Alpine skiing

"Alpine ski" and "Ski slope" redirect here. For the 1981 video game, seeAlpine Ski.For resorts that offer skiing activities, seeSki resort.

Alpine skiers

Alpine skiing,ordownhill skiing,is the pastime of sliding downsnow-covered slopes onskiswith fixed-heelbindings,unlike other types ofskiing(cross-country,Telemark,orski jumping), which use skis with free-heel bindings. Whether forrecreationor forsport,it is typically practiced atski resorts,which provide such services asski lifts,artificialsnow making,snow grooming,restaurants,andski patrol.

"Off-piste"skiers—those skiing outside ski area boundaries—may employsnowmobiles,helicoptersorsnowcatsto deliver them to the top of a slope.Back-country skiersmay use specialized equipment with a free-heel mode, including 'sticky'skinson the bottoms of the skis to stop them sliding backwards during an ascent, then locking the heel and removing the skins for their descent.

Alpine ski racing has been held at theWinter Olympicssince1936.A competition corresponding to modernslalomwas introduced inNorwayatOsloin 1886.

Participants and venues

Alpine ski slope in theZillertalvalley,Austria

Alpine ski slopes inSan Carlos de Bariloche(Argentina)

As of 2023, there were estimated to be 55 million people worldwide who engaged in alpine skiing. The estimated number of skiers, who practiced alpine,cross-country skiing,and related snow sports, amounted to 30 million in Europe, 20 million in North America, and 14 million in Japan. As of 1996, there were reportedly 4,500 ski areas, operating 26,000 ski lifts and enjoying skier visits. The predominant region for downhill skiing was Europe, followed by Japan and the US.

History

The ancient origins of skiing can be traced back to prehistoric times inRussia,Finland,SwedenandNorwaywhere varying sizes and shapes of wooden planks were found preserved inpeat bogs.The wordskiis related to theOld Norsewordskíð,which means "split piece of wood or firewood."Skis were first invented to cross wetlands and marshes in the winter when they froze over. Skiing was an integral part of transportation in colder countries for thousands of years. In the 1760s, skiing was recorded as being used in military training. The Norwegian army held skill competitions involving skiing down slopes, around trees and obstacles while shooting.The birth of modern alpine skiing is often dated to the 1850s, and during the late 19th century, skiing was adapted from a method of transportation to a competitive and recreational sport.Norwegian legendSondre Norheimfirst began the trend of skis with curved sides, and bindings with stiff heel bands made ofwillow.Norheim also trended theslalomturn style.The wooden skis designed by Norheim closely resemble the shape of modern slalom skis.Norheim was the champion of the first downhill skiing competition, reportedly held inOslo, Norwayin 1868.Norheim impressed spectators when he used thestem christieinChristiania(Oslo) in 1868, the technique was originally calledchristiania turn(norwegian:christianiasvingorkristianiasving) after the city (first printed in 1901 in guidelines for ski jumping). The telemark turn was the alternative technique. The christiania turn later developed intoparallel turnas the standard technique in alpine skiing.

The term "slalom" is from Norwegian dialectsslalåmmeaning a trail (låm) on a slope (sla).In Telemark in the 1800s, the steeper and more difficult trails were calledville låmir(wild trails). Skiing competitions inTelemarkoften began on a steep mountain, continued along a logging-slides (tømmerslepe) and was completed with a sharp turn (Telemark turn) on a field or frozen lake. This type of competition used the natural and typical terrain in Telemark. Some races were on "bumpy courses" (kneikelåm) and sometimes included "steep jumps" (sprøytehopp) for difficulty.The first known slalom competitions were presumably held in Telemark around 1870 in conjunction withski jumpingcompetitions, involving the same athletes and on slopes next to the ski jump.Husebyrennetfrom 1886 includedsvingrenn(turning competition on hills), the termslalåmhad not been introduced at that time.Slalomwas first used at a skiing competition inSonnenbergin 1906.Two to three decades later, the sport spread to the rest of Europe and the US. The first slalom ski competition occurred inMürren,Switzerlandin 1922.

Technique

A skier following thefall linewill reach the maximum possible speed for that slope. A skier with skis pointed perpendicular to the fall line, across the hill instead of down it, will accelerate more slowly. The speed of descent down any given hill can be controlled by changing the angle of motion in relation to the fall line, skiing across the hill rather than down it.

Downhill skiing technique focuses on the use of turns to smoothly turn the skis from one direction to another. Additionally, the skier can use the same techniques to turn the ski away from the direction of movement, generating skidding forces between the skis and snow which further slow the descent. Good technique results in a fluid flowing motion from one descent angle to another one, adjusting the angle as needed to match changes in the steepness of the run. This looks more like a single series of S's than turns followed by straight sections.

Stemming

Main article:Stem (skiing)

The oldest and still common type of turn on skis is the stem, angling the tail of the ski off to the side, while the tips remain close together. In doing so, the snow resists passage of the stemmed ski, creating a force that retards downhill speed and sustains a turn in the opposite direction. When both skis are stemmed, there is no net turning force, only retardation of downhill speed.

Carving

Main article:Carve turn

Carving is based on the shape of the ski itself; when the ski is rotated onto its edge, the pattern cut into its side causes it to bend into an arc. The contact between the arc of the ski edges and the snow naturally causes the ski to tend to move along that arc, changing the skiers direction of motion.

Checking

This is an advanced form of speed control by increasing the pressure on one inside edge (for example the right ski), then releasing the pressure and shifting immediately to increasing the other inside edge (the left ski). Then repeat if necessary. Each increased pressure slows the speed. Alternating right and left allows the skis to remain parallel and point ahead without turning. The increase and release sequence results in the up and down motions of the upper body. Some skiers go down the top of moguls and control the speed by checking at the tops. This is how they can practically go straight down the fall line without gaining speed.

Snowplough turn

Main article:Snowplough turn

The snowplough turn is the simplest form of turning and is usually learned by beginners. To perform the snowplough turn one must be in the snowplough position while going down the ski slope. While doing this they apply more pressure to the inside of the opposite foot of which the direction they would like to turn. This type of turn allows the skier to keep a controlled speed and introduces the idea of turning across the fall line.

Equipment

Four groups of different ski types, from left to right:
1. Non-sidecut: cross-country, telemark and mountaineering
2. Parabolic
3. Twin-tip
4. Powder

Skis

Main article:Ski § Alpine

Modern alpine skis are shaped to enable carve turning, and have evolved significantly since the 1980s, with variants including powder skis, freestyle skis, all-mountain skis, and children's skis.Powder skisare usually used when there is a large amount of fresh snow; the shape of a powder ski is wide, allowing the ski to float on top of the snow, compared to a normal downhill ski which would most likely sink into the snow. Freestyle skis are used by skiers who ski terrain parks. These skis are meant to help a skier who skis jumps, rails, and other features placed throughout the terrain park. Freestyle skis are usually fully symmetric, meaning they are the same dimensions from the tip of the ski to the backside (tail) of the ski. All-mountain skis are the most common type of ski, and tend to be used as a typical alpine ski. All-mountain skis are built to do a little bit of everything; they can be used in fresh snow (powder) or used when skiing groomed runs. Slalom race skis, usually referred to as race skis, are short, narrow skis, which tend to be stiffer because they are meant for those who want to go fast as well as make quick sharp turns.

Bindings

Main articles:Ski binding § Alpine,andSki binding § History

The binding is a device used to connect the skier's boot to the ski. The purpose of the binding is to allow the skier to stay connected to the ski, but if the skier falls the binding can safely release them from the ski to prevent injury. There are two types of bindings: the heel and toe system (step-in) and the plate system binding.

Boots

Main article:Ski boot § Alpine

Ski boots are one of the most important accessories to skiing. They connect the skier to the skis, allowing them full control over the ski. When ski boots first came about they were made of leather and laces were used. The leather ski boots started off as low-cut, but gradually became taller, allowing for more ankle support, as injuries became more common. Eventually the tied laces were replaced with buckles and the leather boots were replaced with plastic. This allowed the bindings to be more closely matched to the fit of the boot, and offer improved performance. The new plastic model contained two parts of the boots: an inner boot and an outer shell. The inner part of the boot (also called the liner) is the cushioning part of the boot and contains a footbed along with a cushion to keep a skier's foot warm and comfortable. The outer shell is the part of the boot that is made of plastic and contains the buckles. Most ski boots contain a strap at shin level to allow for extra strength when tightening the boots.

Poles

Main article:Ski pole

Ski poles, one in each hand, are used for balance and propulsion.

Helmet

Main article:Ski helmet

Ski helmets reduce the chances of head injury while skiing. Ski helmets also help to provide warmth to the head since they incorporate an inner liner that traps warmth. Helmets are available in many styles, and typically consist of a hard plastic/resin shell with inner padding. Modern ski helmets may include many additional features such as vents, earmuffs, headphones, goggle mounts, and camera mounts.

Protective gear

The protective gear used in alpine skiing includes: helmets, mouth guards, shin guards, chin guards, arm guards, back protectors, pole guards, and padding. Mouth guards can reduce the effects of a concussion and protect the teeth of the athlete. Shin guards, pole guards, arm guards and chin guards are mainly used in slalom skiing in order to protect the body parts having impact with the gates. Back protectors and padding, also known as stealth, is worn for giant slalom and other speed events in order to better protect the body if an athlete were to have an accident at high speeds.

Marcel Hirschercompeting in thecombined slalomat theWorld Championshipsin2017

Competition

Elite competitive skiers participate in theFISWorld Cup,theWorld Championships,and theWinter Olympics.Broadly speaking, competitive skiing is divided into two disciplines:

• Racing, comprisingslalom,giant slalom,super giant slalom,combined,anddownhill,parallel slalomandparallel giant slalom.
• Freestyle skiing,incorporating events such asmoguls,aerials,halfpipe,andski cross.

Other disciplines administered by the FIS but not usually considered part of alpine arespeed skiingandgrass skiing.

Ski trail ratings

Main article:Piste § Ratings

In most ski resorts,the runs are graded according to comparative difficulty so that skiers can select appropriate routes. The grading schemes around the world are related, although with significant regional variations. A beginner-rated trail at a large mountain may be more of an intermediate-rated trail on a smaller mountain.

Ski trails are measured by percent slope, not degree angle. (North America)

European piste rating system (blue, red, black)

In the United States and Canada, there are four rating symbols: Easy (green circle), Intermediate (blue square), and Difficult (black diamond), and Experts Only (double black diamond) Ski trail difficulty is measured by percent slope, not degree angle. A 100% slope is a 45-degree angle. In general, beginner slopes (green circle) are between 6% and 25%. Intermediate slopes (blue square) are between 25% and 40%. Difficult slopes (black diamond) are 40% and up. Although slope gradient is the primary consideration in assigning a trail difficulty rating, other factors come into play. A trail will be rated by its most difficult part, even if the rest of the trail is easy.Ski resortsassign ratings to their own trails, rating a trail compared only with other trails at that resort. Also considered are width of the trail, sharpest turns, terrain roughness, and whether the resort regularlygroomsthe trail.

Safety

In 2014, there were more than 114,000 alpine skiing-related injuries treated in hospitals, doctor's offices, and emergency rooms. The most common types of ski injuries are those of the knee, head, neck and shoulder area, hands and back. Ski helmets are highly recommended by professionals as well as doctors. Head injuries caused in skiing can lead to death or permanent brain damage.In alpine skiing, for every 1000 people skiing in a day, on average between two and four will require medical attention. Most accidents are the result of user error leading to an isolated fall.Learning how to fall correctly and safely can reduce the risk of injury.

Health

According to a 2004Harvard Medical Schoolstudy, alpine skiing burns between 360 and 532 calories per hour.

Climate change

Winter season lengths are projected to decline at ski areas across North America and Europe due to theeffects of global warming.In the United States, winter season lengths are projected to decline by more than 50 percent by 2050 and by 80 percent by 2090 if greenhouse gas emissions continue at current rates.About half of the 103 ski resorts in theNortheastern United Statesoperating in 2012 may not be able to maintain an economically viable ski season by 2050.In Europe, half of the glacial ice in theAlpshas melted and theEuropean Geosciences Unionprojects snowpack in the mountains could decline 70 percent by 2100 (however, if humans manage to keep global warming below 2 °C, the snow-cover reduction would be limited to 30 percent by 2100).

See also

• Para-alpine skiing
• Skiboarding

External links

• Alpine Canada Alpin– Alpine Canada Alpin, National Governing Body for Ski Racing within Canada
• U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association– The National Governing Body for Ski Racing
• U.S. Ski Team– Bio information and stories on U.S. elite athletes
• Retro Ski – ski history
• Alpine Ski Database
• Colorado Ski Museum