Aleuts

For the language, seeAleut language.For other uses, seeAleut (disambiguation).

Aleuts

унаӈан (unangan) унаӈас (unangas)
AttuAleut mother and child, 1941
Regions with significant populations
United States Alaska	6,752
Russia Kamchatka Krai	482
Languages
English,Russian,Aleut
Religion
Eastern Orthodoxy (Russian Orthodox Church),Animism
Related ethnic groups
Inuit,Yupik,Sirenik,Sadlermiut,Alaskan Creoles

Person	Unangax̂
People	Unangan(east) Unangas(west)
Language	Unangam Tunuu
Country	Unangam Tanangin

Aleuts(/ˌæ.liːˈuːt/A-lee-OOT;Russian:Алеуты,romanized:Aleuty) are theIndigenous peopleof theAleutian Islands,which are located between theNorth Pacific Oceanand theBering Sea.Both the Aleuts and the islands are politically divided between the US state ofAlaskaand the Russian administrative division ofKamchatka Krai.This group is also known as theUnangax̂in Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language.There are 13federally recognizedAleut tribes in the Aleut Region of Alaska.In 2000,Aleuts in Russiawere recognized by government decree as asmall-numbered Indigenous people.

Etymology

In theAleut language,they are known by theendonymsUnangan(eastern dialect) andUnangas(western dialect); both terms mean "people".The Russian term "Aleut" was a general term used for both the native population of the Aleutian Islands and their neighbors to the east in theKodiak Archipelago,who were also referred to as "Pacific Eskimos" or Sugpiat/Alutiit.

Language

Aleut people speak Unangam Tunuu, theAleut language,as well as English and Russian in the United States and Russia respectively. An estimated 150 people in the United States and five people in Russia speak Aleut.The language belongs to theEskaleut language familyand includes three dialects: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian,Shumagin,FoxandPribilof Islands;Atkan,spoken onAtkaandBeringislands; and the now extinctAttuandialect.

The Pribilof Islands has the highest number of active speakers of Unangam Tunuu. Most native elders speak Aleut, but it is rare for common people to speak the language fluently.

Beginning in 1829, Aleut was written in theCyrillic script.From 1870, the language has been written in theLatin script.An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut.

Tribes

Customary Aleut dress

Aleut (Unangan) dialects and tribes:

• Attuan dialectand speaking tribes:
  • Sasignan(in Attuan dialect)/Sasxnan(in Eastern dialect)/Sasxinas(in Western dialect) orNear Islanders:in theNear Islands(Attu,Agattu,Semichi).
  • Kasakam Unangangis(in Aleut, lit. 'Russian Aleut') orCopper Island Aleut:in theCommander Islandsof Russian Federation (Bering,Medny).
• ?Qax̂unorRat Islanders:in theBuldir IslandandRat Islands(Kiska,Amchitka,Semisopochnoi).
• Atkan dialectorWestern AleutorAliguutax̂(in Aleut) and speaking tribes:
  • NaahmiĝusorDelarof Islanders:in theDelarof Islands(Amatignak) andAndreanof Islands(Tanaga).
  • NiiĝuĝisorAndreanof Islanders:in theAndreanof Islands(Kanaga,Adak,Atka,Amlia,Seguam).
• Eastern Aleut dialectand speaking tribes:
  • AkuuĝunorUniiĝunorIslanders of the Four Mountains:in theIslands of Four Mountains(Amukta,Kagamil).
  • QawalanginorFox Islanders:in theFox Islands(Umnak,Samalga,western part ofUnalaska).
  • QigiiĝunorKrenitzen Islanders:in theKrenitzin Islands(eastern part ofUnalaska,Akutan,Akun,Tigalda).
  • Qagaan TayaĝunginorSanak Islanders:in theSanak Islands(Unimak,Sanak).
  • Taxtamam Tunuudialect ofBelkofski.
  • QaĝiiĝunorShumigan Islanders:in theShumagin Islands.

Population and distribution

For specific tribal village names, seeList of Alaska Native tribal entities.

Map of Aleut tribes and dialects

Settlement of Aleuts in the Far Eastern Federal District by urban and rural settlements in%, 2010 census

Aleuts historically lived throughout the Aleutian Islands, theShumagin Islands,and the far western part of theAlaska Peninsula,with an estimated population of around 25,000 prior to European contact.In the 1820s, theRussian-American Companyadministered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of thefur trade.They resettled many Aleut families to theCommander Islands(within theAleutsky Districtof theKamchatka Kraiin Russia)and to thePribilof Islands(inAlaska). These continue to have majority-Aleut communities.

According to the 2000 census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut, while 17,000 identified as having partial Aleut ancestry. Prior to sustained European contact, approximately 25,000 Aleut lived in the archipelago.TheEncyclopædia Britannica Onlinestates that more than 15,000 people have Aleut ancestry in the early 21st century.Aleuts suffered high fatalities in the 19th and early 20th centuries from Eurasianinfectious diseasesto which they had noimmunity.In addition, the population suffered as their customary lifestyles were disrupted. Russian traders, and later Europeans, married Aleut women and had families with them.

History

After contact with Russia

Aleut in Festival Dress in Alaska,watercolor byMikhail Tikhanov,1818

After the arrival ofRussian Orthodoxmissionariesin the late 18th century, many Aleuts became Christian. Of the numerous Russian Orthodox congregations in Alaska, most are majority Alaska Native or Native Alaskan in ethnicity. One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was SaintPeter the Aleut.

Russian traders "took Aleut women and children hostage" to force Aleut men to hunt foxes and sea otters so the Russians could have their pelts, and often additionally enslaved Aleut men.

Aleuts. Ethnographic description of the peoples of theRussian Empireby Gustav-Fyodor Khristianovich Pauli (1862)

Recorded uprising against the Russians

In the 18th century, Russiapromyshlennikitraders established settlements on the islands. There was high demand for the furs that the Aleuts provided from hunting. In May 1784, local Aleuts revolted on Amchitka against the Russian traders. (The Russians had a small trading post there.) According to the Aleuts, in an account recorded by Japanese castaways and published in 2004, otters were decreasing year by year. The Russians paid the Aleuts less and less in goods in return for the furs they made. The Japanese learned that the Aleuts felt the situation was at crisis. The leading Aleuts negotiated with the Russians, saying they had failed to deliver enough supplies in return for furs. Nezimov, leader of the Russians, ordered two of his men, Stephanov (ステッパノSuteppano) and Kazhimov (カジモフKazimofu) to kill his mistress Oniishin (オニイシンOniishin), who was the Aleut chief's daughter, because he doubted that Oniishin had tried to dissuade her father and other leaders from pushing for more goods.

After the four leaders had been killed, the Aleuts began to move from Amchitka to neighboring islands. Nezimov, leader of the Russian group, was jailed after the whole incident was reported to Russian officials.(According toHokusa bunryaku(Japanese:Bắc tra văn lược),written byKatsuragawa Hoshūafter interviewingDaikokuya Kōdayū.)

Aleut genocide against the Nicoleño Tribe in California

According to Russian American Company (RAC) records which were translated and published in theJournal of California and Great Basin Anthropology,a 200-ton otter hunting ship namedIl’menawith a mixed-nationality crew, including a majority Aleut contingent, was involved in conflict resulting in a massacre of the indigenous natives ofSan Nicolas Island.

In 1814, to obtain more of the commercially valuableotterpelts, a Russian company brought a party of conscripted Aleut hunters to the coastal island of San Nicolas, near the Alta California-Baja California border. The locally residentNicoleño nationsought a payment from the Aleut hunters for the large number of otters being killed in the area. Disagreement arose, turning violent; an Aleut was killed, and in retaliation Aleuts killed a number of Nicoleño (the exact amount is unknown). In 1835, the remaining Nicoleños were removed from the island, except for one woman and possibly her child, who were left behind. In 1853 that woman, later christened Juana Maria, was found and taken to Santa Barbara. She may have been the last living Nicoleñan, as what happened to the others after they were brought to the mainland is unknown (Juana Maria,the Lone Woman of San Nicolas).

Internment during World War II

In June 1942, duringWorld War II,Japanese forces occupiedKiskaandAttuIslands in the western Aleutians. They later transported captive Attu Islanders toHokkaidō,where they were held asprisoners of warin harsh conditions. Fearing a Japanese attack on other Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska, the U.S. government evacuated hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs, placing them in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died ofmeasles,influenzaand other infectious diseases which spread quickly in the overcrowded dormitories. In total, about 75 died in American internment and 19 as a result of Japanese occupation.TheAleut Restitution Act of 1988was an attempt byCongressto compensate the survivors. On June 17, 2017, the U.S. Government formally apologized for the internment of the Unangan people and their treatment in the camps.

TheWorld War II campaignby the United States to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations in theAmericanandPacific theaters.

Population's decline

Before their way of life was changed by major influences from the outside world, approximately 25,000 Aleuts were located on the archipelago. Foreign diseases, harsh treatment and disruption of aboriginal society soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number. The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors.

Culture

Housing

Aleuts constructed partially underground houses calledbarabara.According toLillie McGarvey,a 20th-century Aleut leader,barabaraskeep "occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area".Aleuts traditionally built houses by digging an oblong square pit in the ground, usually 50 by 20 feet (15.2 by 6.1 m) or smaller. The pit was then covered by a roof framed with driftwood, thatched with grass, and then covered with earth for insulation.Inside trenches were dug along the sides, with mats placed on top to keep them clean. The bedrooms were at the back of the lodge, opposite the entrance. Several families would stay in one house, with their own designated areas. Rather than fireplaces or bonfires in the middle, lanterns were hung in the house.

Subsistence

Aleuts survived by hunting and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as hunting sea mammals such as seal,walrus,and whales. They processed fish and sea mammals in a variety of ways: dried, smoked, or roasted.Caribou,muskoxen,deer,moose,whale, and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. They dried berries. They were also processed asalutiqqutigaq,a mixture of berries, fat, and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale is a delicacy, as is that of walrus.

Today, many Aleut continue to eat customary and locally sourced foods but also buy processed foods fromOutside,which is expensive in Alaska.

Ethnobotany

A full list of their ethnobotany has been compiled, with 65 documented plant uses.

Visual arts

Men'schagudax,or bentwood hunting visor, Arvid Adolf Etholén collection, Museum of Cultures, Helsinki, Finland

Unknown Aleut artist,sea lyme grassbasket and lid embellished with wool embroidery, early 20th century,Brooklyn Museum

Customary arts of the Aleuts include weapon-making, building ofbaidarkas(special hunting boats),weaving,figurines, clothing, carving, and mask making. Men as well as women often carved ivory and wood. Nineteenth century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lionwhiskers,feathers, andwalrus ivory.Andrew Gronholdtof the Shumagin Islands has played a vital role in reviving the ancient art of building thechagudaxor bentwood hunting visors.

Aleut women sewed finely stitched, waterproofparkasfromsealgut and wove fine baskets fromsea-lyme grass(Elymus mollis). Some Aleut women continue to weave ryegrass baskets. Aleut arts are practiced and taught throughout the state of Alaska. As many Aleut have moved out of the islands to other parts of the state, they have taken with them the knowledge of their arts. They have also adopted new materials and methods for their art, includingserigraphy,video art,andinstallation art.

Aleut carving, distinct in each region, has attracted traders for centuries, including early Europeans and other Alaska Natives. Historically, carving was a male art and leadership attribute whereas today it is done by both genders. Most commonly the carvings of walrus ivory and driftwood originated as part of making hunting weapons. Sculptural carvings depict local animals, such as seals and whales. Aleut sculptors also have carved human figures.

Aleuts also carve walrus ivory for other uses, such as jewelry and sewing needles. Jewelry is made with designs specific to the region of each people. Eachclanwould have a specific style to signify their origin. Jewelry ornaments were made for piercing lips (labrum), nose, and ears, as well as for necklaces. Each woman had her own sewing needles, which she made, and that often had detailed end of animal heads.

The main Aleut method ofbasketrywas false embroidery (overlay). Strands of grasses or reeds were overlaid upon the basic weaving surface, to obtain a plastic effect. Basketry was an art reserved for women.Early Aleut women created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality, using only their thumbnail, grown long and then sharpened, as a tool. Today, Aleut weavers continue to produce woven grass pieces of a remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in ancient tradition. Birch bark, puffin feathers, and baleen are also commonly used by the Aleuts in basketry. The Aleut term for grass basket isqiigam aygaaxsii.One Aleut leader recognized by the State of Alaska for her work in teaching and reviving Aleut basketry wasAnfesia Shapsnikoff.Her life and accomplishments are portrayed in the bookMoments Rightly Placed(1998).

Masks were created to portray figures of their myths and oral history. TheAtka peoplebelieved that another people lived in their land before them. They portrayed such ancients in their masks, which show anthropomorphic creatures named in their language. Knut Bergsland says their word means "like those found in caves." Masks were generally carved from wood and were decorated with paints made from berries or other natural products. Feathers were inserted into holes carved out for extra decoration. These masks were used in ceremonies ranging from dances to praises, each with its own meaning and purpose.

Tattoos and piercings

Tattooed Aleut woman

The tattoos and piercings of the Aleuts demonstrated accomplishments as well as their religious views. They believed their body art would please the spirits of the animals and make any evil go away. The body orifices were believed to be pathways for the entry of evil entities. By piercing their orifices: the nose, the mouth, and ears, they would stop evil entities,khoughkh,from entering their bodies. Body art also enhanced their beauty, social status, and spiritual authority.

Before the 19th century, piercings and tattoos were very common among Aleuts, especially among women. Piercings, such as the nose pin, were common among both men and women and were usually performed a few days after birth. The ornament was made of various materials, a piece of bark or bone, or an eagle's feather shaft. From time to time, adult women decorated the nose pins by hanging pieces of amber and coral from strings on it; the semi-precious objects dangled down to their chins.

Piercing ears was also common. The Aleuts pierced holes around the rim of their ears with dentalium shells (tooth shells or tusk shells), bone, feathers, dried bird wings or skulls and/or amber. Materials associated with birds were important, as birds were considered to defend animals in the spirit world. A male would wear sea lion whiskers in his ears as a trophy of his expertise as a hunter. Worn for decorative reasons, and sometimes to signify social standing, reputation, and the age of the wearer, Aleuts would pierce their lower lips with walrus ivory and wear beads or bones. The individual with the most piercings held the highest respect.

Tattooing for women began when they reached physical maturity, after menstruation, at about age 20. Historically, men received their first tattoo after killing their first animal, an important rite of passage. Sometimes tattoos signaled social class. For example, the daughter of a wealthy, famous ancestor or father would work hard at her tattoos to show the accomplishments of that ancestor or father. They would sew, or prick, different designs on the chin, the side of the face, or under the nose.

Aleut clothing

Replica of thesax,an Aleut coat made from bird skins and sea otter fur

AKamleika,or sea mammal intestine coat.

Aleuts developed in one of the harshest climates in the world, and learned to create and protect warmth. Both men and women wore parkas that extended below the knees. The women wore the skin of seal or sea-otter, and the men wore bird skin parkas, the feathers turned in or out depending on the weather. When the men were hunting on the water, they wore waterproof parkas made from seal or sea-lion guts, or the entrails of bear, walrus, or whales. Parkas had a hood that could be cinched, as could the wrist openings, so water could not get in. Men wore breeches made from the esophageal skin of seals. Children wore parkas made of downy eagle skin with tanned bird skin caps.They called these parkaskameikas,meaning 'rain gear' in the English language.

Sea-lions, harbor seals, and sea otters are the most abundant marine mammals. The men brought home the skins and prepared them by soaking them in urine and stretching them. The women undertook the sewing.Preparation of the gut for clothing involved several steps. The prepared intestines were turned inside out. A bone knife was used to remove the muscle tissue and fat from the walls of the intestine. The gut was cut and stretched, and fastened to stakes to dry. It was then cut and sewn to make waterproof parkas, bags, and other receptacles.On some hunting trips, the men would take several women with them. They would catch birds and prepare the carcasses and feathers for future use. They caughtpuffins(Lunda cirrhata,Fratercula corniculata),guillemots,andmurres.

It took 40 skins of tufted puffin and 60 skins of horned puffin to make one parka. A woman would need a year for all the labor to make one parka. Each lasted two years with proper care. All parkas were decorated with bird feathers, beard bristles of seal and sea-lion, beaks of sea parrots, bird claws, sea otter fur, dyed leather, and caribou hair sewn in the seams.

Women made needles from the wing bones of seabirds. They made thread from the sinews of different animals and fish guts.A thin strip of seal intestine could also be used, twisted to form a thread. The women grew their thumbnail extra long and sharpened it. They could split threads to make them as fine as a hair.They used vermilion paint, hematite, the ink bag of the octopus, and the root of a kind of grass or vine to color the threads.

Gender

Russian travelers making early contact with the Aleuts mentiontraditional talesoftwo-spiritsorthirdandfourth genderpeople, known asayagigux̂(male-bodied, 'man transformed into a woman') andtayagigux̂(female-bodied, 'woman transformed into a man'), but it is unclear whether these tales are about historical individuals or spirits.

Hunting technologies

Boats

Main article:Aleutian kayak

Illustration of an Aleut paddling abaidarka,with an anchored Russian ship in the background, nearSaint Paul Island,by Louis Choris, 1817

The interior regions of the rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands provided little in terms of natural resources for the Aleutian people. They collected stones for weapons, tools, stoves or lamps. They collected and dried grasses for their woven baskets. For everything else, the Aleuts had learned to use the fish and mammals they caught and processed to satisfy their needs.

To hunt sea mammals and to travel between islands, the Aleuts became experts of sailing and navigation. While hunting, they used small watercraft calledbaidarkas.For regular travel, they used their largebaidaras.

Men rowing abaidara(large skin boat)

Thebaidarawas a large, open, walrus-skin-covered boat. Aleut families used it when traveling among the islands. It was also used to transport goods for trade, and warriors took them to battle.

Thebaidarka(small skin boat) was a small boat covered in sea lion skin. It was developed and used for hunting because of its sturdiness and maneuverability. Aleutbaidarkaresembles that of aYup'ikkayak,but it is hydrodynamically sleeker and faster. They made thebaidarkafor one or two persons only. The deck was made with a sturdy chamber, the sides of the craft were nearly vertical and the bottom was rounded. Most one-manbaidarkaswere about 16 feet (4.9 m) long and 20 inches (51 cm) wide, whereas a two-man was on average about 20 feet (6.1 m) long and 24 inches (61 cm) wide. It was from thebaidarkathat Aleut men would stand on the water to hunt from the sea.

Weapons

The Aleuts hunted small sea mammals with barbed darts and harpoons slung from throwing boards. These boards gave precision as well as some extra distance to these weapons.

Harpoons were also called throwing-arrows when the pointed head fit loosely into the socket of the foreshaft and the head was able to detach from the harpoon when it penetrated an animal, and remain in the wound. There were three main kinds of harpoon that the Aleuts used: a simple harpoon, with a head that kept its original position in the animal after striking, a compound (toggle-head) harpoon in which the head took a horizontal position in the animal after penetration, and the throwing-lance used to kill large animals.

The simple Aleut harpoon consisted of four main parts: the wooden shaft, the bone foreshaft, and the bonehead (tip) with barbs pointed backward. The barbed head was loosely fitted into the socket of the foreshaft so that when the animal was stabbed, it pulled the head away from the rest of the harpoon. The sharp barbs penetrated with ease, but could not be pulled out. The bone tip is fastened to a length of braided twine meanwhile; the hunter held the other end of the twine in his hand.

The compound harpoon was the most prevalent weapon of the Aleuts. Also known as the toggle-head spear, it was about the same size as the simple harpoon and used to hunt the same animals, however, this harpoon provided a more efficient and lethal weapon. This harpoon separated into four parts. The longest part was the shaft with the thicker stalk closer to the tip of the harpoon. The shaft was fitted into the socket of the fore shaft and a bone ring was then placed over the joint to hold the two pieces together, as well as, protecting the wooden shaft from splitting. Connected to the fore shaft of the harpoon is the toggle head spear tip. This tip was made of two sub shafts that break apart on impact with an animal. The upper sub shaft held the razor stone head and attached to the lower sub shaft with a small braided twine loop. Once the tip penetrates the animal the upper sub head broke off from the rest of the shaft, however, since it was still connected with the braided loop it rotated the head into a horizontal position inside the animal's body so that it could not get away from the hunter.

The throwing lance may be distinguished from a harpoon because all its pieces are fixed and immovable. A lance was a weapon of war and it was also used to kill large marine animals after it has already been harpooned. The throwing lance usually consisted of three parts: a wooden shaft, a bone ring or belt, and the compound head that was made with a barbed bonehead and a stone tip. The length of the compound head was equivalent to the distance between the planes of a man's chest to his back. The lance would penetrate the chest and pass through the chest cavity and exit from the back. The bone ring was designed to break after impact so that the shaft could be used again for another kill.

Burial practices

They buried their dead ancestors near the village. Archeologists have found many different types of burials, dating from a variety of periods, in the Aleutian Islands. Aleuts developed a style of burials that were accommodated to local conditions, and honored the dead. They have had four main types of burials:umqan,cave, above-ground sarcophagi, and burials connected to communal houses.

Umqanburials are the most widely known type of mortuary practice found in the Aleutian Islands. The people created burial mounds, that tend to be located on the edge of a bluff. They placed stone and earth over the mound to protect and mark it. Such mounds were first excavated by archeologists in 1972 on Southwestern Unmak Island, and dated to the early contact period. Researchers have found a prevalence of theseumqanburials, and concluded it is a regional mortuary practice. It may be considered a pan-Aleutian mortuary practice.

Cave burials have been found throughout the eastern Aleutian Islands. The human remains are buried in shallow graves at the rear of the cave. These caves tend to be next tomiddensand near villages. Somegrave goodshave been found in the caves associated with such burials. For example, a deconstructed boat was found in a burial cave on Kanaga Island. There were no other major finds of grave goods in the vicinity.

Throughout the Aleutian Islands, gravesites have been found that are above-groundsarcophagi.These sarcophagi are left exposed, with no attempt to bury the dead in the ground. These burials tend to be isolated and limited to the remains of adult males, which may indicate a specific ritual practice. In the Near Islands, isolated graves have also been found with the remains, and not just the sarcophagus, left exposed on the surface.This way of erecting sarcophagi above ground is not as common asumqanand cave burials, but it is still widespread.

Another type of practice has been to bury remains in areas next to the communal houses of the settlement.Human remains are abundant in such sites. They indicate a pattern of burying the dead within the main activity areas of the settlement. These burials consist of small pits adjacent to the houses and scattered around them.In these instances, mass graves are common for women and children.This type of mortuary practice has been mainly found in the Near Islands.

In addition to these four main types, other kinds of burials have been found in the Aleutian Islands. These more isolated examples in includemummification,private burial houses, abandoned houses, etc.To date, such examples are not considered to be part of a larger, unifying cultural practice. The findings discussed represent only the sites that have been excavated.

The variety of mortuary practices mostly did not include the ritual of including extensive grave goods, as has been found in other cultures. The remains so far have been mainly found with other human and faunal remains.The addition of objects to "accompany" the dead is rare.Archaeologists have been trying to dissect the absence of grave goods, but their findings have been ambiguous and do not really help the academic community to understand these practices more.

Not much information is known about the ritual parts of burying the dead. Archeologists and anthropologists have not found much evidence related to burial rituals.This lack of ritual evidence could hint at either no ritualized ceremony, or one that has not yet been revealed in the archaeological record. As a result, archaeologists cannot decipher the context to understand exactly why a certain type of burial was used in particular cases.

Notable Aleuts

• John Hoover(1919–2011), sculptor
• Carl E. Moses(1929–2014) businessman, state representative, who served from 1965 to 1973 as both a Republican and Democrat,
• Jacob Netsvetov(1802–1864), Russian Orthodox saint and priest
• Sergie Sovoroff(1901–1989), educator,iqya-x(model sea kayak) builder
• Eve Tuck,academic, indigenous studies
• Olga (Arrsamquq) of Alaska(1916-1979) Eastern Orthodox Saint and Matushka
• Peter the Aleut(1800–1815), Eastern Orthodox Saint and martyr

In popular culture

InSnow Crash,a science fiction novel by American writerNeal Stephenson,a central character named Raven is portrayed as an Aleut with incredible toughness and hunting skill.The story is about revenge due in part to perceived mistreatment of the Aleuts.

See also

• Adamagan
• Aleutian Islands
• Aleutian tradition
• Alutiiq
• Indigenous Amerindian genetics
• Maritime Fur Trade
• Sadlermiut
• Shamanism among Alaska Natives
• Unangan Aleut
• List of Native American peoples in the United States

Further reading

• Black, Lydia T.Aleut Art: Unangam Aguqaadangin.Anchorage, Alaska: Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, 2005.
• Jochelson, Waldemar.History, Ethnology, and Anthropology of the Aleut.Washington: Carnegie institution of Washington, 1933.
• Jochelson, Waldemar, Bergsland, Knut (Editor) & Dirks, Moses (Editor).Unangam Ungiikangin Kayux Tunusangin = Unangam Uniikangis ama Tunuzangis = Aleut Tales and Narratives.Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1990.ISBN978-1-55500-036-3.
• Kohlhoff, Dean.When the Wind Was a River Aleut Evacuation in World War II.Seattle: University of Washington Press in association with Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, Anchorage, 1995.ISBN0-295-97403-6
• Krutak, Lars (April 24, 2011)."Tattooing and Piercing Among the Alaskan Aleut"(PDF).Quarterly Journal of the Association of Professional Piercers 44 (2008): 22.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on September 28, 2011.
• Lee, Molly, Angela J. Linn, and Chase Hensel. Not Just a Pretty Face: Dolls and Human Figurines in Alaska Native Cultures. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, 2006. Print.
• Madden, Ryan Howard. "An enforced odyssey: The relocation and internment of Aleuts during World War II" (PhD thesis U of New Hampshire, Durham, 1993)onlineArchivedMay 24, 2018, at theWayback Machine
• Murray, Martha G., and Peter L. Corey.Aleut Weavers.Juneau, AK: Alaska State Museums, Division of Libraries, Archives and Museums, 1997.
• National Park Service."Aleutian World War IIArchivedJanuary 14, 2015, at theWayback Machine."
• Reedy-Maschner, Katherine. "Aleut Identities: Tradition and Modernity in an Indigenous Fishery". Montréal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010.ISBN978-0773537484
• Veltre, Douglas W.Aleut Unangax̂ Ethnobotany An Annotated Bibliography.Akureyri, Iceland: CAFF International Secretariat, 2006.ISBN9979-9778-0-9

External links

• Aleut Corporation
• Aleut Management Services
• Aleutian Pribilof Island Association
• Qawalangin Tribe of Unalaska
• Museum of the Aleutians
• Unalaska Communities of Memory Project JukeboxArchivedJune 24, 2010, at theWayback Machine
• Aleut International Association
• A Grammar of Fox Island AleutianManuscriptat Dartmouth College Library
• Aleutian Pribilof Island Community Development Association