Asante Empire

"Ashanti Empire" redirects here. For the modern-day region, seeAshanti Region.

Asante Empire Asanteman(Asante Twi)
1670/1701–1902 1935–1957 1957–present (asAshanti RegionwithinGhana)
National emblem
Map of the Asante Empire
Status	State unionwithGhana
Capital	Kumasi
Common languages	Asante(Twi)(official)
Religion	InitiallyAkan religion,later alsoChristianity
Government	Constitutional Elective Monarchy
• 1670–1717 (first)	Osei Tutu
• 1888–1896 (13th)	Prempeh I
• 1931–1957 (last)	Prempeh II
• 1999–present (Ashanti regionabsolute monarchynational statewithin Ghana)	Osei Tutu II
Legislature	Asante Kotoko (Council of Kumasi)and the Asantemanhyiamu (National Assembly)
History
• Established	1701
• Independence fromDenkyira	1701
• Annexed to form BritishAshanti Crown Colony	1901
• Self-rule within British colony	1935
•State unionAshanti Regionwith Ghana	1957
•State union	Present
Area
	259,000 km2(100,000 sq mi)
Population
•	3,000,000
Currency	Golddust Cowry shell (shell currency)
Preceded by Succeeded by Denkyira Bonoman Ashanti Crown Colony Ghana
Today part of	Ghana Ivory Coast Togo

TheAsante Empire(Asante Twi:Asanteman), also known as theAshanti Empire,was anAkanstate that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-dayGhana.It expanded from theAshanti Regionto include most of Ghana and also parts ofIvory CoastandTogo.Due to the empire'smilitary prowess,wealth,architecture,sophisticated hierarchyandculture,the Asante Empire has been extensively studied and has more historic records written by European, primarily British, authors than any other indigenous culture ofsub-Saharan Africa.

Starting in the late 17th century, the Asante kingOsei Tutu(c. 1695– 1717) and his adviserOkomfo Anokyeestablished the Asante Kingdom, with theGolden Stool of Asanteas a sole unifying symbol.Osei Tutu oversaw a massive Asante territorial expansion, building up the army by introducing new organisation and turning a disciplined royal and paramilitary army into an effective fighting machine.In 1701, the Ashanti army conqueredDenkyira,giving the Ashanti access to theGulf of Guineaand theAtlantic Oceancoastal trade with Europeans, notably theDutch.The economy of the Asante Empire was mainly based on the trade of gold and agricultural exportsas well asslave trading,craftwork and trade with markets furthernorth.

The Asante Empire fought several wars with neighboring kingdoms and lesser organized groups such as theFante.The Asante held their own against theBritishin the first two of the fiveAnglo-Ashanti Wars,killing British army generalSir Charles MacCarthyand keeping his skull as a gold-rimmed drinking cup in 1824. British forces later burnt and sacked the Asante capital ofKumasi,however, and following the final Asante defeat at the fifth Anglo-Ashanti War, the Asante empire became part of the Gold Coast colony on 1 January 1902. Today, the Asante Kingdom survives as a constitutionally protected, sub-nationaltraditional statein union with the Republic of Ghana. The current king of the Asante kingdom isOtumfuo Osei Tutu II Asantehene.The Asante kingdom is the home toLake Bosumtwi,Ghana's only natural lake. The state's current economic revenue is derived mainly from trading ingold bars,cocoa,kola nutsandagriculture.

Etymology and origins

Kente cloth, the traditional garment worn by Asante royalty, has been widely adopted throughout the Asante kingdom.

The nameAsantemeans "because of war". The word derives from theTwiwordsɔsameaning "war" andntimeaning "because of". This name comes from the Asante's origin as a kingdom created to fight theDenkyirakingdom.

The variant name "Ashanti" comes from British reports transcribing "Asante" as the British heard it pronounced,as-hanti.The hyphenation was subsequently dropped and the nameAshantiremained, with various spellings includingAshanteecommon into the early 20th century.

Between the 10th and 12th centuries AD, the ethnicAkan peoplemigrated into the forest belt of Southern Ghana and established several Akan states:Ashanti,Brong-Ahafo,Assin-Denkyira-Fante Confederacy-Mankessim Kingdom(present-dayCentral region),Akyem-Akwamu-Akuapem-Kwahu(present-dayEastern regionandGreater Accra), andAhanta-Aowin-Sefwi-Wassa(present-dayWestern region).

Asante had a flourishing trade with other African states due to the Asantegoldwealth. The Asante also traded enslaved people. At this time the trade of enslaved people was focused towards the north. The army served as the effective tool to procure captives.These captives from war would go to Hausa and Mande traders and would be exchanged for goods from North Africa and other European goods.When thegold minesin theSahelstarted to play out, the Asante kingdom rose to prominence as the major player in the gold trade.At the height of the Asante empire, the Asante people became wealthy through the trading of gold mined from their territory.

History

Foundation

Golden Stool(Sika dwa) in the Asante Kingdom, 1935

Asante political organization was originally centred onclansheaded by aparamount chiefor Omanhene.One particular clan, theOyoko,settled in the Asante's sub-tropical forest region, establishing a centre atKumasi.The Asante became tributaries of another Akan state,Denkyirabut in the mid-17th century the Oyoko under Chief Oti Akenten started consolidating the Asante clans into a looseconfederationagainst the Denkyira.

The introduction of theGolden Stool(Sika dwa) was a means of centralization under Osei Tutu. According to legend, a meeting of all the clan heads of each of the Asante settlements was called just prior to declaring independence from Denkyira. Those included members from Nsuta, Mampong, Dwaben, Bekwai and Kokofu.In this meeting the Golden Stool was commanded down from the heavens by Okomfo Anokye, chief-priest or sage advisor toAsanteheneOsei Tutu I and floated down from the heavens into the lap of Osei Tutu I. OkomfoAnokyedeclared the stool to be symbolic of the new Ashanti Union (the Ashanti Kingdom) and allegiance was sworn to the stool and to Osei Tutu as theAsantehene.The newly declared Ashanti union subsequently waged war against and defeated Denkyira.The stool remains sacred to the Asante as it is believed to contain theSunsum— spirit or soul of the Asante people.

Independence

In the 1670s the head of theOyokoclan,Osei Kofi Tutu I,began another rapid consolidation ofAkan peoplesvia diplomacy and warfare.King Osei Kofi Tutu I and his chief advisor, Okomfo Kwame FrimpongAnokyeled a coalition of influential Asante city-states against their mutual oppressor, theDenkyirawho held the Asante kingdom in its thrall. The Asante kingdom utterly defeated them at theBattle of Feyiase,proclaiming its independence in 1701. Subsequently, through hard line force of arms and savoir-faire diplomacy, the duo induced the leaders of the other Asante city-states to declare allegiance and adherence to Kumasi, the Asante capital. From the beginning, King Osei Tutu and priestAnokyefollowed an expansionist and an imperialistic provincial foreign policy. According to folklore, Okomfo Anokye is believed to have visitedAgona-Akrofonso.

Under Osei Tutu

Realizing the strengths of a loose confederation of Akan states, Osei Tutu strengthened centralization of the surrounding Akan groups and expanded the powers of the judiciary system within the centralized government. This loose confederation of small city-states grew into a kingdom and eventually an empire looking to expand its borders. Newly conquered areas had the option of joining the empire or becoming tributary states.Opoku Ware I,Osei Tutu's successor, extended the borders, embracing much of Ghana's territory.

European contact

European contact with the Asante on theGulf of Guineacoast region of Africa began in the 15th century. This led to trade ingold,ivory,slaves,and other goods with thePortuguese.On May 15, 1817, the EnglishmanThomas Bowdichentered Kumasi. He remained there for several months, was impressed, and on his return to England wrote a book,Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee.His praise of the kingdom was disbelieved as it contradicted prevailing prejudices.Joseph Dupuis,the first British consul in Kumasi, arrived on March 23, 1820. Both Bowdich and Dupuis secured a treaty with the Asantehene, but the governor, Hope Smith, did not meet Ashanti expectations.

British relations

English officers selecting quarters in the chief's palace atFomena.

From 1824 till 1899 there were fiveAnglo-Ashanti warsbetween the Asante Empire and Great Britain and its allies. The British lost or negotiated truces in several of these wars, with the final war resulting in British burning ofKumasiand official occupation of the Asante Empire in 1900. The wars were mainly due to Asante attempts to establish a stronghold over the coastal areas of present-day Ghana. Coastal peoples such as theFanteand theGacame to rely on British protection against Asante incursions.

In December 1895, the British leftCape Coastwith an expeditionary force to start what is known as theThird Anglo-Ashanti War,seebelow.The Asantehene directed the Asante to not resist the British advance, as he feared reprisals from Britain if the expedition turned violent. Shortly thereafter, GovernorWilliam Maxwellarrived in Kumasi as well.

Britainannexedthe territories of the Asante and the Fanti and constituted theAshanti Crown Colonyon 26 September 1901.Asantehene Agyeman Prempeh was deposed and arrested, and he and other Asante leaders were sent into exile in theSeychelles.The Asante Union was dissolved.ABritish Residentwas permanently placed in the city of Kumasi, and soon after a British fort was built there.

Uprisings of 1900 and since 1935

As a final measure of resistance, the remaining Asante court not exiled to the Seychelles mounted an offensive against the British Residents at the Kumasi Fort. The resistance was led by Asante queenYaa Asantewaa,Queen-Mother of Ejisu. From March 28 to late September 1900, the Asante and British were engaged in what would become known as theWar of the Golden Stool.In the end, the British were victorious; they exiled Asantewaa and other Asante leaders to the Seychelles to join Asante King Prempeh I.

In January 1902, Britain finally designated the Asante kingdom as aprotectorate.the Asante kingdom was restored to self-rule on 31 January 1935. Asante King Prempeh II was restored in 1957, and the Asante kingdom entered astate unionwith Ghana on independence from the United Kingdom.

Territorial history timeline

Government and politics

Main article:Political systems of the Asante Empire

The Asante state was a centralized state made up of a hierarchy of heads starting from the "AbusuaPanyin "who was head of a family or lineage. The family was the basic political unit in the empire. The family or lineage followed the village organization which was headed by theOdikro.All villages were then grouped together to form divisions headed by a divisional head calledOhene.The various divisions were politically grouped to form a state which was headed by anOmanheneorAmanhene.Finally, all Asante states formed the Asante Empire with the Asantehene as their king.

The Asante government was built upon a sophisticatedbureaucracyin Kumasi, with separateministriesto handle the state's affairs.Of particular note was Asante's Foreign Office based in Kumasi; despite its small size, it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers. The Office was divided into departments to handle relations separately with theBritish,French,Dutch,andArabs.Scholars of Ashanti history, such asLarry YarakandIvor Wilks,disagree over the power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the Asantehene, but agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system ofchecks and balances.

Administration

Asantehene

At the top of Asante's power structure sat theAsantehene,the King of Asante. Each Asantahene was enthroned on the sacred Golden Stool, the Sika 'dwa, an object that came to symbolise the very power of the King. Osei Kwadwo (r. 1764–1777) began themeritocraticsystem of appointing central officials according to their ability, rather than their birth.

As King, theAsanteheneheld immense power in Asante, but did not enjoyabsolute royal rule.He was obliged to share considerable legislative and executive powers with Asante's sophisticated bureaucracy. But theAsantehenewas the only person in Asante permitted to invoke thedeath sentencein cases of crime. During wartime, the King acted as Supreme Commander of theAsante army,although during the 19th century, the fighting was increasingly handled by the Ministry of War in Kumasi. Each member of the confederacy was also obliged to send annual tribute to Kumasi.

TheAsantehene(King of all Asante) reigned over all and was King of the division of Kumasi, the nation's capital, and the Asante Empire. He was elected in the same manner as all other chiefs. In this hierarchical structure, every chief or King swore fealty to the one above him—from village and subdivision, to division, to the chief of Kumasi, and finally theAsanteheneswore fealty to theState.

Theelderscircumscribed the power of theAsantehene,and the chiefs of other divisions considerably checked the power of the King. This in practical effect created a system of checks and balances. As the symbol of the nation, theAsantehenereceived significant deference ritually, for the context was religious in that he was a symbol of the people in the flesh: the living, dead or yet to be born. When the king committed an act not approved of by the counsel of elders or the people, he could possibly beimpeached,and demoted to a commoner.

The existence ofaristocraticorganizations and thecouncilof elders is evidence of anoligarchictendency in Asante political life. Though older men tended tomonopolizepolitical power, Asante instituted an organization of young men, thenmerante,that tended todemocratizeandliberalizethe political process in the empire. The council of elders undertook actions only after consulting a representative of thenmerante.Their views were taken seriously as they participated in decision-making in the empire.

Residence

Aban Palaceat the time of the Third Anglo-Ashanti War in 1874

Manhyia Palace. Current official residence of the Asantehene.

Former and current residences of Asantehene

The current residence of the Asantehene is theManhyia Palacebuilt in 1925 by the British and presented to thePrempeh Ias a present upon his return from exile. The original palace of the Asantehene in Kumasi was burned down by the British in 1874. From European accounts, the edifice was massive and ornately built. In 1819, English traveler and author,Thomas Edward Bowdichdescribed thepalace complexas

...an immense building of a variety of oblong courts and regular squares [with]entablaturesexuberantly adorned with bold fan and trellis work of Egyptian character. They have a suite of rooms over them, with small windows of wooden lattice, of intricate but regular carved work, and some have frames cased with thin gold. The squares have a large apartment on each side, open in front, with two supporting pillars, which break the view and give it all the appearance of the proscenium or front of the stage of the older Italian theaters. They are lofty and regular, and the cornices of a very bold cane-work in alto-relievo. A drop-curtain of curiously plaited cane is suspended in front, and in each, we observed chairs and stools embossed with gold, and beds of silk, with scattered regalia.

Winwood Readealso described his visit to the Asante Royal Palace of Kumasi in 1874: "We went to the king's palace, which consists of many courtyards, each surrounded with alcoves and verandahs, and having two gates or doors, so that each yard was a thoroughfare... But the part of the palace fronting the street was a stone house, Moorish in its style... with a flat roof and a parapet, and suites of apartments on the first floor. It was built by Fanti masons many years ago. The rooms upstairs remind me of Wardour Street. Each was a perfect Old Curiosity Shop. Books in many languages, Bohemian glass, clocks, silver plate, old furniture, Persian rugs, Kidderminster carpets, pictures and engravings, numberless chests and coffers. A sword bearing the inscription From Queen Victoria to the King of Ashantee. A copy of the Times, 17 October 1843. With these were many specimens of Moorish and Ashanti handicraft."

• 
  Odumata's Sleeping Room (1819).
• 
  Piazza in the Palace (1819).
• 
  Adum Street (1819).

Asanteman council

This institution assisted the Asantehene and served as an advisory body to the king. The council was made up ofAmanheneor paramount chiefs who were leaders of the various Asante states. The council also included other provincial chiefs. By law the Asantehene never ignored the decisions of the Asanteman council. Doing so could get him de-stooled from the throne.

Amanhene

The Asante Empire was made up of metropolitan and provincial states. The metropolitan states were made up of Asante citizens known asamanfo.The provincial states were other kingdoms absorbed into the empire. Every metropolitan Asante state was headed by theAmanheneor paramount chief. Each of these paramount chiefs served as principal rulers of their own states, where they exerted executive, legislative and judicial powers.

Ohene

TheOhenewere divisional chiefs under the Amanhene. Their major function was to advise the Amanhene. The divisional chiefs were the highest order in various Asante state divisions. The divisions were made up of various villages put together. Examples of divisional chiefs included Krontihene, Nifahene, Benkumhene, Adontenhene and Kyidomhene.

Odikuro

Each village in Asante had a chief called Odikro who was the owner of the village. The Odikro was responsible for the maintenance of law and order. He also served as a medium between the people of his jurisdiction, the ancestor and the gods. As the head of the village, the Odikro presided over the village council.

Queen

QueenYaa Asantewaaled her state,Ejisu,in theWar of the Golden Stoolagainst the British.

The queen orOhenemaawas an important figure in Asante political systems. She was the most powerful female in the Empire. She had the prerogative of being consulted in the process of installing a chief or the king, as she played a major role in the nomination and selection. She settled disputes involving women and was involved in decision-making alongside the Council of elders and chiefs.Not only did she participate in the judicial and legislative processes, but also in the making and unmaking of war, and the distribution of land.

Obirempon

Successful entrepreneurs who accumulated large wealth and men as well as distinguished themselves through heroic deeds were awarded social and political recognition by being called "Abirempon" or "Obirempon" which means big men. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries AD, the appellation "Abirempon" had formalized and politicized to embrace those who conducted trade from which the whole state benefited. The state rewarded entrepreneurs who attained such accomplishments with Mena (elephant tail) which was the "heraldic badge"Obirempons had a fair amount of legislative power in their regions, more than the local nobles of Dahomey but less than the regional governors of the Oyo Empire. In addition to handling the region's administrative and economic matters, theobiremponalso acted as the Supreme Judge of their jurisdiction, presiding over court cases.

Kotoko council

The Kotoko was a government council in the Asante government. Politically, the kotoko council served as the counterweight to the king's council of elders and basically embodied the aristocratic party in the government. The council formed the Legislature of Asante governmental system.It was made up of the Asantehene, the Queen mother as well as the state chiefs and their ministers.

Elections

Theelectionof Kings and the Asantehene (King of Kings or emperor) himself followed a pattern. The senior female of the kingly lineage nominated the eligible males. This senior female then consulted the elders, male and female, of that line. The final candidate is then selected. That nomination was sent to a council of elders, who represented other lineages in thetownordistrict.

The Elders then presented the nomination to the assembled people. If the assembledcitizensdisapproved of the nominee, the process was restarted.Chosen, the new Kings were enstooled by the Elders, who admonished him with expectations. The chosen Kings swore a solemn oath to the Earth Goddess and to his ancestors to fulfill his duties honorably in which he"sacrificed"himself and his life for the betterment of the state.

This elected and enstooled King enjoyed a great majesticceremonywith much spectacle and celebration. He reigned with muchdespoticpower, including the ability to make judgments of life and death on his subjects. However, he did not enjoyabsolute rule.Upon the stool, the King was sacred. He served as the holy intermediary between the people and the ancestors. His powers theoretically were more apparent than real and hinged on his attention to the advice and decisions of the Council of Elders.

Impeachment

Kings of the Asante Empire who violated any of theoathstaken during his or her enstoolment, were destooled by Kingmakers.For instance, if a king punished citizens arbitrarily or was exposed as corrupt, he would be destooled. Destoolment entailed kingmakers removing the sandals of the king and bumping his buttocks on the ground three times. Once destooled from office, his sanctity and thus reverence were lost, as he could not exercise any of the powers he had as king; this includes Chief administrator, Judge, and Military Commander. The now previous king was dispossessed of the Stool, swords and otherregaliawhich symbolized his office and authority. He also lost his position as custodian of the land. However, even if destooled from office, the king remained a member of the royal family from which he was elected.An impeachment occurred during the reign ofKusi Obodom,caused by afailed invasion of Dahomey.

Legal system

Pramakeseso in 1820

Ruins in the late 19th or early 20th century

ThePramakesesoor Great Court served as the abode where the Council of Kumasi assembled. Marie-Joseph Bennet documented in the 1870s that "The meeting of the supreme court of justice and legislation takes place every day in the great court of the royal palace called Apramosso (Pramakeseso)." The court measured 30 to 35 meters long by 14 to 15 meters wide.

Okomfo Anokyewas responsible for creating theSeventy-Seven Laws of Komfo Anokyewhich served as thecodifiedconstitution of the Ashanti Empire.

The Asante state, in effect, was atheocracy.It invokes religious, rather thansecular-legal postulates. What the modern state views ascrimes,Ashanti view practically assins.Antisocial acts disrespect the ancestors, and are only secondarily harmful to thecommunity.If the chief orKingfails to punish such acts, he invokes the anger of the ancestors and the gods, and is therefore in danger ofimpeachment.The penalty for some crimes (sins) is death, but this is seldom imposed; a more common penalty isbanishmentorimprisonment.The King typically exacts orcommutesallcapital cases.These commuted sentences by King and chiefs sometimes occur byransomorbribe;they are regulated in such a way that they should not be mistaken forfines,but are considered asrevenueto the state, which for the most part welcomesquarrelsandlitigation.Commutationstend to be far more frequent thanexecutions.

Asante are repulsed bymurder,andsuicideis considered murder. They decapitate those who commit suicide, the conventional punishment for murder. The suicide thus had contempt for the court, for only the King may kill an Asante.

In amurdertrial,intent must be established. If thehomicideis accidental, the murderer pays compensation to the lineage of the deceased. Theinsanecannot be executed because of the absence of responsible intent – except for murder or cursing the King; in the case of cursing the king, drunkenness is a valid defense.Capital crimesinclude murder,incestwithin the female or male line, and intercourse with amenstruatingwoman,rapeof a married woman, andadulterywith any of the wives of a chief or the King.Assaultsor insults of a chief or thecourtor the King also carriedcapital punishment.

Cursing the King, calling down powers to harm the King, is considered an unspeakable act and carries the weight ofdeath.One who invokes another to commit such an act must pay a heavy indemnity. Practitioners of harmful (evil) forms ofsorceryand witchcraft receive death but not by decapitation, for their blood must not be shed. They receive execution by strangling, burning, or drowning.

Ordinarily, families or lineages settle disputes between individuals. Nevertheless, such disputes can be brought totrialbefore a chief by uttering thetaboooath of a chief or the King. In the end, theKing's Courtis the sentencing court, for only the King can order thedeath penalty.Before the Council of Elders and the King's Court, the litigants orate comprehensively. Anyone present can cross-examine the defendant or the accuser, and if the proceedings do not lead to averdict,a special witness is called to provide additionaltestimony.If there is only one witness, their sworn oath assures the truth is told. Moreover, that he favours or is hostile to either litigant is unthinkable. Cases with no witness, like sorcery or adultery are settled by ordeals, like drinkingpoison.

Ancestor Venerationestablishes the Asantemoral system,and it provides the principal foundation forgovernmentalsanctions. The link between mother and child centres the entire network, which includes ancestors and fellow men as well. Itsjudicial systememphasizes the Asante conception of rectitude and goodbehaviour,which favours harmony among the people. The rules were made byNyame(SupremeGod) and the ancestors, and one must behave accordingly.

Geography

AsanteMountainsandLake Bosumtwi,a naturallake

The Asante Empire was one of a series of states along the coast including Dahomey,Benin,andOyo.The Asante had mountains and largeagriculturalsurpluses.The southern part of the Asante Empire was covered with moist semi-deciduous forestwhilst theGuinea savannacovered the northern part of the state. The Guinea Savanna consists of short deciduous and fire resistant trees.Riparian forestsalso occur along theAfram Riverand streams of the savanna zone. Soils in Asante were mainly of two types;forestochrosols in the southern part of Asante whilst thesavannaochrosols were confined to northern part of the empire.

The predominantfaunaor food rich wildlife and animal species encountered in the Asante Empire were thehen,sheep,goat,duck,turkey,rabbit,guinea fowl,fish,and theporcupinewhich became the national emblem of the state, as well as about thirty multipurposefloraspecies of trees andshrubsand over thirty-five ornamental plants which beautified the environs of Asante. These tree/shrub-crop-animal (hen/fish) components were intensively integrated spatially and/or sequentially on the same land unit of individual Asante houses.

Between 1700 and 1715, Osei Tutu I conquered the neighboring states ofTwifo,Wassaand Aowin.Opoku Ware Iwho succeeded Osei Tutu, led the integration of Akan states such asTekyiman,AkyemandKwahuinto Asante after embarking on wars of conquest between 1720 and 1750. After the conquest of the Akyem in 1742, the Asante exerted power unto the coast. From 1730 to 1770, the Asante Empire expanded north into the Savannah states ofGonja,Dagbonand Krakye. By 1816, the Asante had absorbed coastal states such as theFante Confederacy.The expansion into Dagbon is refuted by some researchers such as A.A. Lliasu. Scholar Karl J. Haas argues that "claims of Asante dominance over Dagbon in the precolonial era have been greatly exagged."

Economy

Main article:Economy of the Asante Empire

Resources

Golden mask property ofAsantehene,Kofi Karikari

The lands within the Asante Kingdom were also rich in river-gold,cocoaandkola nuts,and the Asante were soon trading with thePortugueseat coastal fortSao Jorge da Mina,laterElmina,and with theHausastates.

Agriculture

Asante yam ceremony in the Asante Kingdom, 19th century, byThomas E. Bowdich

The Asante prepared the fields by burning before the onset of the rainy season and cultivated with an ironhoe.Fields are left fallow for a couple years, usually after two to four years of cultivation. Plants cultivated includeplantains,yams,manioc,corn,sweet potatoes,millet,beans,onions,peanuts,tomatoes,and manyfruits.Manioc and corn are New World transplants introduced during theAtlantic European trade.Many of thesevegetablecrops could be harvested twice a year and thecassava(manioc), after a two-year growth, provides a starchy root.

The Asante transformedpalm wine,maize and millet intobeer,a favourite drink; and made use of the oil from palm for many culinary and domestic uses.

Communication

Akan drum

The Asante invented theFontomfrom,an Asantetalking drum,and they also invented theAkan Drum.They drummed messages to distances of over 300 kilometres (200 mi), as rapidly as atelegraph.Asante dialect(Twi) andAkan,the language of theAsante peopleis tonal and more meaning is generated by tone. The drums reproduced these tones, punctuations, and the accents of a phrase so that the cultivated ear heard the entirety of the phrase itself.

The Asante readily heard and understood the phrases produced by these "talking drums". Standard phrases called for meetings of the chiefs or to arms, warned of danger, and broadcast announcements of the death of important figures. Some drums were used forproverbsand ceremonial presentations.

Although pre-literate, the Asante recruited literate individuals into its government to increase the efficiency of the state's diplomacy. Some written records were also kept.Historian Adjaye, gives estimates based on surviving letters by the Asante that documents from the Asante government "could have exceeded several thousands."Writing was also used in record keeping duringcourt proceedings.Bowdich documented in the early nineteenth century about the "trial of Apea Nyano" on 8 July 1817 where he states that "theMoorishsecretaries were there to take notes of the transactions of the day. "Wilks adds that such transcripts have not survived today.

Before the 19th century,courierswere trained to memorize the exact contents of the verbal message and by the 19th century, the Asante government relied on writing for diplomacy. In the 1810s, it was common for couriers to be deployed withdespatch boxes.For Wilks, evidence exists on the use of mounted couriers during the reign ofKwaku Dua Iaround the Metropolitan districts. He cites a case In 1841 whenFreemandocumented the arrival of a party of messengers sent by the Asantehene toKaase.The chief of these messengers "rode on a strong Asante pony, with an Arabic or Moorishsaddleandbridle."Wilks argues the tsetse fly nullified the extensive use of horses to speed communications.

Demography

The population history of the Asante Kingdom was one of slow centralization. In the early 19th century the Asantehene used the annual tribute to set up a permanent standing army armed withrifles,which allowed much closer control of the Asante kingdom. The Asante kingdom was one of the most centralised states in sub-Saharan Africa. Osei Tutu and his successors oversaw a policy of political and cultural unification and the union had reached its full extent by 1750. It remained an alliance of several large city-states which acknowledged the sovereignty of the ruler of Kumasi and the Asante kingdom, known as the Asantehene. The Asante kingdom had dense populations, allowing the creation of substantialurban centres.The Asante controlled over 250,000 square kilometers while ruling approximately 3 million people.

Architecture

Picture of Asante architecture drawn byThomas Edward Bowdich,withAdinkra symbolson the walls

Palace of King Kwaku Dua of Kumasi,Kumasi,1887

The Asante traditional buildings are the only remnants of Asante architecture. Construction and design consisted of a timber framework filled up with clay andthatchedwith sheaves of leaves. The surviving designated sites areshrines,but there have been many other buildings in the past with the same architectural style.These buildings served aspalacesandshrinesas well as houses for the affluent.The Asante Empire also builtmausoleumswhich housed the tombs of several Asante leaders. Generally, houses whether designed for human habitation or for thedeities,consisted of four separate rectangular single-room buildings set around an opencourtyard;the inner corners of adjacent buildings were linked by means of splayed screen walls, whose sides and angles could be adapted to allow for any inaccuracy in the initial layout. Typically, three of the buildings were completely open to the courtyard, while the fourth was partially enclosed, either by the door and windows, or by open-work screens flanking an opening.

Infrastructure

See also:Roads of the Asante Empire

Infrastructure such asroad transportandcommunicationthroughout the empire was maintained via a network of well-keptroadsfrom the Asante mainland to theNiger riverand other trade cities.English visitors to Kumasi in the 19th century, noted the division of the capital into 77 wards with 27 main streets; one of which was 100 yards wide. Many houses especially those near the king's palace were two story buildings embodied with indoorplumbingin the form of toilets that were flushed with gallons of boiling water.Bowdich revealed in his 1817 account that all streets of Kumasiwere named.Stationed at various points of Asante roads were theNkwansrafoor road wardens who served as the highway police; checking the movement of traders and strangers on all roads. They were also responsible for scouting and were charged with the collection oftollsfrom traders.

In the early 19th century larger rivers were either forded in the dry season or crossed by canoe or line-and-raft ferries. Smaller rivers were either waded, or were bridged by a tree trunk: in both cases a ropehandrailwas usually stretched across the river to assist the traveller. In response to the delivery of a carriage byThomas Freemanin 1841, the Asante Empire began to buildbridgesacross water bodies for transport that year.AsanteheneKwaku Duaordered proper bridges to be built across streams in the metropolitan area of Kumase. Thomas Freeman described the construction as:

Some stout, forked sticks or posts are driven in the centre of the stream at convenient distances, across which are placed some strong beams, fastened to the posts with withes, from the numerous climbing plants on every hand. On these bearers are placed long stout poles which are covered with earth from fourth to six inches thick....

— Freeman.

Police and military

Police

Akofena, ceremonial sword used by the Asante

TheAsanteheneinherited his position from his queen mother, and he was assisted at the capital, Kumasi, by a civil service of men talented intrade,diplomacy,and themilitary,with a head called theGyaasehene.Men from theArabian Peninsula,Sudan,andEuropewere employed in the Asante empirecivil service;all of whom were appointed by theAsantehene.In the metropolitan areas of Asante, severalpolice forceswere responsible for maintaining law and order. In Kumasi, a uniformed police, who were distinguished by their long hair, maintained order by ensuring no one else entered and left the city without permission from the government.Theankobiaorspecial policewere used as the empire'sspecial forcesandbodyguardsto the Asantehene, as sources ofintelligence,and to suppress rebellion.For most of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the Asantesovereign stateremained powerful.

Military

Main article:Military of the Asante Empire

Asante MilitaryField Marshal,c. 1819,byThomas E. Bowdich

The Asante armies served the empire well, supporting its long period of expansion and subsequent resistance to European colonization.
Armament was primarily with firearms, but some historians hold that indigenous organization and leadership probably played a more crucial role in Asante successes.These are, perhaps, more significant when considering that the Asante had numerous troops from conquered or incorporated peoples, and faced a number of revolts and rebellions from these peoples over its long history. The political genius of the symbolic "golden stool" and the fusing effect of a national army however, provided the unity needed to keep the empire viable. Total potential strength was some 80,000 to 200,000, making the Asante army bigger than the well known Zulu, and comparable to possibly Africa's largest – the legions of Ethiopia.The Asante army was described as a fiercely organized one whose king could "bring 200,000 men into the field and whose warriors were evidently not cowed bySnider riflesand 7-pounder guns " While actual forces deployed in the field were less thanpotentialstrength, tens of thousands of soldiers were usually available to serve the needs of the empire. Mobilization depended on small cadres of regulars, who guided and directed levees and contingents called up from provincial governors.

An Asante captain depicted in an 1820aquatintbyWilliam Hutton

Organization was structured around an advance guard, main body, rear guard and two right and left wing flanking elements. This provided flexibility in the forest country the Asante armies typically operated in. Horses were known to survive in Kumasi but because they could not survive in the tsetse fly-infested forest zone in the south, there was no cavalry. Asante high-ranking officers rode horses with the hauteur of European officers but they did not ride to battle.The approach to the battlefield was typically via converging columns, and tactics included ambushes and extensive maneuvers on the wings. Unique among African armies, the Asante deployed medical units to support their fighters. This force was to expand the empire substantially and continually for over a century, and defeated the British in several encounters.

Brass barrel blunderbuss were produced in some states in the Gold Coast including the Asante Empire around the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Various accounts indicate that Asante blacksmiths were not only able to repair firearms, but that barrels, locks and stocks were on occasion remade.

Wars of the Asante

Asante scout,c. 1824,byJoseph Dupuis

From 1806 until 1896, the Asante state was in a perpetual state of war involving expansion or defense of its domain. Asante exploits against other African forces made it the paramount power in the region. Its impressive performance against the British also earned it the respect of European powers.

Asante–Fante War

In 1806, the Asante pursued two rebel leaders through Fante territory to the coast. The British refusal to surrender the rebels led to an Asante attack. This was devastating enough that the British handed over a rebel; the other escaped.In 1807 disputes with theFanteled to theAshanti–Fante War,in which the Asante were victorious under Asantehene Osei Bonsu ( "Bonsu, the whale" ).

Ga–Fante War

In the 1811Ga–Fante War,a coalition of Asante and Ga fought against an alliance of Fante, Akwapim and Akim states. The Asante war machine was successful in defeating the alliance in open combat pushing their enemies towards the Akwapim hills. Asante however abandoned their campaign of pursuit after capturing a British fort and establishing their presence and authority on the coast.

Ashanti–Akim–Akwapim War

In 1814 the Asante launched an invasion of the Gold Coast, largely to gain access to European traders. In theAshanti–Akim–Akwapim War,the empire faced the Akim–Akwapim alliance. After several battles, the out numbered Akim–Akwapim alliance were defeated and became tributories to the Asantes. The Asante was established from the midlands down to the coast.

Anglo-Ashanti Wars

Main article:Anglo-Ashanti wars

First Anglo-Ashanti War

The Asantearmyengaged withBritish forcesunder the command of Col. Sutherland, July 11, 1824

The first of theAnglo-Ashanti warsoccurred in 1823. In these conflicts, the Asante empire faced off, with varying degrees of success, against the British Empire residing on the coast. The root of the conflict traces back to 1823 when SirCharles MacCarthy,resisting all overtures by the Asante to negotiate, led an invading force. The Asante defeated this, killed MacCarthy, took his head for a trophy and swept on to the coast. However, disease forced them back. The Asante were so successful in subsequent fighting that in 1826 they again moved on the coast. The Asante were stopped about 15 kilometres (10 mi) north of Accra by a British led force. They fought against superior numbers of British allied forces, including Denkyirans until the novelty of British rockets caused the Asante army to flee.In 1831, a treaty led to 30 years of peace, with thePra Riveraccepted as the border.

Second Anglo-Ashanti War

An Asante force engaged with the British42nd Highlanders;The Graphic.

With the exception of a few Asante light skirmishes across the Pra in 1853 and 1854, the peace between the Asante and British Empire had remained unbroken for over 30 years. Then, in 1863, a large Asante delegation crossed the river pursuing a fugitive, Kwesi Gyana. There was fighting, casualties on both sides, but the governor's request for troops from England was declined and sickness forced the withdrawal of his West Indian troops. The war ended in 1864 as a stalemate with both sides losing more men to sickness than any other factor.

Third Anglo-Ashanti War

In 1869 a European missionary family was taken to Kumasi. They were hospitably welcomed and were used as an excuse for war in 1873. Also, Britain took control of Asante land claimed by the Dutch. The Asante invaded the new British protectorate.General Wolseleyand his famousWolseley ringwere sent against the Asante. This was a modern war, replete with press coverage (including by the renowned reporterHenry Morton Stanley) and printed precise military and medical instructions to the troops.The British government refused appeals to interfere with British armaments manufacturers who were unrestrained in selling to both sides.

All Asante attempts at negotiations were disregarded. Wolseley took 2,500 British troops and several thousand West Indian and African troops to Kumasi. It arrived in Kumasi in January 1896 along a route cleared by an advance contingent under the command ofRobert Baden-Powell.The capital was briefly occupied. The British were impressed by the size of the palace and the scope of its contents, including "rows of books in many languages."The Asante had abandoned the capital after a bloody war. The British burned it.

In January 1896, the British formally annexed the Asante empire to theBritish Empire.

The British and their allies suffered considerable casualties in the war losing numerous soldiers and high ranking army officers.but in the end the firepower was too much to overcome for the Asante. The Asantehene (the king of the Asante) signed a British treaty in July 1874 to end the war.

Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War

See also:Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War

In 1895, the Asante turned down an unofficial offer to become a British protectorate.

The Asante wanting to keep French and European colonial forces out of the territory (and its gold), the British were anxious to conquer Asante Empire once and for all. Despite being in talks with the state about making it a British protectorate, Britain began theFourth Anglo-Ashanti Warin 1895 on the pretext of failure to pay the fines levied on the Asante monarch after the 1874 war. The British were victorious and the Asante was forced to sign a treaty and becameBritish protectorate.

Culture and society

Main article:Culture of the Asante Empire

See also:Asante people

Family

Asante Kingdom family and cityneighbourhood,c. 1873

Standing among families was largely political. The royal family typically topped the hierarchy, followed by the families of thechiefsof territorial divisions. In eachchiefdom,a particular female line provides the chief. A committee of several men eligible for the post elects the chief. The typical Asante family wasextendedandmatrilineal.A mother's brother was the legal guardian of her children. The father on the other hand had fewer legal responsibilities for his children with the exception of ensuring their well-being. Women also had the right to initiatedivorcewhiles the husband had some legal rights over his wife such as the right to cut off her nose for adultery.

Clothing

Main article:Kente cloth

Prominent people wore silk. The ordinary Asante wore cotton whiles slaves dressed in black cloth. Garments signalled the rank of the wearer in society and its colour expressed different meanings. White was worn by ordinary people after winning a court case. Dark colours were worn for funerals or mourning.Laws existed to restrict certain Kente designs to the nobility. Some cotton or silk patterns on the Kente were designed solely for the king and could only be worn with his permission.

Education and children

PrincesKwasi Boakyeand Kwame Poku,c. 1840

Education in the Asante Kingdom was conducted by Asante and imported scholars and Asante people would often attend schools in Europe for theirhigher education.

Tolerant parents are typical among the Asante. Childhood is considered a happy time and children cannot be responsible for their actions. The child is not responsible for their actions until afterpuberty.A child is harmless and there is no worry for the control of theirsoul,the original purpose of allfuneral rites,so the ritual funerals typically given to the deceased Asante are not as lavish for the children.

The Asante adored twins when they were born within theroyal familybecause they were seen as a sign of impending fortune. Ordinarily, boy twins joined the army and twin girls potential wives of the King. If the twins are a boy and girl, no particular career awaits them. Women who beartripletsare greatly honored because three is regarded as a lucky number. Specialritualsensue for the third, sixth, and ninth child. The fifth child (unlucky five) can expect misfortune. Families with many children are well respected and barren women scoffed at.

Adinkra Symbols

Further information:Adinkra symbols

The Asante usedAdinkra symbolsin their daily society. The symbols were used as a form of decoration, logos, arts, sculpture and pottery.

Menstruation and impurity

An Asante fetish temple in the village of Jufu by the 19th century

The Asante heldpuberty ritesonly for females. Fathers instruct their sons without public observance. The privacy of boys was respected in the Asante kingdom. Asmenstruationapproaches, a girl goes to her mother's house. When the girl's menstruation is disclosed, the mother announces the good news in the village beating an iron hoe with a stone. Old women come out and singBara(menstrual) songs.

Menstruating women suffered numerous restrictions. The Asante viewed them as ritually unclean. They did not cook for men, nor did they eat any food cooked for a man. If a menstruating woman entered the ancestral stool (shrine) house, she was arrested, and the punishment could result in death. If this punishment is not exacted, the Asante believe, the ghost of theancestorswould strangle thechief.Menstruating women lived in special houses during their periods as they were forbidden to cross the threshold of men's houses. They swore nooathsand no oaths were sworn for or against them. They did not participate in any of theceremonialobservances and did not visit anysacredplaces.

Healthcare and death

Asante soulwasher

Sickness and death were major events in thekingdom.The ordinaryherbalistdivined thesupernaturalcause of the illness and treated it withherbal medicines.

Traditionalpriest(okomfo) performing anAkan religiousceremony,c. 1873,byJules Gros

People loathed being alone for long without someone available to perform this rite before the sick collapsed. The family dressed the deceased in their best clothes, and adorned them with packets of gold dust (money for the after-life), ornaments, and food for the journey "up the hill". The body was normally buried within 24 hours. Until that time the funeral party engage in dancing, drumming, shooting of guns, all accompanied by the wailing of relatives. This was done because the Asante typically believed that death was not something to be sad about, but rather a part of life. As the Asante believed in an after-life, families felt they would be reunited with their ancestors upon death. Funeral rites for the death of a king involved the whole kingdom and were a much more elaborate affair.

Ceremony

The greatest and most frequentceremoniesof the Asante recalled the spirits of departed rulers with an offering of food and drink, asking their favour for the common good, called theAdae.The day before theAdae,Akan drumsbroadcast the approaching ceremonies. The stool treasurer gathers sheep and liquor that will be offered. The chief priest officiates theAdaein the stool house where the ancestors came. Thepriestoffers each food and a beverage. The public ceremony occurs outdoors, where all the people joined the dancing. Minstrels chant ritual phrases; the talking drums extol the chief and the ancestors in traditional phrases. TheOdwera,the other large ceremony, occurs in September and typically lasted for a week or two. It is a time of cleansing of sin from society the defilement, and for the purification ofshrinesof ancestors and the gods. After thesacrificeand feast of a blackhen—of which both the living and the dead share—a new year begins in which all are clean, strong, and healthy.

Slavery

See also:Slavery in West Africa

Slavery was historically a tradition in the Asante Empire, with slaves typically taken as captives from enemies in warfare. The Asante Empire was the largest slaveowning and slave trading state in the territory of today's Ghana during theAtlantic slave trade.The welfare of their slaves varied from being able to acquire wealth and intermarry with the master's family to beingsacrificedin funeral ceremonies. The Asante believed that slaves would follow their masters into the afterlife. Slaves could sometimes own other slaves, and could also request a new master if the slave believed he or she was being severely mistreated.

The modern-day Asante claim that slaves were seldom abused,and that a person who abused a slave was held in high contempt bysociety.They defend the "humanity" of Asante slavery by noting that those slaves were allowed to marry.If a master found a female slave desirable, he might marry her. He preferred such an arrangement to that of a free woman in a conventional marriage, because marriage to an enslaved woman allowed the children to inherit some of the father'spropertyand status This favoured arrangement occurred primarily because of what some men considered their conflict with thematrilinealsystem. Under this kinship system, children were considered born into the mother's clan and took their status from her family.Generally her eldest brother served as mentor to her children, particularly for the boys. She was protected by her family.Some Asante men felt more comfortable taking a slave girl or pawn wife in marriage, as she would have noabusua(older male grandfather, father, uncle or brother) to intercede on her behalf when the couple argued. With an enslaved wife, the master and husband had total control of their children, as she had no kin in the community.

When the Kingdom of Asante was conquered by the British in 1896, the British assured the chiefs that they would be allowed to keep their slaves; Asante became a colony in 1901 and in 1902 it was made illegal to "compel or attempt the compel the services" or another person, but slavery was not explicitly abolished due to British fear that an abolition would cause "internal disorganization"; chattel slavery was formally banned in 1908, but the British authorities did not enforce the law until the 1920s.

Art

Asante Empire’s involvement in gold, cloth and slave trades brought in abundant wealth and fostered rich artistic traditions.During colonization, the British took many artifacts. In February 2024, some of these, on display in a U.S. museum, were returned to Ghana. The repatriation has been termed "the return of our souls" and activists hope that eventually all of the artifacts will be returned.

In popular culture

The Asante Empire has been depicted in a number of different works ofnonfiction,detailing the structure of the empire

Literature and theatre

• The novelThe Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi(1997)is based on the memoirs ofKwasi Boachi,the son of the AsanteheneKwaku Dua I,from when he and his cousin Kwame Poku were sent tothe Netherlandsin 1837 to receive a European education.
• It was later adapted into an opera in 2007 by the authorArthur Japinand composerJonathan Dove
• The 2006 novelCopper Sun's protagonist Amari comes from the Asante Empire.

Literature

• The singerAshantiwas named after the alternative name 'Ashanti empire'. This is because women had power and influence there, and her mother wanted her to follow that model.

Television

• The Asante Empire is referenced in theStatic Shockepisodes "Static in Africa" and "Out of Africa", whereStaticand his family visit Ghana.

Video games

The Asante Empire has been depicted in some historicalwar strategy video games,along with being characters in video games with origins from the area

• In thegrand strategyvideo gamesEuropa Universalis IV(2013) andVictoria 3(2022), both developed byParadox Interactive,the Ashanti Empire appears as one of many historical nations that players can play as or interact with.
• InCrusader Kings III,the Ashanti Empire is one of the many nations that players can play or interact as.
• InAssassin's Creed IV: Black Flag,two characters, Kumi Berko, a pirate playable in the multiplayer mode under the pseudonym "The Mercenary", and Antó, a Master Assassin of the West Indies Brotherhood, were both born in the Ashanti Empire.
• The Ashanti Empire appears as a playable minor civilization inAge of Empires III.

See also

• African military systems (1800–1900)
• African military systems after 1900
• African military systems to 1800
• Akyempimhene
• Anglo-Ashanti wars
• Asantes
• History of Ghana
• List of rulers of Asante

Bibliography

• Davidson, Basil,African Civilization Revisited,Africa World Press, 1991,ISBN9780865431232
• Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007).A History of Sub-Saharan Africa.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521867467.
• Edgerton, Robert B. (2010).The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred-Year War For Africa's Gold Coast.Simon & Schuster.ISBN9781451603736.
• Gocking, Roger (2005).The History of Ghana.Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press.ISBN0-313-31894-8.
• Wilks, Ivor(1989).Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order.Cambridge University Press Archive.ISBN9780521379946.Retrieved29 December2020– via Books.google.com.
• Shillington, Kevin,1995 (1989),History of Africa,New York: St. Martin's Press.
• Lloyd, Alan (1964).The Drums of Kumasi: the story of the Ashanti wars.London: Longmans.LCCN65006132.OL5937815M.
• Pescheux, Gérard (2003).Le royaume asante (Ghana): parenté, pouvoir, histoire, XVIIe–XXe siècles.Paris: KARTHALA Editions. p. 582.ISBN2-84586-422-1.
• Gadzekpo, Seth K. (2005).History of Ghana: Since Pre-history.Excellent Pub. and Print.ISBN9988070810.Retrieved27 December2020– via Books.google.com.
• McCaskie, T. C. (2003).State and Society in Pre-colonial Asante.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521894326.

External links

• the Ashanti Kingdom Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
• UC San Diego - Asante Language Program - Directed Study
• BBC News | Africa | Funeral rites for Ashanti king
• "Osei Tutu",Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
• Asante Catholicism at Googlebooks
• Ashanti Pageat the Ethnographic Atlas, maintained at Centre for Social Anthropology and Computing,University of Kent, Canterbury
• Ashanti Kingdomat the Wonders of the African World, atPBS
• Ashanti Culturecontains a selected list of Internet sources on the topic, especially sites that serve as comprehensive lists or gateways
• The Story of Africa: Asante— BBC World Service
• Web dossier about the Asante Kingdom:African Studies Centre,Leiden
• "Asante empire",Encyclopædia Britannica.