Alfonso X of Castile
Alfonso X | |
---|---|
![]() Portrait of Alfonso X from theLibro de los juegos(1283)[1] | |
King of CastileandLeón | |
Reign | 1 June 1252 – 4 April 1284 |
Predecessor | Ferdinand III |
Successor | Sancho IV |
Born | 23 November 1221 Toledo,Kingdom of Castile |
Died | 4 April 1284 Seville,Kingdom of Castile | (aged 62)
Burial | |
Spouse | |
Issue among others... | Berengaria, Lady of Guadalajara Beatrice, Marchioness of Monferrat Ferdinand de la Cerda Sancho IV, King of Castile Peter, Lord of Ledesma John, Lord of Valencia de Campos Violant, Lady of Biscay James, Lord of Cameros Beatrice, Queen of Portugal Alfonso Fernández |
House | Castilian House of Ivrea |
Father | Ferdinand III of Castile |
Mother | Elisabeth of Swabia |
Alfonso X(also known asthe Wise,Spanish:el Sabio;23 November 1221 – 4 April 1284) wasKing of Castile,LeónandGaliciafrom 1 June 1252 until his death in 1284. During theelection of 1257,a dissident faction chose him to beking of Germanyon 1 April. He renounced his claim to Germany in 1275, and in creating an alliance with theKingdom of Englandin 1254, his claim on theDuchy of Gasconyas well.
Alfonso's scientific interests—he is sometimes nicknamedthe Astrologer(el Astrólogo)—led him to sponsor the creation of theAlfonsine tables,and theAlphonsus crateron the Moon is named after him. He also sponsored the work of historians, who for the first time placed Spain in the context of world history. As a lawmaker he introduced the first vernacular law code in Castile, theSiete Partidas.He created theMesta,an association of sheep farmers in the central plain, but debased the coinage to finance his claim to the German crown. He fought a successful war withPortugal,but a less successful one withGranada.The end of his reign was marred by a civil war with his eldest surviving son, the futureSancho IV,which continued after his death.
Life
[edit]Early life
[edit]Born in Toledo, Kingdom of Castile, Alfonso was the eldest son ofFerdinand IIIandElizabeth (Beatrice) of Swabia.[2]His mother was the paternal cousin ofHoly Roman Emperor Frederick II,to whom Alfonso is often compared. His maternal grandparents werePhilip of SwabiaandIrene Angelina.Little is known about his upbringing, but he was most likely raised in Toledo. For the first nine years of his life Alfonso was only heir to Castile until his paternal grandfather kingAlfonso IX of Leóndied and his father united the kingdoms of Castile andLeón.He began his career as a soldier, under the command of his father, when he was only sixteen years old.
After the accession of KingTheobald I of Navarre,Ferdinand tried to arrange a marriage for Alfonso with Theobald's daughter,Blanche,but the move was unsuccessful. At the same time, he had a romantic relationship withMayor Guillén de Guzmán,who bore him a daughter,Beatrice. In 1240, he married Mayor Guillén de Guzmán, but the marriage was later annulled and their issue declared illegitimate. In the same period (1240–1250) he conquered several Muslim strongholds inAl-Andalusalongside his father, such asMurcia,AlicanteandCadiz.
In 1249, Alfonso marriedViolant,the daughter of KingJames I of AragonandYolande of Hungary,[3]although betrothed already in 1246.
Reign
[edit]Alfonso succeeded his father as King of Castile and León in 1252. The following year he invaded Portugal, capturing the region of theAlgarve.KingAfonso III of Portugalhad to surrender,[citation needed]but he gained an agreement by which, after he consented to marry Alfonso X's daughterBeatrice of Castile,the land would be returned to their heirs. In 1261 hecaptured Jerez.In 1263 he returned Algarve to the King of Portugal and signed theTreaty of Badajoz (1267).
In 1254 Alfonso X signed a treaty of alliance with KingHenry III of England,supporting him in the war against KingLouis IX of France.In the same year Alfonso's half-sister,Eleanor,married Henry's sonEdward:with this act Alfonso renounced forever all claim to theDuchy of Gascony,to which Castile had been a pretender since the marriage ofAlfonso VIII of CastilewithEleanor of England.
Imperial election
[edit]In 1256, at the death ofWilliam II of Holland,Alfonso's descent from the Hohenstaufen through his mother, a daughter of Philip of Swabia, gave him a claim through theHohenstaufenline. Alfonso's election asGerman kingby theprince-electorsmisled him into complicated schemes that involved excessive expense but never succeeded. Alfonso never even traveled to Germany, and his alliance with the ItalianGhibellineLordEzzelino IV da Romanodeprived him of the initial support ofPope Alexander IV.His rival,Richard of Cornwall,went to Germany and was crowned in 1257 atAachen.
To obtain money, Alfonso debased the coinage and then endeavored to prevent a rise in prices by an arbitrarytariff.The little trade of his dominions was ruined, and the burghers and peasants were deeply offended. His nobles, whom he tried to cow by sporadic acts of violence, rebelled against him in 1272. Reconciliation was bought by Alfonso's son Ferdinand in 1273.
In the end, after Richard's death, the German princes electedRudolph I of Habsburg(1273), Alfonso being declared deposed byPope Gregory X.In 1275 Alfonso tried to meet with his imperial vicar in Italy,William VII of Montferrat(who had succeeded Ezzelino) and his Ghibelline allies inPiedmontandLombardyto celebrate the victory against the GuelphCharles I of Anjouand be crowned in Lombardy; he was however halted in his imperial ambitions in Provence by the Pope who, after a long negotiation, obtained Alfonso's oral renunciation of any claims to the Holy Roman Empire.
Civil war
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/TumboAKing.jpg/220px-TumboAKing.jpg)
Throughout his reign, Alfonso contended with the nobles, particularly the families ofNuño González de Lara,Diego López de HaroandEsteban Fernández de Castro,all of whom were formidable soldiers and instrumental in maintaining Castile's military strength in frontier territories. According to some scholars Alfonso lacked the singleness of purpose required by a ruler who would devote himself to organization and also the combination of firmness with temper needed for dealing with his nobles although this is not a view taken by all.[4][additional citation(s) needed]Others have argued that his efforts were too singularly focused on the diplomatic and financial arrangements surrounding his bid to become Holy Roman Emperor.[citation needed]
Alfonso's eldest son,Ferdinand,died in 1275 at theBattle of Écijaagainst the Moroccan andGranadaninvasion armies, leaving two infant sons. Alfonso's second son,Sancho,claimed to be the new heir, in preference to the children of Ferdinand de la Cerda, basing his claim on an old Castilian custom, that ofproximity of bloodandagnatic seniority.Alfonso preferred to leave the throne to his grandsons, but Sancho had the support of the nobility. A bitter civil war broke out resulting in Alfonso's being forced in 1282 to accept Sancho as his heir instead of his young grandsons; only the cities ofSeville,MurciaandBadajozremained faithful to him. Son and nobles alike supported theMoorswhen he tried to unite the nation in a crusade; and when he allied himself withAbu Yusuf Yakub,the rulingMarinidsultan of Morocco,they denounced him as an enemy of the faith. A reaction in his favor was beginning in his later days, but he died defeated and deserted at Seville in 1284, leaving a will, by which he endeavored to exclude Sancho, and a heritage of civil war.[citation needed]
Economic policy
[edit]In 1273, he created theMesta,an association of some 3,000 petty and great sheep holders in Castile, in reaction to less wool being exported from the traditional sites in England.[5]This organization later became exceedingly powerful in the country (as wool became Castile's first major exportable commodity[5]and reported a trade surplus, called "white gold", as the wool amount was critical to the health of the population during the winter), and eventually its privileges were to prove a deadly wound in the Castilian economy. One side effect of the quickly expanding sheep herds was the decimation to the Castilian farmland through which the sheep grazed.[5]
The original function of the Mesta was to separate the fields from the sheep-ways linking grazing areas.
Legislative activity
[edit]As a ruler, Alfonso showed legislative capacity, and a wish to provide the kingdoms expanded under his father with acode of lawsand a consistent judicial system. TheFuero Real[further explanation needed]was undoubtedly his work. He began medieval Europe's most comprehensive code of law, theSiete Partidas,which, however, thwarted by the nobility of Castile, was only promulgated by his great-grandson. Because of this, and because thePartidasremain fundamental law in the American Southwest,[6]he is one of the 23 lawmakers depicted in the House of Representatives chamber of theUnited States Capitol.
Military training
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Alfonso_X_of_Castile.jpg/150px-Alfonso_X_of_Castile.jpg)
From a young age Alfonso X showed an interest in military life and chivalry. In 1231 Alfonso traveled with Pérez de Castron on a military campaign in lower Andalusia. Writing inEstoria de España,Alfonso describes having seenSt. James on a white horsewith a white banner and a legion of knights fighting a war above the soldiers of Spain.[7]This vision of a heavenly army fighting in Jerez and participation in military campaigns likely left Alfonso X with a high degree of knowledge and respect for military operations and chivalric knights. Alfonso's respect for chivalry can also be seen in his writing of Spanish law. Spanish Chivalric conduct was codified in theSiete Partidas(2,21) where he wrote that knights should be, "of good linage and distinguished by gentility, wisdom, understanding, loyalty, courage, moderation, justice, prowess, and the practical knowledge necessary to assess the quality of horse and arms (Siete Partidas,21,1–10). "[8]These efforts to make a codified standard of chivalric conduct were likely meant to both encourage strength of arms (prowess) and to restrain the use of violence for onlyjust (state-sponsored) usage.
Court culture
[edit]King Alfonso X developed a court culture that encouraged cosmopolitan learning. Alfonso had many works previously written inArabicand Latin translated into vernacular Castilian in his court. Alfonso "turned to the vernacular for the kind of intellectual commitments that formerly were inconceivable outsideLatin."[9]He is credited with encouraging the extensive written use of theCastilian languageinstead of Latin as the language used in courts, churches, and in books and official documents (although his father,Ferdinand III,had begun to use it for some documents). This translation of Arabic and Classic documents into vernacular encouraged the development of Spanish sciences, literature, and philosophy.
Translations
[edit]From the beginning of his reign, Alfonso employed Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars at his court, primarily for the purpose of translating books fromArabicandHebrewinto Latin and Castilian, although he always insisted on personally supervising the translations. This group of scholars formed his royalscriptorium,continuing the tradition of the twelfth-century Escuela de Traductores de Toledo (Toledo School of Translators). Their final output promoted Castilian as a learning language both in science and literature, and established the foundations of the newSpanish language.This evolved version of the Castilian language also acquired significant relevance in the royal chancery, where it came to replace Latin, which until then had been the language commonly used for royal diplomacy in Castile and León.[10]
The very first translation, commissioned by his brother, Fernando de la Cerda—who had extensive experience, both diplomatic and military, among the Muslims of southern Iberia and north Africa—was a Castilian version of theanimal fableKalila wa-Dimna,[11]a book that belongs to the genre ofwisdom literaturelabeledMirrors for Princes:stories and sayings meant to instruct the monarch in proper and effective governance.
The primary intellectual work of these scholars centered on astronomy and astrology. The early period of Alfonso's reign saw the translation of selected works of magic (Lapidario,Picatrix,Libro de las formas et las ymagenes) all translated by a Jewish scholar namedYehuda ben Moshe(Yhuda Mosca, in the Old Spanish source texts). These were all highly ornate manuscripts (only theLapidariosurvives in its entirety) containing what was believed to be secret knowledge on the magical properties of stones andtalismans.In addition to these books of astral magic, Alfonso ordered the translation of well-knownArabicastrological compendia, including theLibro de las cruzesandLibro conplido en los iudizios de las estrellas.The first of these was, ironically, translated from Latin (it was used among theVisigoths), intoArabic,and then back into Castilian and Latin.[12]Most of the texts first translated at this time survive in only one manuscript each.
Astronomy
[edit]As an intellectual he gained considerable scientific fame based on his encouragement ofastronomy,which includedastrologyat the time and thePtolemaiccosmologyas known to him through theArabs.He surrounded himself with mostly Jewish translators who rendered Arabic scientific texts into Castilian at Toledo. His fame extends to the preparation of theAlfonsine tables,based on calculations ofal-Zarqali, "Arzachel".Alexander Bogdanovmaintained that these tables formed the basis forCopernicus's development of aheliocentricunderstanding in astronomy.[13] Because of this work, the lunar craterAlphonsusis named after him. One famous, but apocryphal, quote attributed to him upon his hearing an explanation of the extremely complicated mathematics required to demonstratePtolemy's theory of astronomy was "If the Lord Almighty had consulted me before embarking on creation thus, I should have recommended something simpler."[14]Gingerich (1990) says that a form of this alleged quotation was mentioned (but rejected) as early as the 16th century by the historianJerónimo de Zurita,and that Soriano Viguera (1926) states that "nothing of the sort can be found in Alfonso's writings."[15]Nevertheless,Dean Acheson(U.S. Secretary of State, 1949–1953) used it as the basis for the title and epigraph of his memoirPresent at the Creation.[16]
Chronicles
[edit]Alfonso also commissioned a compilation ofchronicles,theCrónica general,completed in 1264. This chronicle sought to establish a general history and drew from older chronicles, folklore and Arabic sources.[17]This work enjoyed renewed popularity starting in the sixteenth century, when there was a revival of interest in history;Florián de Ocampopublished a new edition andLorenzo de Sepúlvedaused it as the chief source of his popularromances.Sepúlveda wrote a number of romances having Alfonso X as their hero.
Historical works
[edit]Alfonso's court compiled in Castilian a work titledGeneral Estoria.This work was an attempt at a world history that drew from many sources and included translations from theVulgateOld Testament mixed with myths and histories from the classical world, mostly Egypt, Greece, and Rome.[17]This world history was left incomplete, however, and so it stops at the birth of Christ.[18]The main significance of this work lies in the translations from Latin into Castilian.[18]Much like his chronicles, the ability of Alfonso's court to compile writings from a variety of cultures and translate them into Castilian left a historic impact on Spain.
Alfonso X is credited with the first depiction of anhórreo,a typical granary from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. The oldest document containing an image of anhórreois Alfonso'sCantigas de Santa Maria(song CLXXXVII) from XII A.C. In this depiction, three rectangularhórreosof Gothic style are illustrated.
Games
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Alfonso-LJ-27V.jpg/220px-Alfonso-LJ-27V.jpg)
Alfonso also had theLibro de ajedrez, dados, y tablas("Libro de los Juegos" (The Book of Games)) translated into Castilian from Arabic and added illustrations with the goal of perfecting the work.[19]It was completed in 1283.[20]The Libro de juegos contains an extensive collection of writings onchess,with over 100chess problemsandchess variants.[21]
Music
[edit]Alfonso X commissioned or co-authored numerous works of music during his reign. These works includedCantigas d'escarnio e maldicerand the vast compilationCantigas de Santa Maria( "Songs to the Virgin Mary" ), which was written inGalician-Portugueseand figures among the most important of his works. TheCantigas de Santa Mariaform one of the largest collections of vernacularmonophonicsongs to survive from theMiddle Ages.They consist of 420 poems with musical notation. The poems are for the most part onmiraclesattributed to theVirgin Mary.One of the miracles Alfonso relates is his own healing inPuerto de Santa María.[22]
Family
[edit]Violante was twelve or thirteen years old at the time of her marriage to Alfonso; she produced no children for several years and it was feared that she was barren. Alfonso almost had their marriage annulled, but they went on to have eleven children:
- Berengaria(1253 – after 1284). She was betrothed to Louis, the son and heir of KingLouis IX of France,but her fiancé died prematurely in 1260. She entered the convent in Las Huelgas, where she was living in 1284.
- Beatrice(1254–1280). She marriedWilliam VII, Marquess of Montferrat.
- Ferdinand de la Cerda,Infante of Castile (23 October 1255 – 25 July 1275). He married Blanche, the daughter of King Louis IX of France, by whom he had two children. Because he predeceased his father, his younger brother Sancho succeeded to the throne.
- Eleanor(1257–1275)
- Sancho IV of Castile(13 May 1258 – 1295)
- Constance(1258 – 22 August 1280), a nun at Las Huelgas.
- Peter, Lord of Ledesma(June 1260 – 10 October 1283)
- John, Lord of Valencia de Campos(March or April 1262 – 25 June 1319).
- Isabella, died young.
- Violant(1265–1296). She married Diego López V de Haro, Lord of Biscay
- James, Lord of Cameros(August 1266 – 9 August 1284)
Alfonso X also had several illegitimate children. WithMayor Guillén de Guzmán,daughter ofGuillén Pérez de Guzmánand of María González Girón, he fathered:
- Beatrice,married KingAfonso III of Portugal.
With Elvira Rodríguez de Villada, daughter ofRodrigo Fernández de Villada,he fathered:
- Alfonso Fernández de Castilla(1242–1281), also known asel Niño,he held the title of "Señor de Molina y Mesa" through his marriage withBlanca Alfonso de Molina.
WithMaría Alfonso de León,his aunt, the illegitimate daughter of the KingAlfonso IX of LeónandTeresa Gil de Soverosahe had:
- Berenguela Alfonso of Castile, who marriedPedro Núñez de Guzmánin 1264, but died young leaving behind no descendants.
References
[edit]- ^The Book of Chess, Dice and Board Games.
- ^O'Callaghan 1998,p. 46.
- ^Previté-Orton 1952,p. 902.
- ^Márquez (1995)says "Some historians have been only too quick to label him, most unfairly, as a brilliant intellectual who was bungling and inefficient in practical affairs."
- ^abcNicholas (1999)
- ^The medieval church: the world of clerics and laymen.Burns, Robert I., Alfonso X, King of Castile and Leon, 1221–1284., Scott, Samuel Parsons. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 2001. pp. xix.ISBN9780812217384.OCLC847550277.
{{cite book}}
:CS1 maint: others (link) - ^Martinez (2010:82–83)
- ^O'Callaghan (1993:65–66)
- ^Márquez (1995:54)
- ^Valdeón Baruque (2003)
- ^Wacks (2007:86–128)
- ^Carroll (2002:327–328)
- ^Bogdanov, Alexander (1996).Bogdanov's Tektology: Book!.Hull: Centre for Systems Studies. p. 27.
- ^Gingerich (1990:40 and 44n36)
- ^Soriano Viguera (1926)
- ^Acheson (1969)
- ^ab"Alfonso X – king of Castile and Leon".Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^abProcter (1951)
- ^Burns (1990)
- ^Musser Golladay (2007:31). Although Musser Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of theLibro de Juegos,thea quoinformation compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of theLibro de Juegos.
- ^Wollesen, Jens T. "Sub specie ludi...: Text and Images in Alfonso El Sabio's Libro de Acedrex, Dados e Tablas", Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 53:3, 1990. pp. 277–308.
- ^Keller, John E. (2015).Daily life depicted in the Cantigas de Santa Maria.Cash, Annette Grant, 1943–. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 31.ISBN9780813159096.OCLC900344519.
Sources
[edit]- Acheson, Dean (1969),Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department,New York: W. W. Norton
- Ballesteros-Beretta, Antonio (1963),Alfonso X el Sabio,Barcelona: Salvat
- Burns, Robert I. (1990), "Stupor Mundi: Alfonso X of Castile, the Learned", in Burns, Robert I. (ed.),Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth-Century Renaissance,Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 1–13
- Carroll, James (2002),Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews,Boston: Houghton-Mifflin
- Demontis, Luca (2012),Alfonso X e l'Italia: rapporti politici e linguaggi del potere,Alessandria: Edizioni dell'Orso
- Gingerich, Owen (1990), "Alfonso the Tenth as a Patron of Astronomy", in Márquez-Villanueva, Francisco; Vega, Carlos Alberto (eds.),Alfonso X of Castile: The Learned King (1221–1284): An International Symposium, Harvard University, 17 November 1984,Cambridge, Mass.: Department of Romance Languages and Literatures of Harvard University, pp. 30–45, reprint in Owen Gingerich,The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler(New York: American Institute of Physics, 1993)
- Hamilton, Thomas Wm. (1975),A King for the Stars (planetarium show)
- Márquez, Francisco (1995), "Vita: Alfonso X",Harvard Magazine,Jan.-Feb.: 54
- Martinez, H. Salvador (2010),Alfonso X, The Learned: a Biography,Translated by Odille Cisneros, Leiden: Brill
- Musser Golladay, Sonja (2007),Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X's Book of Games,Tucson: PhD diss., University of Arizona, archived fromthe originalon 17 July 2011,retrieved10 October2018
- Nicholas, David (1999),The Transformation of Europe 1300–1600,London: Arnold
- O'Callaghan, F. (1993),The Learned King: The Reign of Alfonso X of Castile,Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press
- O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1998).Alfonso X and the Cantigas De Santa Maria: A Poetic Biography.Brill.
- Previté-Orton, Charles William (1952).The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History.Vol. II The Twelfth Century to the Renaissance. Cambridge at the University Press.
- Procter, Evelyn S. (1951),Alfonso X of Castile: Patron of Literature and Learning,Oxford: Clarendon Press
- Soriano Viguera, José (1926),Contribución al conocimiento de los trabajos astronómicos desarrollados en la Escuela de Alfonso X el Sabio,Madrid: Alberto Fontana
- Valdeón Baruque, Julio (2003),Alfonso X: La forja de la España moderna,Madrid: Ediciones Temas de Hoy,ISBN978-84-8460-277-4
- Wacks, David A. (2007),Framing Iberia: Maqamat and Frametales in Medieval Spain,Leiden: Brill
Further reading
[edit]- Alfonso X (1836),Opúsculos Legales del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio: Tomo I[Legal Booklets of King Don Alfonso the Wise: Volume I] (in Spanish), Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia
- Alfonso X (1836),Opúsculos Legales del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio: Tomo II[Legal Booklets of King Don Alfonso the Wise: Volume II] (in Spanish), Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia
- Doubleday, Simon R. (2015),The Wise King: A Christian Prince, Muslim Spain, and the Birth of the Renaissance,New York: Basic Books
- Gordon, Stewart (July–August 2009)."The Game of Kings".Saudi Aramco World.60(4). Houston: 18–23. Archived fromthe originalon 20 July 2009.(PDF version) Cf. especially section on "The Alfonso X 'Book of Games'".
- Liuzzo Scorpo, Antonella (2011), "Religious Frontiers and Overlapping Cultural Borders: The Power of Personal and Political Exchanges in the Works of Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284)",Al-Masaq,23(3): 217–236,doi:10.1080/09503110.2011.623910,S2CID145264164
- Márquez, Francisco (1994),El concepto cultural alfonsí[Alphonso cultural concept] (in Spanish), Madrid: MAPFRE
- Martínez, H. Salvador (2010),Alfonso X, the Learned: A Biography,Leiden: Brill
- Remensnyder, Amy G. (2011), "The Virgin and the King: Alfonso X's Cantigas de Santa Maria", in Jason Glenn (ed.),The Middle Ages in Texts and Texture: Reflections on Medieval Sources,Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 285–298
- Thomas, Phillip Drennon (1970)."Alfonso el Sabio".Dictionary of Scientific Biography.Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 122.ISBN978-0-684-10114-9.
- Samsó, Julio (2007)."Alfonso X".In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.).The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers.New York: Springer. pp. 29–31.ISBN978-0-387-31022-0.(PDF version)
- Weiler, Björn (2007), "Kings and Sons: Princely Rebellions and the Structures of Revolt in Western Europe, c.1170–c.1280",Historical Research,82(215): 17–40,doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00450.x
- Kennedy, Kirstin (2019).Alfonso X of Castile-León: royal patronage, self -promotion and manuscripts in thirteenth-century Spain.Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.ISBN978-946-2988-972.
- Velasco, Jesús R. (2020).Dead Voice: Law, Philosophy, and Fiction in the Iberian Middle Ages.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0812251869.
External links
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
- Lewis E 245 Fuero real (Royal municipal code) at OPenn
- Cantigas de Santa Maria
- Alphonso X – Book of Games
- Cantigas de Santa María,Códice rico, Real Biblioteca del Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial, MS T-I-1,link to manuscript
- Libros del Saber de AstronomíaArchived14 January 2009 at theWayback Machine– Images of manuscript from 1276.
- Free scores by Alfonso X of Castileat theInternational Music Score Library Project(IMSLP)
- Free scores by Alfonso X of Castilein theChoral Public Domain Library(ChoralWiki)
- Alfonso X de Castilla y León,atCancioneros Musicales Españoles[permanent dead link].
- Works by or about Alfonso X of Castileat theInternet Archive
- Works by Alfonso X of CastileatLibriVox(public domain audiobooks)
- 1221 births
- 1284 deaths
- 13th-century Kings of the Romans
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- People associated with astronomy
- Burials at Seville Cathedral
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- Anti-kings
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- 13th century in chess
- Medieval male composers
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