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This article is about Asura in Indian religions. For other uses, seeAsura (disambiguation).
Asuras depicted in theSamudra Manthanabas-relief fromAngkor Wat
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Asuras(Sanskrit:असुर) are a class of beings inIndian religions.They are described as power-seeking beings related to the more benevolentDevas(also known as Suras) inHinduism.In itsBuddhistcontext, the word is translated as "titan"or"antigod".[1]

According toHindu texts,the asuras are in constant fear of the devas.[2]: 2–6 Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhumandemigodswith good or bad qualities. In early Vedic literature, the good Asuras are calledAdityasand are led byVaruna,while the malevolent ones are calledDanavasand are led byVritra.[3]: 4  In the earliest layer of Vedic texts,Agni,Indraand other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of their being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are calledDevas,while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods".[3]: 4 

Asuras are part of Hinduism along withYakshas(nature spirits),Rakshasas(fierce man-eating beings or demons),Bhutas(ghosts) andmany more.Asuras have been featured in many cosmological theories and legends inHinduismandBuddhism.[4][5][6]

Etymology

[edit]

Traditional etymologies

[edit]

Asura is a given name by Devas to other races collectively asAsurameansnot-sura,wheresurais another name for Devas.

The 5th century Buddhist philosopher,Buddhaghosaexplains that their name derives from the myth of their defeat at the hands of the godŚakra.According to the story, the asura were dispossessed of their state inTrāyastriṃśabecause they became drunk and were thrown downMount Sumeru.After this incident, they vowed never to drinksuraagain. In some Buddhist literature, they are sometimes referred to aspūrvadeva(Pāli:pubbadeva), meaning "ancient gods."[7]

Modern theories

[edit]

Monier-Williamstraces the etymological roots ofasura(असुर) toasu(असु), which means 'life of the spiritual world' or 'departed spirits'.[8]

In the oldest verses of theSamhitalayer of Vedic texts, theAsurasare any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature.[8]In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states theAsurasare "evil spirits, demons and opponents of the gods". Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, inIndo-Iranianmythology about the battle between good and evil.[8]

According to Finnish IndologistAsko Parpola,the wordAsurawas borrowed fromProto-Indo-AryanintoProto-Uralicduring an early period of contact, in the form *asera-, showing a meaning "lord, prince".[9]

In Hindu literature

[edit]

Rig Veda

[edit]

Bhargava states the word,asura,including its variants,asuryaandasura,occurs "88 times in theRig Veda,71 times in the singular number, 4 times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and 3 times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form,asuryaa,is included twice. The word,asurya,has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract formasuratvaoccurs 24 times, 22 times in one hymn and twice each in two other hymns ".[10]

Bhargava[10]gives a count of the word use for every Vedic deity:Asurais used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In theRig Veda,two generous kings – as well as some priests – have been described asasuras.One hymn requests a son who is anasura.In nine hymns,Indrais described asasura.He is said to possessasurya5 times, and once he is said to possessasuratva.Agnihas total of 12asuradescriptions,Varunahas 10,Mitrahas 8, andRudrahas 6.[10]Book 1 of theRig VedadescribesSavitr(Vedic solar deity) as anasurawho is a "kind leader".[11]

हिरण्यहस्तोअसुरःसुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् ।
अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥[12]

May he, gold-handedAsura,kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour.
Driving offRaksasasandYatudhanas,[he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith[11]

The golden-handed lord of good guidance, of good grace, of good help—let him drive in our direction.
Repelling demons and sorcerers, the god has taken his place facing evening, while being hymned.
– Translated by Stephanie W. Jamison, Joel P. Brereton[13]

— Rig Veda1.35.10

Samaveda

[edit]

In the Jaiminya (3.35.3), one of threerecensionsof theSamaVeda,the term 'Asura' is stated to be derived from 'rests' (√ram) in the vital airs (asu), i.e. 'Asu' + 'ram' = 'Asuram' (Asura); this is in reference to the mind being 'asura[-like]'.[14]

Mahabharata

[edit]

According to theBhagavad Gita(16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within each.[15][16]The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.[15]According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).[15][16]

Brahmanda Purana

[edit]
TheMahadevicombatting the asura army (right), folio from theDevi Mahatmya

In theBrahmanda Purana,it is stated the term 'Asura' was used for theDaityasdue to their rejection ofVaruni(Goddess of Wine) after she emerged from theOcean of Milk(i.e. 'a-sura', meaning 'those who do not haveSura',that is, 'wine' or more generally 'liquor').[17][18]However, in other legends, the Asuras accept Varuni (seeKurma).

Vishnu Purana

[edit]

According to the Vishnu Purana, during theSamudra Manthanaor the "churning of the ocean", thedaityascame to be known asasurasbecause they rejectedVaruni,the goddess ofsura"wine", while thedevasaccepted her and came to be known as suras.[19]

Shiva Purana

[edit]

Alain Daniéloustates that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.[19][20]

The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.[19][20]

Alain Daniélou states that the concept ofasurasevolved with changing socio-political dynamics in ancient India. Asuras gradually assimilated the demons, spirits, and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people, and this created the myths of the malevolentasurasand therakshasa.The allusions to the disastrous wars between theasurasand thesuras,found in the Puranas and the epics, may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India.[20]

Context

[edit]

Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of theAsuraconcept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views onAsuraconcept are those ofF.B.J. Kuiper,W. Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar, and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, S.C. Roy, Kumaraswamy,Shamasastry,Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell,Hermann Oldenberg,Geldner, Venkatesvaran, andJan Gonda.[3]: 1–37 

Kuiper callsAsurasa special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.[21]Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that ofDevas,the underworld becomes that ofAsuras.The godIndrais the embodiment of good and represents the Devas, while the dragon Vrtra is the embodiment of evil and an Asura.[21]During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first majordualismto emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.[21][3]: 1–2 Hale (1999),in his review,[3]states that Kuiper's theory on Asura is plausible, but weak, because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) anAsura,as the texts describe many other powerful beings.[3]: 3 Secondly,Rig Vedanever classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.[3]: 3 

Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense ofDevas,the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.[3]: 2–4, 10 Asuras are non-believers of God and believe in their own powers.[22]

Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as being similar in concept to theTwelve Olympiansand thetitansof Greek mythology: Both are powerful, but have different orientations and inclinations – in Hindu mythology the Devas represent the powers of light and the Asuras represent the powers of darkness.[23][3]: 20 According toCoomaraswamy (1935),p. 374 "the titan [Asura] is potentially an angel [Deva], the angel still by nature a titan" in Hinduism.[24]

Indo-Aryan context

[edit]

In the 19th century, Haug pioneered the idea that the termAsurais linguistically related to theAhurasof Indo-Aryan people and pre-Zoroastrianismera. In both religions,Ahuraof pre-Zoroastrianism (Asuraof Indian religions), Vouruna (Varuna) andDaeva(Deva) are found, but their roles are on opposite sides.[3]: 3–8 That is,Ahuraevolves to represent the good in pre-Zoroastrianism,whileAsuraevolves to represent the bad in Vedic religion; whereDaevaevolves to represent the bad in pre-Zoroastrianism,whileDevaevolves to represent the good in Vedic religion. These contrary roles have led some scholars to infer that there may have been wars between proto-Indo-European communities, and that adapted their gods and demons to reflect their social differences.[3]: 23–31 This idea was thoroughly researched and reviewed by Peter von Bradke in 1885.[25][3]: 5–8 

The relationship betweenahuras /asuras anddaevas /devas in Indo-Aryan times, was discussed at length by F.B.J. Kuiper.[26]This theory and other Avesta-related hypotheses developed over the 20th century, are all now in question, particularly for lack of archaeological evidence.[27][3]: 5–8, 12, 15, 18–19, 37 Asko Parpola has re-opened this debate by presenting archaeological and linguistic evidence, but notes that the links may go earlier toUralic languagesroots.[28]The Indo-AryanAsuramay also be related to theAssyriandeityAshur.[29]

Relation to Germanic deities

[edit]
Main article:Æsir

Some scholars such as Asko Parpola suggest that the wordAsuramay be related to proto-Uralic and proto-Germanic history. The Aesir-Asura correspondence is the relation between Vedic SanskritAsuraand Old NorseÆsirand Proto-Uralic *asera,all of which mean 'lord, powerful spirit, god'.[28][30]Parpola states that the correspondence extends beyond Asera / Asura, and extends to a host of parallels such as Inmar-Indra, Sampas-Stambha and many other elements of respective mythologies.[28]

Characteristics

[edit]

In the earliest Vedic literature, allsupernatural beingsare calledDevas[8][31][32][33]and Asuras.[3]: 5–11, 22, 99–102 A much-studied hymn of theRig VedastatesDevav asura(Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it withAsura adevah(Asuras who are not Devas).[21][35]Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (Prajapati), share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.[24][36]

"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill-gottenSoma,and for wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force, and violence.[37][38]Further, in Hindu mythology, when they lose, miss, or don't get what they want (because they were distracted by their cravings) the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge, and attack the "Asuras who became Devas" to loot or extract a portion of what the Devas have and the Asuras do not.[37][38]

The hostility between the two groups is the source of extensive legends, tales, and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms – without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.[36]Some of these tales constitute the background of major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in theRamayana,and the legend of AsuraHiranyakashipuand Deva Vishnu asNarasimha,[36]the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival ofHolikaandHoli.[39]

In Buddhist mythology, while all the gods of the Kāmadhātu are subject to passions to some degree, the asuras above all are addicted to them, especially wrath, pride, envy, insincerity, falseness, boasting, and bellicosity. The asuras are said to experience a much more pleasurable life than humans, but they are plagued by envy for the devas, whom they can see just as animals perceive humans.[citation needed]

Symbolism

[edit]

Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.[40][41]In theUpanishads,for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.[42]Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.[42]Similar dichotomies are present in thePuranasliterature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.[42]Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".[42]

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[43]In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such asMahabaliandPrahlada,conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[43]

Asuri

[edit]

Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means 'belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits'.[44]Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.[45]The term Asuri also means aRakshasiin Indian texts.[46][3]:  120–133 

The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy againstleprosy.[47][48]

First, before all, the strong-winged Bird was born, thou wast the gall thereof.
Conquered in fight, theAsuritook then the shape and form of plants.
The Asuri made, first of all, this medicine for leprosy, this banisher of leprosy.
She banished leprosy, and gave one general colour to the skin.

— A charm against leprosy, Atharva Veda, Hymn 1.24,[49]

In Book 7,Asuriis a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs, who uses that knowledge to seduce DevaIndrain Atharva Veda. A hymn invokes this special power inAsuri,and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants.[50]

I dig this Healing Herb that makes my lover look on me and weep,
That bids the parting friend return and kindly greets him as he comes.
This Herb wherewith theAsuridrew Indra downward from the Gods,
With this same Herb I draw thee close that I may be most dear to thee.

Thou art the peer of Soma, yea, thou art the equal of the Sun,
The peer of all the Gods art thou: therefore we call thee hitherward.
I am the speaker here, not thou: speak thou where the assembly meets.
Thou shalt be mine and only mine, and never mention other dames.

If thou art far away beyond the rivers, far away from men,
This Herb shall seem to bind thee fast and bring thee back my prisoner.

— A maiden's love-charm,Atharva Veda,Hymn 7.38,[50]

Similarly, in the Atharva Veda, all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals.[3]:  120–133 Asuri Kalpa is anabhichara(craft) which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri.[51][52]

Buddhism

[edit]
Asura at Kofukuji, a Buddhist temple in Nara, Japan
Main article:Asura (Buddhism)

Asuras (Classical Tibetan:ལྷ་མིན,romanized:lha min;simplified Chinese:A tu la;traditional Chinese:A tu la;pinyin:āxiūluó;Japanese:A tu la,romanized:ashura, asura) are a type of supernatural beings (antigods, demigods, or titans) in traditionalBuddhist cosmologyand arealm of rebirthbased on one'skarmain current or past lives.[53]They are described in Buddhist texts as creatures who live in lower levels of mount Sumeru, obsessed with sensuous aspects of existence, living with jealousy, and endlessly engaged in wars against the creatures who areDevas(gods).[54]As Buddhism spread into East Asia and Southeast Asia, the Asura concept of Indian Buddhism expanded and integrated local pre-existing deities as a part of regional Buddhist pantheon.[54]

Asura realm

[edit]

The asura realm is one of the realms in which one can be reborn as a result of experiencing thefruitsof wholesome karma, while engaging in unwholesome karma. Generally, thedesire realmis recognized as consisting of five realms and the realm of the asuras tends to be included among the deva realms, but the addition of the asuras in the six-worldbhavacakrawas created in Tibet at the authority ofJe Tsongkhapa.

Deva-Asura War

[edit]

The asuras were dispossessed of their state inTrāyastriṃśabecause they became drunk and were thrown downMount Sumeruby the bodhisatta, as mentioned inJatakas.This led to ever lasting war between theDevasof Tavatimsa and Asuras, which still continues.

Asurendra

[edit]

In Buddhism, the leaders of the asuras are calledasurendra(Pāli: Asurinda, a tu la vương; lit. "Asura-lord" ). There are several of these, as the Asuras are broken into different tribes or factions. In Pali texts, names that are found includeVepacitti,Rāhu(Verocana),Pahārāda,Sambara,Bali,Sucitti,andNamucī.According to theLotus Sutra,the four leaders of the asuras took refuge in the Buddha after hearing his sermon.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Robert Beer. TheHandbook of Tibetan Buddhist SymbolsSerindia Publications 2003ISBN978-1-932-47603-3page 246
  2. ^Cite error: The named referenceHale-1998was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).
  3. ^abcdefghijklmnopqHale, Wash Edward (1999).Ásura in Early Vedic Religion.Motilal Barnarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0061-8.
  4. ^Don Handelman (2013),One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology,Brill Academic,ISBN978-90-04-25615-6,pages 23–29
  5. ^Wendy Doniger (1988),Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism,Manchester University Press,ISBN978-0-7190-1866-4,p. 67
  6. ^Robert E. Buswell Jr; Donald S. Lopez Jr (2013).The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.Princeton University Press. p. 411.ISBN978-1-4008-4805-8.
  7. ^Malalasekera, G.P. (2007). "Asurā".Dictionary of Pali Proper Names.Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.ISBN978-81-208-3020-2.
  8. ^abcdMonier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary "Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121
  9. ^Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-022692-3,pages 114-116
  10. ^abcP.L. Bhargava,Vedic Religion and Culture,South Asia Books,ISBN978-81-246-0006-1
  11. ^abMandala 1, Hymn 35Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource
  12. ^Rig VedaSanskrit text, Wikisource
  13. ^Stephanie Jamison (2015).The Rigveda – Earliest religious poetry of India.Oxford University Press. p. 142.ISBN978-0-19-063339-4.
  14. ^Oertel, Hanns (1896).The Jāiminīya or Talavakāra Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa.Journal of the American Oriental Society; JSTOR. pp.193.
  15. ^abcJeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1-84519-346-1,pages 253-262
  16. ^abChristopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-1-4384-2842-0,pages 610-629
  17. ^G.V.Tagare.Brahmanda Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 5.pp.1063(9.66-69).
  18. ^"Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Sura'".spokensanskrit.org.Retrieved2019-12-14.
  19. ^abcRoshen Dalal (2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, p.46. Penguin Books India.ISBN0-14-341421-6[1]
  20. ^abcAlain Daniélou (1991).The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series,pp. 141–142.Inner Traditions / Bear & Co.ISBN0-89281-354-7.
  21. ^abcdKuiper, F.B.J.(1975).The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion.History of Religion. Vol. 15. pp. 108–112.
  22. ^Bahadur, Om Lata (1996).The Book of Hindu Festivals and Ceremonies(3rd ed.). New Delhi, IN: UBS Publishers Distributors. p.168.ISBN81-86112-23-5.
  23. ^Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1935). "Angel and titan: An essay in Vedic ontology".Journal of the American Oriental Society.55(4): 373–374.doi:10.2307/594758.JSTOR594758.
  24. ^abGier, Nicholas (1995). "Hindu titanism".Philosophy East and West.45(1): 73–96, esp. 76.doi:10.2307/1399510.JSTOR1399510.
  25. ^von Bradke, Peter (2010) [1885].Dyaus Asuras, Ahura Mazda, und die Asuras(in German) (reprint ed.). Max Niemeyer (1885) / Nabu Press (2010).ISBN978-1-141-63225-1.
  26. ^Kuiper, F.B.J.(1983).Ancient Indian Cosmogony.Bombay, IN.ISBN0-7069-1370-1.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  27. ^Herrenschmidt, Clarisse;Kellens, Jean (1993). "*Daiva".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Vol. 6. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda. pp. 599–602.
  28. ^abcParpola, Asko (2015).The Roots of Hinduism: The early Aryans and the Indus civilization.Oxford University Press. pp. 66–67, 82–109.ISBN978-0-19-022692-3.
  29. ^Maul, S.M. (2017). "Assyrian religion". In Frahm, E. (ed.).A Companion to Assyria.Wiley Blackwell. pp. 336–358.
  30. ^Adams, Douglas (1997). "King".Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.Routledge. p. 330.ISBN978-1-884964-98-5.
  31. ^"Deva".Encyclopaedia Britannica– via britannica.com.
  32. ^Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia (4 July 2013).Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities.Routledge. p. 147.ISBN978-1-135-96390-3– via Google Books.
  33. ^Williams, George (2008).A Handbook of Hindu Mythology.Oxford University Press. pp. 90, 112.ISBN978-0-19-533261-2.
  34. ^ऋग्वेदः मण्डल ८[Rig Veda].Rigveda.hymns 8.25.4, 8.96.9 – via Wikisource.
  35. ^seeHale (1999).[3]: 1–2 Note that Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book (see page 3 for example).
    The original Sanskrit text of hymns 8.25.4, 8.96.9 from theRigvedais available on Wikisource.[34]
  36. ^abcBonnefoy, Yves; Doniger, Wendy (1993).Asian Mythologies.University of Chicago Press. pp. 52–53.ISBN978-0-226-06456-7.
  37. ^abGier, Nicholas (1995). "Hindu titanism".Philosophy East and West.45(1): 76–80.doi:10.2307/1399510.JSTOR1399510.
  38. ^abKramrisch, Stella; Burnier, Raymond (1986).The Hindu Temple.Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 75–78.ISBN978-81-208-0223-0.
  39. ^Doniger, Wendy, ed. (2000).Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions.Merriam-Webster. p. 455.ISBN978-0-87779-044-0.
  40. ^Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466
  41. ^Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic,ISBN978-90-04-10758-8,pages 130-131
  42. ^abcdJonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441
  43. ^abJonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442
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