-00016.PMID9178344.S2CID9789982.
  21. ^Viaud-Delmon I, Warusfel O, Seguelas A, Rio E, Jouvent R (October 2006)."High sensitivity to multisensory conflicts in agoraphobia exhibited by virtual reality"(PDF).Eur. Psychiatry.21(7): 501–8.doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.10.004.PMID17055951.S2CID6932961.
  22. ^Hammersley D, Beeley L (1996)."The effects of medication on counselling".In Palmer S, Dainow S, Milner P (eds.).Counselling: The BACP Counselling Reader.Vol. 1. Sage. pp. 211–4.ISBN978-0-8039-7477-7.
  23. ^Ashton H (June 1987). "Benzodiazepine withdrawal: outcome in 50 patients".Br J Addict.82(6): 665–71.doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1987.tb01529.x.PMID2886145.
  24. ^Cosci F, Schruers KR, Abrams K, Griez EJ (June 2007). "Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship".J Clin Psychiatry.68(6): 874–80.doi:10.4088/JCP.v68n0608.PMID17592911.
  25. ^Cosci F, Knuts IJ, Abrams K, Griez EJ, Schruers KR (May 2010). "Cigarette smoking and panic: a critical review of the literature".J Clin Psychiatry.71(5): 606–15.doi:10.4088/JCP.08r04523blu.PMID19961810.
  26. ^G. Liotti, (1996).Insecure attachment and agoraphobia,in: C. Murray-Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.). Attachment Across the Life Cycle.
  27. ^J. Bowlby, (1998).Attachment and Loss(Vol. 2: Separation).
  28. ^Jacobson K (2004). "Agoraphobia and Hypochondria as Disorders of Dwelling".International Studies in Philosophy.36(2): 31–44.doi:10.5840/intstudphil2004362165.
  29. ^Holmes J (2008). "Space and the secure base in agoraphobia: a qualitative survey".Area.40(3): 357–382.Bibcode:2008Area...40..375H.doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2008.00820.x.
  30. ^J. Davidson, (2003).Phobic Geographies
  31. ^Holmes J (2006)."Building Bridges and Breaking Boundaries: Modernity and Agoraphobia".Opticon 1826.1:1.doi:10.5334/opt.010606(inactive 31 January 2024).Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2016.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
  32. ^Bracha HS (2006)."Human brain evolution and the" Neuroevolutionary Time-depth Principle: "Implications for the Reclassification of fear-circuitry-related traits in DSM-V and for studying resilience to warzone-related posttraumatic stress disorder"(PDF).Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry.30(5): 827–853.doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.008.PMC7130737.PMID16563589.
  33. ^Raffaello S, Alessandra SM, Alessandra S (2011)."[Primary agoraphobia specific symptoms: from natural information to mental representations]"(PDF).Italian Journal of Psychopathology(in Italian).17(3): 265–276. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 April 2012.
  34. ^American Psychiatric Association,1998
  35. ^Barlow DH (1988).Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic.Guilford Press.
  36. ^pmhdev."Agoraphobia – National Library of Medicine".Archivedfrom the original on 30 March 2014.Retrieved25 January2017.
  37. ^Kenny T, Lawson E."Agoraphobia".Patient.info.Archived fromthe originalon 7 June 2015.Retrieved8 December2014.
  38. ^Barlow, D. H. & Waddell, M. T. (1985) Agoraphobia. Ch 1 in Barlow, D. H. (Ed)Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual.New York: Guilford.
  39. ^American Psychiatric Association (2000)."Diagnostic criteria for 300.22 Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder".Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(4th, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) ed.).ISBN0-89042-025-4.Retrieved28 June2007.
  40. ^Administration SA (June 2016)."Table 3.10, Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia Criteria Changes from DSM-IV to DSM-5".ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.Retrieved4 November2023.
  41. ^Fava GA, Rafanelli C, Grandi S, Conti S, Ruini C, Mangelli L, et al. (2001). "Long-term outcome of panic disorder with agoraphobia treated by exposure".Psychological Medicine.31(5): 891–898.doi:10.1017/S0033291701003592.PMID11459386.S2CID5652068.
  42. ^"Agoraphobia – Diagnosis & Treatment".Mayo Clinic. 18 November 2017.Retrieved15 May2020.
  43. ^abcdGelder MG, Mayou R, Geddes J (2005).Psychiatr.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-852863-0.
  44. ^abcdeSanchez-Meca, Rosa-Alcazar, Marin-Martinez, Gomez-Conesa (11 September 2008). "Psychological treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: A meta-analysis".Clinical Psychology Review.30(1): 37–50.doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.011.PMID19775792.
  45. ^"Agoraphobia – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic".mayoclinic.org.Retrieved1 July2019.
  46. ^Fernández-Álvarez J, Fernández-Álvarez H (2021)."Videoconferencing Psychotherapy During the Pandemic: Exceptional Times With Enduring Effects?".Frontiers in Psychology.12:589536.doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589536.ISSN1664-1078.PMC7933024.PMID33679513.
  47. ^Bouchard S, Allard M, Robillard G, Dumoulin S, Guitard T, Loranger C, et al. (21 August 2020)."Videoconferencing Psychotherapy for Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia: Outcome and Treatment Processes From a Non-randomized Non-inferiority Trial".Frontiers in Psychology.11:2164.doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02164.ISSN1664-1078.PMC7472915.PMID32973638.
  48. ^"Virtual reality could help people with psychosis and agoraphobia".NIHR Evidence.20 July 2023.doi:10.3310/nihrevidence_59108.S2CID260053713.
  49. ^Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC (16 June 1987). "Antidepressants in panic disorder and agoraphobia".Journal of Affective Disorders.13(2): 153–168.doi:10.1016/0165-0327(87)90020-6.PMID2960710.
  50. ^ Goldstein, Alan J., de Beurs, Edwin, Chambless, Dianne L., Wilson, Kimberly A. (2000). "EMDR for Panic Disorder With Agoraphobia: Comparison With Waiting List and Credible Attention-Placebo Control Conditions".Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.68(6): 947–957.CiteSeerX10.1.1.527.315.doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.947.PMID11142547.
  51. ^Agoraphobia Resource Center."Agoraphobia treatments—Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming".Archived fromthe originalon 5 April 2008.Retrieved18 April2008.
  52. ^National Institute of Mental Health."How to get help for anxiety disorders".Archived fromthe originalon 4 July 2008.Retrieved18 April2008.
  53. ^Magee WJ, Eaton WW, Wittchen HU, McGonagle KA, Kessler RC (February 1996). "Agoraphobia, simple phobia, and social phobia in the National Comorbidity Survey".Arch Gen Psychiatry.53(2): 159–68.doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830020077009.PMID8629891.
  54. ^Peter Biskind (10 October 2006)."Reconstructing Woody".Vanity Fair.No. December.Archivedfrom the original on 17 October 2012.
  55. ^Saul H (2003).Phobias: fighting the fear.New York: Arcade. p. 6.ISBN978-1-55970-693-3.Archivedfrom the original on 16 October 2015.Retrieved11 September2015.
  56. ^Murray J (15 August 1991)."Campbell Breaks Free Again".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved6 January2023.
  57. ^"CNN.com – Transcripts".CNN. 27 May 2004.Archivedfrom the original on 20 July 2009.Retrieved7 August2009.
  58. ^Julia Moskin (28 February 2007)."From Phobia To Fame: A Southern Cook's Memoir".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 1 February 2017.
  59. ^Erik Gregerson (2011)."Horace L. Gold".Britannica.Retrieved6 January2023.
  60. ^Biography for Daryl HannahatIMDb.Retrieved 28 November 2007.
  61. ^Ellis-Petersen H (26 May 2017)."Miranda Hart: 'I used to think fame would justify my whole existence".The Guardian.Retrieved14 September2023.
  62. ^"Psychological Autopsy can help understand controversial deaths".truTV.com.Archived fromthe originalon 14 February 2015.Retrieved25 January2017.
  63. ^Olivia Hussey—People Magazine—March 16, 1992ArchivedMarch 18, 2012, at theWayback Machine
  64. ^Biography for Olivia HusseyatIMDb
  65. ^Churchwell S (10 February 2017)."Shirley Jackson: A Rather Haunted Life by Ruth Franklin review – beyond spooky".The Guardian.Retrieved9 March2021.
  66. ^[1]essay byJonathan LethemArchivedApril 29, 2012, at theWayback Machine
  67. ^Mike Conklin. (10 December 2004)."Where is Elfriede Jelinek?".Chicago Tribune.Archivedfrom the original on 17 June 2013.Retrieved8 May2013.
  68. ^Hatfield A (19 July 2022)."Mike Patton discusses agoraphobia diagnosis, canceling Faith No More shows in new interview".Brooklyn Vegan.Retrieved21 July2022.
  69. ^Stanisław Fita, ed.,Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie(Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy (State Publishing Institute), 1962, p. 113.
  70. ^Whatever Happened to the Gender Benders?,Channel 4 documentary, United Kingdom.
  71. ^V J (21 November 2014)."Famous People With Agoraphobia".Morningside Recovery.Retrieved26 July2023.
  72. ^"Ben Weasel featured on Carson Daly".www.punknews.org.14 October 2010.
  73. ^McNair J (3 September 2007)."Brian Wilson: Here Comes the Sun".The Independent.Archived fromthe originalon 20 January 2009.


Sources[edit]

  • Balaram K, Marwaha R. Agoraphobia. [Updated 2023 Feb 13]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 January ([2])

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related toAnxiety.
Look upanxietyin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agoraphobia&oldid=1233686052"