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Illustration fromPhillip Medhurst CollectiondepictingJoshuafighting Amalek (Exodus 17).

Amalek(/ˈæməlɛk/;[1]Biblical Hebrew:עֲמָלֵק‎,romanized:ʿĂmālēq) is described in theHebrew Bibleas the enemy nation of theIsraelites.The name "Amalek" can refer to the descendants of Amalek, the grandson ofEsau,or anyone who lived in their territories inCanaan,[2][3][4]orNorth Africandescendants ofHam,the son ofNoah.[5]

Etymology

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In some rabbinical interpretations, Amalek is etymologised asam lak,'a people who lick (blood)',[6]but most scholars regard the origin to be unknown.[7]

Some Arabian stories mention an Arab tribe called "Amaliq" that existed at the time ofIslamicprophetIshmael,[8]but it is not clear if this is the same tribe.

In the Hebrew Bible

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"Amalekites" redirects here. For Amalekites in the Book of Mormon, seeAmalekites (Book of Mormon).

According to the Hebrew Bible, Amalek was the son ofEliphaz(himself the son ofEsau,ancestor of theEdomitesand the brother ofIsrael) and Eliphaz'sconcubineTimna. Timna was aHoriteand sister ofLotan.[2]According to amidrash,Timna was a princess who tried to convert to Judaism. However, she was rejected byAbraham,IsaacandJacob.She replied she would rather be a handmaiden to the dregs of Israel than be a mistress of another gentile nation. To punish the Patriarchs for their attitudes, Timna birthed Amalek, whose descendants would cause Israel much distress. Amalek was also the product of an incestuous union since Eliphaz was Timna's stepfather, according to 1 Chronicles 1:36,[9]after he committed adultery with the wife of Seir the Horite, who was Timna's biological father.[10][11]First-century Roman-Jewish scholar and historianFlavius Josephusrefers to Amalek as a "bastard" (νόθος) in a derogatory sense.[12]

Battle with the Amalekites,byJulius Schnorr von Carolsfeld(1860), representing Exodus 17:8–16.

Amalekites

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Amalek is described in Genesis 36:16[13]as the "chief of Amalek" among the "chiefs of the sons of Esau", from which it is surmised that he ruled a clan or territory named after him. In the oracle ofBalaam,Amalek was called the "first of the nations".[14]One modern scholar believes this attests to Amalek's high antiquity,[15]while traditional commentatorRashistates: "He came before all of them to make war with Israel".[16]TheAmalekites(/ˈæməlɛkaɪts/)[17]were claimed to be Amalek's descendants through the genealogy of Esau.[18]

According to the Hebrew Bible, the Amalekites inhabited theNegevandSinai.[3]They appear to have lived anomadicor seminomadic lifestyle along the fringes of southernCanaan's agricultural zone.[4]This is probably based on the association of this tribal group with the steppe region of ancient Israel and the area ofKadesh(Genesis14:7).

As a people, the Amalekites are identified throughout the Hebrew Bible as a recurrent enemy of the Israelites:[18]

  • In Exodus 17:8–16,[19]duringthe Exodus from Egypt,the Amalekites ambush the Israelites encamped atRephidim,but are defeated.MosesordersJoshuato lead the Israelites into battle, while Moses,AaronandHurwatch from a nearby hill. When Moses' hands holding his staff are raised, the Israelites prevail, but when his hands are lowered, the Israelites falter. He sits with his hands held up by Aaron and Hur until sunset, securing the Israelite victory.
  • In Deuteronomy 25:17–19,[20]The Israelites are specifically commanded to "blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven"once they have taken possession of thePromised Landin retribution for "what Amalek did to [them] on the way as [they] were coming out of Egypt", a reference to the Amalekite ambush on the Israelites at Rephidim. Earlier, in Deuteronomy 7:1–16[21]and Deuteronomy 25:16–18,[22]they are commanded to utterly destroy all the inhabitants of the idolatrous cities in the promised land and their livestock; scripture purports thatKing Saulultimately loses favor withYahwehfor failing to kill KingAgagand the best livestock of the Amalekites in 1 Samuel 15[23]in defiance of these commandments.
  • In Numbers 14:45,[24]the Amalekites and Canaanites kill a group of Israelites that tried to enter the hill country of theAmoriteswithout Moses's permission.
  • In Judges 3:13,[25]Amalek, and theirMoabiteandAmmoniteallies, defeat Israel so that the Moabites could oppress them. Judges 10:11–13[26]confirms Amalek as being one of the many oppressors of Israel.
  • In Judges 6:1–6,[27]Amalek, and theirMidianiteallies, destroy Israelite farms "as far asGaza",inducing a famine. They also help the Midianites wage wars against Israel, according to Judges 6:32–34[28]and Judges 7:11–13.[29]
  • In 1 Samuel 15:1–9,[30]Samuel identifies Amalek as the enemy of Israelites, saying "Thus says the Lord of hosts: I will punish Amalek for what he did to Israel, how he ambushed him on the way when he came up from Egypt," a reference to Exodus.[31]God then commands Saul to destroy the Amalekites, by killing man, woman, infant and suckling.[32]This massacre is believed to be a retelling of the raids in 1 Samuel 14:48,[33][34]although it additionally specifies that it occurred in the "city of Amalek", which was believed to be the "principal place of arms"[35]or the "metropolis" of Amalek.[36]In 1 Samuel 15:33,[37]Samuel identifies kingAgagof Amalek as an enemy and killer, saying "As your sword has made women childless, so shall your mother be childless among women."
  • In 1 Samuel 27:8–9,[38]Davidand his men conduct raids against the Amalekites and theirGeshuriteand Gezirite allies. He kills every man and woman but takes sheep, cattle, donkey, camels and clothing. These Amalekites were theorized to be refugees who fled from Saul or a separate Amalekite faction that dwelt to the south of Israel. Gili Kluger believes these narratives were anti-Saul propaganda, designed to make him appear weak compared to David, since no losses were attributed to David.[39]
  • According to 1 Samuel 30:1–2,[40]the Amalekites invaded theNegevandZiklagin theJudean/Philistineborder area towards the end of the reign ofKing Saul,burningZiklagand taking its citizens away into captivity.Davidled a successful mission against the Amalekites to recover "all that the Amalekites had carried away".[41]
  • In 2 Samuel 1:5–10,[42]an Amalekite tells David that he found Saul leaning on his spear after thebattle of Gilboa.The Amalekite claims he euthanized Saul, at Saul's request, and removed his crown. David gives orders to his men to kill the Amalekite for killing theanointedking, believing him to be guilty by admission.[43]
  • In 1 Chronicles 4:43,[44]the Simeonites kill the remaining survivors of Amalek and live in their settlements.
  • In Psalm 83:7,[45]Amalek joins Israel's other historic enemies in annihilating Israel. Their attempts are thwarted by God. Although most scholars believe the passage refers to a real historical event, they are unsure which event it should be identified with.[46]One likely answer is that it occurred during the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the 9th to 7th centuries BC.[47]

Interpretation

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Judaism

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"Davidster" (Star of David) by Dick Stins is aHolocaust memorialinThe Hague.The text at the side (in Dutch and Hebrew) is fromDeuteronomy25:17, 19 – "Remember what Amalek has done to you... do not forget."

In theMishneh Torah,Rambamderives three commandments, two positive and one negative, related to references to Amalek in theTorah:

# Type Commandment Source
59 Negative Not to forget the wicked deeds which Amalek perpetrated against us[48] "Do not forget" (Deut. 25:19)
188 Positive To exterminate the seed of Amalek[49] "You shall blot out the memory of Amalek" (Deut. 25:19)
189 Positive To constantly remember what Amalek did to us[50] "Remember what Amalek did to you" (Deut. 25:17)

Many rabbinic authorities such asMaimonidesruled that the commandment only applies to a Jewish king or an organized community, and cannot be performed by an individual.[51]According toRashi,the Amalekites were sorcerers who could transform themselves to resemble animals, in order to avoid capture. Thus, in1 Samuel 15:3,it was considered necessary to destroy the livestock when destroying Amalek.[52]According toHaggahot Maimuniyyot,the commandment only applies to thefuture messianic eraand not in present times; this limitation is widely supported by medieval authorities.[53]

Maimonides elaborates that when the Jewish people wage war against Amalek, they must request the Amalekites to accept theSeven Laws of Noahand pay a tax to the Jewish kingdom. If they refuse, they are to be executed.[54]

Other Talmudic commentators argued that the calls to spare no Amalekite or "blot out their memory" were metaphorical[55]and did not require the actual killing of Amalekites. RabbiSamson Raphael Hirschsaid that the command was to destroy "the remembrance of Amalek" rather than actual Amalekites.[56]TheSfat Emetinterpreted the command as fully hating Amalek, without performing any physical action.[57]TheChofetz Chaimsaid that God would perform the elimination of Amalek and that Jews only need to remember what Amalek did to them.[58]

Isaac S.D. Sassoonbelieves that thecheremcommands existed to prevent the Jewish community from being endangered but believes people should think twice before literally following them.[59]Nathan Lopes Cardazo argues that the Torah's ethically questionable laws were intentional since they were a result of God working with an underdeveloped world. He believes that God appointed theSagesto help humanity evolve in their understanding of the Torah.[60]

Christianity

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TheologianCharles Ellicottexplains that the Amalekites were subject tocheremin the Book of Samuel for the purposes ofincapacitation,due to their 'accursed' nature and the threat they posed to the commonwealth of surrounding nations.[61]Matthew Henryconsiders thecheremto be defensive warfare since the Amalekites were invaders.[62]John Gilldescribes the cherem as thelaw of retaliationbeing carried out.[63]

According to Christian Hofreiter, almost all Christian authorities and theologians have historically interpreted thecherempassages literally. He states that "there is practically no historical evidence that anyone in the Great Church" viewed them as being purely an allegory. In particular,Augustine,Thomas AquinasandJohn Calvinhave defended a literal reading of these passages at length.Origenof Alexandria is sometimes cited as having viewed thecherempassages allegorically; Hofreiter argues that although Origen prioritized a spiritual interpretation of the Bible, he did not deny that theherempassages described historical events.[64]

Paul Copanargues that thecheremcommands were hyperbolic since the passages containmerismssuch as "man and woman"[65]and Near Easterners valued "bravado and exaggeration" when reporting warfare.[66][67]Kluger believes this is an earnest attempt to absolve the Israelites, and their God, of moral responsibility. Nonetheless, she argues Copan's interpretation still "normalizes mass violence" and "hostility towards targeted groups".[39]

Islam

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Ibn Khaldūnbelieved that God orderedSaul,the king of Israel, to depose the Amalekites, which causedHaman's hostility to the Jews in theBook of Esther.[68]

Modern academia

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Some commentators have discussed the ethics of the commandment to exterminate all the Amalekites, including children, and the presumption ofcollective punishment.[69][70][71][72]It has also been described as genocidal, according togenocide scholarslikeNorman Naimark.[73][74][75][39]

Kluger believes that the extermination verses can be explained by the Israelites seeing the Amalekites as their "unwelcome brother" and the "rejected son",possessing all the negative qualities that the Israelites inherently saw within themselves, which Kluger sees as a form ofself-hatred.However, she notes that the Hebrew Bible is surprisingly neutral when describing the Amalekites and that the texts do not provide an adequate explanation on why they were singled out for complete annihilation, compared to the Egyptians and Canaanites for example.[39]

Ada Taggar-Cohen observes thatcheremcommands were not uncommon in the ancient Near East. Their purpose was to show that the deity was on the aggressor's side and that the enemy deserved said deity's wrath for their "sins". It also allowed kings to pursue militarist policies without taking moral responsibility.[76]

C. L. Crouch considers thecheremcommands to be an exceptional component to Israelite and Judahite warfare since they were erratically applied, even in the early stages of national and ethnic identity formation. They were an extreme means to eradicate the threat of chaos. Similar attitudes were held byAssyrianrulers such asEsarhaddonandAssurbanipal.[77]

Historicity

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No reference to Amalek or the Amalekites has been found in surviving Egyptian and Assyrian monumental inscriptions and records, even though both groups recorded various tribes and peoples of the Levant in the relevant time period(s). Therefore,Hugo Wincklerconcluded that there were no Amalekites and that the Biblical stories concerning them were entirely ahistorical and mythological.[78]Although archaeological research has improved knowledge about nomadic Arabs, no specific artifact or site has been linked to Amalek with certainty.[4]

It is possible that some of the fortified settlements in the Negev highlands andTel Masos,which is nearBeer-shebaand possibly equivalent toHormah,[79]have Amalekite connections.[80]If this hypothesis is correct, it is likely that Saul's anti-Amalekite campaigns were motivated by a strategic desire to wrest control of copper production at Tel Masos. Copper was valuable to the early Israelites and their theology and ritual.[81]

Archaeological evidence from theTell el-Qudeiratfortress and Horvat Haluqim in the Negev, dated to the late 11th to early 10th century BC, could corroborate with the Biblical Israelite-Amalekite confrotations, during the reigns ofSaulandDavid.Bruins discovered that their inhabitants weresemi-nomadicagro-pastoralists.They lived in tents, rode camels, participated in the copper trade and worshipped gods atmasseboth shrines.Oval fortresses were built during the relevant timeframe. However, other scholars argue that these settlements were inhabited byEdomitesorSimeonites.[82]

Alternative theories of origin

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Gustave Doré,The Death of Agag."Agag" may have been the hereditary name of the Amalekite kings. The one depicted was killed bySamuel(1 Samuel 15).

InGenesis 14:7,the "field of the Amalekites" is mentioned, but the person who is named Amalek was not born yet.

Some commentators claim that this passage is a reference to the territory which was later inhabited by the Amalekites.[83]C. Knightelaborates this concept by making a comparison: one might say "Caesarwent intoFrance",though Gaul only later became known as France.[5]

John Gill believes the Amalekites ofGenesis 14:7were equivalent to the Hamite-Arabian Amalekites described by Muslim scholars. He argues the Amalekites were always allied with the Canaanites who descended from Ham, were conquered by theShemiteChedorlaomer,existed before the Edomite Amalekites thus affirmingNumbers 24:20,and that the Edomites never rescued these Amalekites from Saul's campaigns due to inter-tribal feuds.[84]

By the 19th century, many Western theologians believed that the nation of Amalek could have flourished before the time of Abraham.Matthew George Eastontheorized that the Amalekites were not the descendants of Amalek by taking aliteral approachtoGenesis 14:7.[85]However, the modern biblical scholar Gerald L. Mattingly usestextual analysisto glean that the use ofAmalekiteinGenesis 14:7is actually ananachronism,[4]and in the early 19th century,Richard Watsonenumerated several speculative reasons for the existence of a "more ancient Amalek" than Abraham.[86]

In hisexegesisofNumbers 24:20,concerning Balaam's utterance: "Amalek was the first one of the nations, but his end afterward will be even his perishing", Richard Watson attempts to associate this passage to the "first one of the nations" that developedpost-Flood.[86]According toSamuel Cox,the Amalekites were the "first" in their hostility toward the Israelites.[87]

Abrahamic traditions

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Jewish traditions

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Amalek is the archetypal enemy of the Jews and the symbol of evil inJewish religionandfolklore.[88]Nur Masalha,Elliot Horowitz, and Josef Stern suggest that the Amalekites represent an "eternally irreconciliable enemy" that wants to murder Jews. In post-biblical times, Jews associated contemporary enemies with Amalek or Haman and, occasionally, believed pre-emptive violence is acceptable against such enemies.[89]Groups identified with Amalek include theRomans,Nazis,Stalinists,ISIS,[90]and bellicose Iranian leaders such asMahmoud Ahmadinejad.[91][92]More metaphorically, to someHasidicrabbis(particularly theBaal Shem Tov), Amalek representsatheismor thecynicalrejection of God, which leads tounethical hedonism.This is sometimes known as the "Amalekite doctrine".[93]In contemporary times, religious Jews associate Amalek withviolent antisemites,[89][94]nihilismandJewish doubt in God.[93]

During thePurim festival,theBook of Estheris read in commemoration of the salvation of Jewish people fromHaman,who plotted to kill allJews in Persian Empire.It is customary for the audience to make noise and shout whenever "Haman" is mentioned, in order to desecrate his name, based onExodus 17:14.It is also customary to reciteDeuteronomy 25:17–18on theShabbat before Purim.This was because Haman was considered to be an Amalekite although this label is more likely to be symbolic rather than literal.[95][94][96]Some Iranophilic Jews interpreted Haman's Amalekite background as being anathema to both Jews and 'pure-blooded Iranians'.[68]

Christian traditions

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Early Church fathers such asJustin Martyr,IrenaeusandCyprianconsider the defeat of Amalek inExodus 17:8–13to be reminiscent ofJesusdefeating the powers of thedevilat thecross.Origen sees the battle as an allegory of theLawmysteriously invokingChrist,who recruits strong people (i.e.Christians) to defeat the demonic Strong Man, as described inEphesians 6:12.[97]

John Gill believes that Amalek is a type ofantichristthat 'raises his hand against the throne of God, his tabernacle and his saints'. He believes the phrase "from generation to generation" inExodus 17:16specifically refers to theMessianic Age,where Amalek and other antichristian states are exterminated by theLamb.[98]Likewise, Charles Ellicott notes that the Amalekites were collectively called 'the sinners' in1 Samuel 15:18,which was only used elsewhere for theSodomitesinGenesis 13:13.[99]

Carl Friedrich KeilandFranz Delitzschstate that the Amalekites were extinct by the second half of Hezekiah's reign.[100]

Professor Philip Jenkins notes that Christian extremists have historically labelled enemies such as Native Americans, Protestants, Catholics and Tutsis as Amalekites to justify their genocides.[101]Jews and victims of the Crusades were also called Amalekites. Because of this, modern Christian scholars have re-examined the Biblical narratives that inspired these atrocities using philology, literary analysis, archaeology and historical evidence.[39]

Islamic traditions

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Islamic commentators believe the Amalekites were an ancient Arabian tribe. The monotheisticIshmaelitesevangelized to them inMeccaand later, supplanted their population. However, the paganism of the Amalekites and other Arabian tribes negatively influenced the Ishmaelites, including their approach to theKaaba.[8]

Adam J. Silverstein observes that most of the medieval Muslim world ignored the Book of Esther or modified its details, despite their familiarity with the Persian Jewish community. This was caused by their attempt to reconcile the Biblical Esther with theQuranic Haman,who was the antagonist of theExodus narrative,and Persian mythological historical traditions. Notable exceptions includeIbn Khaldūn,who affirmed the Amalekite origins of Haman and his antisemitic vendetta.[68]

Modern usage

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Rabbis generally agree that Amalekites no longer exist, based on the argument thatSennacheribdeported and mixed the nations, so it is no longer possible to determine who is an Amalekite.[102]

Since the Holocaust, the phrase as it appears inDeuteronomy 25:17is used as a call to witness.Yad Vashem,Israel's memorial to the Holocaust, features the phrase on a banner, and in letters between European Jews during the Holocaust, they plead with each other to "bear witness".[55]

In modern Israel

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See also:Far-right politics in Israel

In theIsrael–Palestine conflict,some Israeli politicians and extremists have compared Palestinians to Amalek, stated that the Palestinians are the Amalekites[103][104]or accuse Arabs of exhibiting "behavior" that is "typical" of Amalekites.[105]Yasser Arafatwas called "the Amalek andHitlerof our generation "by 200 rabbis.[105]Many in theGush Emunimmovement see Arabs as the "Amalek of today".[106]One reason includes the belief that Amalek is any nation that preventsJewsfrom settling in theLand of Israel,which includes thePalestinians.[107]During the2014 Gaza war,a leadingyeshivaidentified Palestinians as the descendants of the ancient Amalekites andPhilistines.[107]Genealogically,Arabsare not related to Amalekites and prior to theArab–Israeli conflict,some Jews associated Amalek with theRoman Empireandmedieval Christians.[105]Conversely, someultra-Orthodoxgroups consider Zionists to be Amalekites due toZionist antisemitism.[108]

During the 2023–24Israel–Hamas war(beginning in October 2023),Benjamin Netanyahusaid that the Israeli government was "committed to completely eliminating this evil from the world", and he also stated: "You must remember what Amalek has done to you, says our Holy Bible. And we do remember".[109]At an argument to theInternational Court of Justiceaboutallegations of genocide in the 2023 Israeli attack on Gaza,South Africapresented the comments as inciting genocide against the Palestinian people. Netanyahu denied that was his intention, stating the South African accusation reflected a "deep historical ignorance" since he was referring toHamas,not Palestinians as a whole.[110][111]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^"Amalek".Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  2. ^abGenesis 36:12;1 Chronicles 1:36
  3. ^abNumbers 13:29
  4. ^abcdMattingly 2000,p. 48.
  5. ^abKnight 1833,p. 411.
  6. ^Patterson, David (2011).A Genealogy of Evil: Anti-Semitism from Nazism to Islamic Jihad.Cambridge University Press. pp. 43, 244.ISBN9781139492430.
  7. ^M. Weippert, Semitische Nomaden des zweiten Jahrtausends.Biblicavol. 55, 1974, 265-280, 427-433
  8. ^abAthamina, Khalil (2005)."Abraham in Islamic Perspective Reflections on the Development of Monotheism in Pre-Islamic Arabia".Der Islam.81(2): 193–196.doi:10.1515/islm.2004.81.2.184.S2CID170567885– via De Gruyter.
  9. ^1 Chronicles 1:36
  10. ^Ginzberg, Louis (1913).The Legends of the Jews.pp. 422–423.
  11. ^For an Rabbanic explanation of Timna lineage seeKadari, Tamar (31 December 1999)."Timna, concubine of Eliphaz: Midrash and Aggadah".The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women.Retrieved16 January2022.
  12. ^Feldman 2004,p. 8–9.
  13. ^Genesis 36:16
  14. ^Numbers 24:20
  15. ^Macpherson, J. (2004) [1898]."Amalek".In Hastings, James (ed.).A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume I (Part I: A – Cyrus).Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific. pp. 77–79.ISBN9781410217226.
  16. ^Rashi[1]
  17. ^"Amalekite".Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  18. ^abMills 1997,p. 21.
  19. ^Exodus 17:8–16
  20. ^Deuteronomy 25:17–19
  21. ^Deuteronomy 7:1–16
  22. ^Deuteronomy 25:16–18
  23. ^1 Samuel 15
  24. ^Numbers 14:45
  25. ^Judges 3:13
  26. ^Judges 10:11–13
  27. ^Judges 6:1–6
  28. ^Judges 6:32–34
  29. ^Judges 7:11–13
  30. ^1 Samuel 15:1–9
  31. ^1 Samuel 15:2
  32. ^1 Samuel 15:3
  33. ^1 Samuel 14:48
  34. ^"1 Samuel 15: Matthew Poole Commentary".Biblehub.2024. Archived fromthe originalon January 23, 2024.
  35. ^"1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers".Biblehub.2024. Archived fromthe originalon January 23, 2024.
  36. ^"1 Samuel 15: Benson Commentary".Biblehub.2024. Archived fromthe originalon January 23, 2024.
  37. ^1 Samuel 15:33
  38. ^1 Samuel 27:8–9
  39. ^abcdeKugler 2020.
  40. ^1 Samuel 30:1–2
  41. ^1 Samuel 30:9–20
  42. ^2 Samuel 1:5–10
  43. ^2 Samuel 1:16
  44. ^1 Chronicles 4:43
  45. ^Psalm 83:7
  46. ^Black, Matthew, editor (1962),Peake's Commentary on the Bible,Camden, NJ: Thomas Nelson and Sons
  47. ^The New Jerome Biblical Commentary.Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990.ISBN0-13-614934-0.
  48. ^"Mishneh Torah, Negative Mitzvot".Sefaria.Retrieved15 January2024.
  49. ^"Mishneh Torah, Positive Mitzvot".Sefaria.Retrieved15 January2024.
  50. ^"Mishneh Torah, Positive Mitzvot".Sefaria.Retrieved15 January2024.
  51. ^Maimonides(Sefer Hamitzvot, end of positive commandments),Nachmanides(Commentary to Exodus 17:16), Sefer HaYereim (435), Hagahot Maimoniyot (Hilchot Melachim 5:5)
  52. ^Rashi,1 Samuel 15:3 commentary, The Rubin Edition,ISBN1-57819-333-8,p. 93
  53. ^Klapper, Aryeh (4 March 2020)."How Not to Talk About Amalek".The Times of Israel.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-04.Retrieved16 January2022.
  54. ^Mishneh Torah,Hilchot Melachim uMilchamot, 6:1 and 6:4
  55. ^abKampeas, Ron (2024-01-16)."Netanyahu rejects South Africa's claim that his quote about 'Amalek' was a call to genocide".Jewish Telegraphic Agency.Retrieved13 February2024.
  56. ^Commentary to Deuteronomy 25
  57. ^Shemot Zachor 646
  58. ^Introduction to positive commandments, Beer Mayim Hayim, letter Alef
  59. ^Sassoon, Isaac S.D. (May 14, 2015)."Obliterating Cherem".TheTorah.com.Archived fromthe originalon February 9, 2024.
  60. ^Cardazo, Nathan Lopes (October 19, 2016)."The Deliberately Flawed Divine Torah".TheTorah.com.Archived fromthe originalon February 12, 2024.
  61. ^"1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers".Biblehub.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-11-08.
  62. ^"1 Samuel 14: Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible".StudyLight.org.2022. Archived fromthe originalon January 23, 2024.
  63. ^"1 Samuel 15: Gill's Exposition".Biblehub.Archivedfrom the original on 2013-12-17.
  64. ^Hofreiter, Christian (16 February 2018).Making Sense of Old Testament Genocide: Christian Interpretations of Herem Passages.Oxford University Press. pp. 247–248.ISBN978-0-19-253900-7.
  65. ^Copan, Paul (2011).Is God a Moral Monster? Making Sense of the Old Testament God.Baker Books. pp. 175–176.ISBN978-0801072758.
  66. ^Copan, Paul (Fall 2010). "How Could God Command Killing the Canaanites?".Enrichment Journal:138–143.
  67. ^Copan, Paul (2022).Is God a Vindictive Bully? Reconciling Portrayals of God in the Old and New Testaments.Baker Academic. p. 205.ISBN978-1540964557.
  68. ^abcSilverstein, Adam J. (2018).Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands.Oxford University Press. pp. 39–63.ISBN978-0198797227.
  69. ^Harris, Michael J.Divine Command Ethics: Jewish and Christian perspectives.pp. 137–138.
  70. ^Elkins, Dov Peretz; Treu, Abigail.The Bible's Top Fifty Ideas: The essential concepts everyone should know.pp. 315–316.
  71. ^Sorabji, Richard; Rodin, David.The Ethics of War: Shared problems in different traditions.p. 98.
  72. ^Rogerson, John William; Carroll, M. Daniel.Theory and Practice in Old Testament Ethics.p. 92.
  73. ^Naimark, Norman M. (2017).Genocide: A World History.Oxford University Press. pp. 8–9.ISBN978-0-19-976526-3.
  74. ^Morriston, Wes (2012)."Ethical Criticism of the Bible: The Case of Divinely Mandated Genocide"(PDF).Sophia.51(1): 117–135.doi:10.1007/s11841-011-0261-5.S2CID159560414.
  75. ^Freeman, Michael (1994)."Religion, nationalism and genocide: ancient Judaism revisited".European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv für Soziologie.35(2): 259–282.doi:10.1017/S000397560000686X.ISSN0003-9756.JSTOR23997469.S2CID170860040.
  76. ^Taggar-Cohen, Ada (October 6, 2022)."War at the Command of the Gods".TheTorah.com.Archived fromthe originalon February 9, 2024.
  77. ^Crouch, C. L. (2009).War and Ethics in the Ancient Near East: Military Violence in Light of Cosmology and History(1st ed.). De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110223521.ISBN978-3110223514.
  78. ^Singer, Isidore (1901).The Jewish encyclopedia: a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day(2004 reprint ed.). Cornell University Library.ISBN978-1112115349.
  79. ^Aharon Kempinski,"Tel Masos: Its Importance in Relation to the Settlement of the Tribes of Israel in the Northern Negev,"Expedition Magazinevol. 20, issue 4 1978.
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  82. ^Bruins, Hendrik J. (2022)."Masseboth Shrine at Horvat Haluqim: Amalekites in the Negev Highlands-Sinai Region? Evaluating the Evidence"(PDF).Negev, Dead Sea and Arava Studies.14(2–4): 121–142.
  83. ^IncludingRashi
  84. ^"Genesis 14 Gill's Exposition".Biblehub.com.2024. Archived fromthe originalon February 12, 2024.
  85. ^Easton 1894,p. 35,Am'alekite.
  86. ^abWatson 1832,p. 50.
  87. ^Cox 1884,pp. 125–126.
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  89. ^ab*Masalha, Nur (2000).Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion.Pluto Press. pp. 129–131.
    • Stern, Josef (2004). "Maimonides on Amalek, Self-Corrective Mechanisms, and the War against Idolatry"".In Hartman, David; Malino, Jonathan W. (eds.).Judaism and modernity: the religious philosophy of David Hartman.Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 360–362.
    • Hunter, Alastair G. (2003). "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination". In Bekkenkamp, Jonneke; Sherwood, Yvonne (eds.).Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post-biblical vocabularies.Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 99–105.
  90. ^Horowitz, Elliott (2018).Reckless Rites: Purim and the Legacy of Jewish Violence.Princeton University Press.pp. 1–7.ISBN978-0-691-19039-6.
  91. ^Roth, Daniel."Shabbat Zachor:" Remember what Amalek did to you! "But why did he do it? Can we reconcile with our eternal sworn enemies?"Pardes from Jerusalem,18 Feb. 2018.Elmad by Pardes.
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  102. ^Eynei Kol Ḥai, 73, on Sanhedrin 96b. Also Minchat Chinuch, parshat Ki Tetze, mitzvah 434.
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  111. ^"Harsh Israeli rhetoric against Palestinians becomes central to South Africa's genocide case".Associated Press.18 January 2024.

Sources

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Further reading

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  • Sagi, Avi (1994).The Punishment of Amalek in Jewish Tradition: Coping with the Moral Problem,Harvard Theological Review Vol.87, No.3, p. 323-46.
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