Atharism

For people named Athari, seeAthari (surname).

Atharism(Arabic:الأثرية,romanized:al-ʾAthariyya) is aschool of theologyinSunni Islamwhich developed from circles of theAhl al-Hadith,a group that rejected rationalistictheologyin favor of stricttextualismin interpretation theQuranand thehadith.

Adherents of Athari theology believe thezahir(literal) meaning of the Quran and the hadith are the sole authorities in matters ofaqidaandIslamic jurisprudence;and that the use of rational disputation is forbidden, even if in verifying the truth.Atharis oppose the use of metaphorical interpretation regarding theanthropomorphic descriptionsandattributes of God(ta'wil) and do not attempt to conceptualize the meanings of the Quran rationallysince they believe that their realities should be consigned to God alone (tafwid).In essence, they assert that the literal meaning of the Quran and theḥadīthmust be accepted without a "how" (i.e. "Bi-la kayfa").

Athari theology emerged among hadith scholars who eventually coalesced into a movement calledAhl al-Ḥadīthunder the leadership ofAhmad ibn Hanbal(780–855). In matters of faith, they were pitted againstMu'tazilitesand other theological Islamic currents and condemned many points of their doctrine as well as the extreme rationalistic methods they used.In the 10th century,al-Ashʿarīandal-Māturīdīfound a middle ground between Muʿtazilite rationalism andHanbaliteliteralism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Muʿtazilites to defend most tenets of the Athari doctrine.Although the mainly Hanbali scholars who rejected that synthesis were in the minority, their emotive, narrative-based approach to faith remained influential among the urban masses in some areas of theMuslim world,particularly inAbbasidBaghdad.

AshʿarismandMāturīdismare often regarded as the creeds of Sunni "orthodoxy", but Athari theology has thrived alongside it by laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith.In themodern erait has had a disproportionate impact on Islamic theology, having been appropriated byWahhabiand other traditionalistSalafi currents,and spread well beyond the confines of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence.

Terminology

Several terms are used to refer to Athari theology or Atharism. They are used inconsistently, and some of them have been subject to criticism.

The designation Traditionalist Theology is derived from the word "tradition" in its technical meaning as translation of the Arabic termḥadīth.This term is found in a number of reference works.It has been criticized byMarshall Hodgson(who preferred the termHadith folk)for its potential for confusion between the technical and common meanings of the word "tradition".Oliver Leamanalso cautions against misinterpreting the terms "traditionalists" and "rationalists" as implying that the former favored irrationality or that the latter did not use theḥadīth.Some authors reject the use of these terms as labels for groups of scholars and prefer to speak of "traditionalist" and "rationalist" tendencies instead.Racha el Omari has applied the designationtraditionalist theologyin a way that includes bothAshʿarismandMāturīdism.

Athari (from the Arabic wordathar,meaning "remnant"or"effect") is another term that has been used for traditionalist theology.The term Traditionism has also been used in the same sense,although Binyamin Abrahamov reserves the term "traditionists" for scholars of the Hadith, distinguishing it from traditionalism as a theological current.The term "Ahl al-Ḥadīth"(" People of the Tradition ") is used by some authors in the same sense asAthari,while others restrict it to the early stages of this movement,or use it in a broader sense to denote particular enthusiasm towards theḥadīthliterature.

Since the overwhelming majority of Muslim scholars in theHanbalischool of jurisprudencehas adhered to the Athari creed (ʿaqīdah), many sources refer to it as "Hanbali theology", although Western scholars ofIslamic studiesremark that it would be incorrect to consider Atharism and Hanbalism as synonymous, since there have been Hanbalite scholars who have explicitly rejected and opposed the Athari theology.However, others note that someShafiʽi scholarsalso belonged to this theological school, while some Hanbalites in law adopted a more rationalist school in theology.Moreover, extreme forms of traditionalism had not been confined within Hanbalism, and is also part ofMaliki,Shafi'iandHanafischools.Some authors refer to traditionalist theology as "classical Salafism" or "classic Salafiyyah" (fromsalaf,meaning "(pious) ancestors" ).Henri Lauzière has argued that, while the majority Hanbali creed was sometimes identified as "Salafi" in classical-era sources, using the corresponding nouns in this context is anachronistic.

It is also known as Traditionalist theology or Scripturalist theology.it emerged as a school of theology in the late 8th century CE from the scholarly circles ofAhl al-Hadith,an earlyIslamicreligious movement that rejected the formulation of Islamic doctrine derived from rationalistic Islamic theology (kalām) in favor of stricttextualismin interpreting theQuranand theḥadīth.The name derives from "tradition" in its technical sense as a translation of the Arabic wordathar.Its adherents are referred to byseveral namessuch as "Ahl al-Athar","Ahl al-Hadith",etc.

History

Origins

Muslim historiansandjuriststheorized that the companionZubayr ibn al-Awwamwas one of the earliest traditionalist and textualist scholars who influenced later Athari scholasticism.Zubair's method of proto-textualismprecedently influenced the scholars ofAhl al-Ḥadīth.This was characterized by their approach to literal adherence to the texts of the Quran andḥadīth,while largely rejecting theQiyas(analogy) methodology ofAhl al-Ra'y(scholars of logic).This strict view expressed by az-Zubayr regarding theexegetical interpretation of the Quranwas recorded in his primary biographies compiled by Islamic scholars. These include the statements of az-Zubayr such as his advice to one of his children to never argue about thetext of the Quranwith logic. According to az-Zubayr, the interpretations of the Quran should be strictly bound with the traditional understanding of theḥadīthandsunnah.Such anti-rationalistic, traditionalistic, andḥadīth-oriented views were also shared by many influential scholars in history that reached the rank ofmujtahid mūtlaq(advanced scholars who founded their ownmadhhab) such as the Shafiʽite scholarIbn Kathir,Hanbalite scholarIbn Taymiyyah,Ibn Hazm,Bukhari-independent school,and also scholars from theJaririandZahirischools.

Another companion who was known to hold this textualist stance was'Abdullah ibn Umar.When enquired by a group of hisTabi'in disciplesregarding his views on theQadariyah,Ibn 'Umar responded with subtletakfīr(excommunication from Islam) towards the Qadariyah for their rejection ofqadar(predestination). He also condemned their usage of analogical method (Qiyas). According to contemporary scholars, the reason for the condemnation of the Qadariyah by Ibn 'Umar was the similarity between their doctrines and those ofZoroastrianismandManichaeismdue to their respectivedualistic cosmologies,which are in line with oneḥadīththat recites: "QadariyahwereMagiof thisUmmah".

Formation

Atharism materialized as a formal distinct school of thought towards the end of the 8th century CE among Muslim scholars of theḥadīthwho held the Quran and the authenticḥadīthto be the only acceptable sources in matters of law and creed.AlongsideMalik ibn Anas,Islamic scholarIbn Idris al-Shafi'iis widely regarded among the earliest leaders of the Athari school. In the debates between rationalists and the traditionalists, al-Shafi'i was able to successfully uphold the superiority of theḥadīthover other devices (such as rational arguments, local traditions, customs,ra'y,etc. ) as the source of theological knowledge and Quranic interpretation.From this school would emerge a vigorous traditionalist movement against theAhl al-Ra'yand its various manifestations.The doctrines of these early Shafi'ite theologians would be revived in the treatises of later Hanbali scholars.

At first these scholars formed minorities within existing religious study circles, but by the early 9th century CE they coalesced into a separate traditionalist scholastic movement, commonly calledAhl al-Ḥadīth,under the leadership ofAhmad ibn Hanbal.Another major leader of the traditionalist camp during this era wasDawud ibn Khalaf,the founder of theZahirite(literalist) school. Under the leadership of these two scholars, the Atharite camp gained ascendancy.In legal matters, these traditionalists criticized the use of personal opinion (ra'y) common among theHanafitejurists of Iraq as well as the reliance on living local traditions byMalikitejurists ofMedina.They emphasised the superiority of Scriptural proofs, denouncing the role of'Aql(human intellect) and also rejected methods of jurisprudence not based on literal reading of scriptures. Unlike mainstream traditionalists, Dawud would go as far as to declare all forms ofQiyas(analogical reasoning) to be completely invalid.In matters of faith, traditionalists were pitted againstMu'tazilitesand other theological currents, condemning many points of their doctrines as well as the rationalistic methods they used in defending them.

Traditionalists were also characterized by their avoidance of all state patronage and by their social activism.They attempted to follow the injunction of "commanding good and forbidding evil"by preachingasceticismand launchingvigilante attacksto break wine bottles, musical instruments and chessboards.In 833, the caliphal-Ma'muntried to impose Mu'tazilite theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition (mihna) which required them to accept the Mu'tazilite doctrine that theQuran was created and therefore not co-eternal with God,which implicitly made it subject to interpretation by caliphs and scholars.Ibn Hanbal led traditionalist resistance to this policy, affirming under torture that the Quran was uncreated and hence co-eternal with God.Although Mu'tazilism remained state doctrine until 851, the efforts to impose it only served to politicize and harden the theological controversy.The failure of theMihnacampaign symbolised the total defeat of theMu'tazilitesand the doctrinal triumph of the persecuted traditionalists, who had gained popular support. Apart from the universal condemnation of the doctrine ofQur'anic createdness;'Aql(human intellect) was denied any independent role in religious interpretations and driven compliant toWahy(Revelation) in Sunni hermeneutical paradigm.

Emergence ofKalām

The next two centuries saw an emergence of broad compromises in both law and creed within Sunni Islam. In jurisprudence, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali schools all gradually came to accept both the traditionalist reliance on the Quran andḥadīthand the use of controlled reasoning in the form ofqiyas.In theology,al-Ashʿarī(874-936) found a middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most tenets of the traditionalist doctrine.A rival compromise between rationalism and traditionalism emerged from the work ofal-Māturīdī(d. c. 944), and one of these two schools of theology was accepted by members of all the Sunni schools of jurisprudence, with the exception of most Hanbalite and some Maliki and Shafi'i scholars, who ostensibly persisted in their rejection ofkalām,although they often resorted to rationalistic arguments themselves, even while claiming to rely on the literal text of the Islamic scriptures.

Traditionalist response

Although the traditionalist scholars who rejected theAshʿarī-Māturīdīsynthesis were in the minority, their emotive, narrative-based approach to faith remained influential among the urban masses in some areas, particularly inAbbasidBaghdad.Its popularity manifested itself repeatedly from the late 9th to 11th centuries, when crowds shouted down preachers who publicly expounded rationalistic theology.After the caliphal-Mutawakkilsuspended the rationalist inquisition, Abbasid caliphs came to rely on an alliance with traditionalists to buttress popular support.In the early 11th century, the caliphal-Qadirmade a series of proclamations that sought to prevent public preaching of rationalistic theology.In turn, theSeljuqvizierNizam al-Mulkin the late 11th century encouraged Ashʿarite theologians in order to counterbalance caliphal traditionalism, inviting a number of them to preach in Baghdad over the years. One such occasion led to five months of rioting in the city in 1077.

Modern and contemporary era

While Ashʿarism and Māturīdism are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", Athari theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith.In themodern erait has had a disproportionate impact on Islamic theology, having been appropriated byWahhabiand other traditionalistSalafi currentsand spread well beyond the confines of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence.The works of 19th century SunniYemenitheologianMuhammad Al-Shawkani(d. 1839 C.E/ 1255 A.H) has contributed heavily to the revival of traditionalist theology in the contemporary era.

Traditionalist scripturalism also exerts significant influence within theHanafi school of jurisprudence,such as the Hanafite scholarIbn Abi al-Izz'ssharhon al-Tahawi's creedal treatiseAl-Aqida al-Tahawiyya.This treatise would become popular amongst the adherents of the laterSalafiyyamovement, who regard it as a true representation of the Hanafi creed free from the influence ofMāturīdī theology.Numerous contemporary Salafi scholars have produced supercommentaries and annotations on thesharh,includingAbd al-Aziz ibn Baz,Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani,andSaleh al-Fawzan,and it is taught as a standard text at theIslamic University of Madinah.

Beliefs

Athari doctrine is grounded on the following propositions:

• Strict compliance to thesources of Islamic law;i.e.,Qur'an,Sunnahand'Ijma(scholarly consensus)
• Uniformity of foundational creedal principles extracted from these sources
• Deference to qualifiedscholars of hadithcapable of deriving rulings fromhadith
• Strong hostility towards various forms ofbid'ah(religious innovations)

OnTaqlid

The traditionalists' attitudes towards religious principles led them to differentiate two similar terms:TaqlidandIttiba.Taqlidwhich was the practice of blindly following scholars and their opinions (ra'y) without scriptural proofs, was harshly condemned. On the other hand, Atharis understoodIttibaas following the prophetic teachings by using the scriptural evidences supplied by the scholars. Many traditionalists likeAhmad ibn Hanbal(d. 855), a major scholar who articulatedIjtihadand rejectedTaqlid,would use scriptural proofs from the Quran andsunnahbut also in some cases rational proofs.

The Athari denunciations ofTaqlidwould reach its zenith in the writings of the 8th/14th-century theologiansIbn Taymiyya(d. 1328 C.E/ 728 A.H) andIbn Qayyim al-Jawziyya(d. 1350 C.E/751 A.H). According to Ibn Taymiyya, those who depart from the clear texts ofQur'anandHadithto prefer the opinions of other individuals belong to the "Age of Ignorance" (Jahiliyyah) and deserve to be punished.In one of hisfatwassternly condemning the practice of blindTaqlid,Ibn Taymiyya declares:

One who requirestaqlīdof a particularimāmmust be asked to repent, and if he refuses, he is to be killed.

On reason

While they promoted strict adherence to the Quran, theḥadīth,thesunnah,andijma,and consensus Atharis did not neglect the use ofreason.According to the traditionalists, rational arguments serve as proofs of thedivine revelation.Despite the traditionalist criticism of the rationalist Islamic theologians, reason plays an important role in Athari theology.

According to the medieval Sunni theologian and Hanbalite scholarIbn Taymiyyah(d. 1328), straying away from tradition and adopting rationalist approaches creates disputes among Muslims. Hence, Ibn Taymiyyah advocated the doctrine of early Athari theologians, which emphasizes the stability of the tradition.Summing up the traditionalist attitude toward rational argumentation, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote:

The preference of rational arguments over traditional ones is impossible and unsound. As for the preference of the traditional proofs, it is possible and sound... that is on account of the fact that being known through reason or not is not an inherent attribute (ṣifa lāzima) of a thing but rather a relative one (min al-umūr al-nisbiyya al-iḍāfiyya), for Zayd may know through his reason what Bakr does not know, and a man may know at a certain time through his reason what he will not know at another time.

On Quran

Athari theologians believe that every part of the Quran is uncreated (ghair makhluq).It is reported thatAhmad ibn Hanbal(d. 855) said: "The Qur'an is God's Speech, which He expressed; it is uncreated. He who claims the opposite is aJahmite,aninfidel.And he who says, 'The Qur'an is God's Speech,' and stops there without adding 'uncreated,' speaks even more abominably than the former ".

Onkalām

For Atharis, the validity of human reason is limited, and rational proofs cannot be trusted or relied upon in matters of belief, which makeskalāma blameworthy innovation.Rational proofs, unless they are Qur'anic in origin, are considered nonexistent and wholly invalid.However, that was not always the case since a number of Atharis delved intokalām,whether or not they described it as such.

Examples of Atharis who wrote books against the use ofkalāmand human reason include the HanbaliteSufischolarKhwaja Abdullah Ansariand the Hanbalite juristIbn Qudama.Ibn Qudama harshly rebukedkalāmas one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized its theologians, themutakallimūn,as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from the simple and pious faith of the early Muslims. He wrote,"The theologians are intensely hated in this world, and they will be tortured in the next. None among them will prosper, nor will he succeed in following the right direction...".

On attributes of God

Atharis staunchly affirm the existence of theattributes of Godand consider all of them to be equally eternal. They accept the relevant verses of the Quran and theḥadīthas they are without subjecting them to rational analysis or elaboration.According to Atharis, the real meanings of the attributes of God should be consigned to God alone (tafwid).According to this method, one should adhere to the text of the Quran and believe that it is the truth, without trying to explain it through a figurative explanation.

Ahmad ibn Hanbal reportedly stated: "His Attributes proceed from Him and are His own, we do not go beyond the Qur'an and the traditions of the Prophet and his Companions; nor do we know the how of these, save by the acknowledgment of the Apostle and the confirmation of the Qur'an".

Ibn Qudamah al-Maqdisi stated: "For we have no need to know the meaning which Allah intended by His attributes; no course of action is intended by them, nor is there any obligation attached to them. It is possible to believe in them without the knowledge of their intended sense".

Anthropomorphismwas commonly alleged against Athari theologians by their critics,including the Hanbalite scholar and theologianIbn al-Jawzi.In some cases, Athari scholars espoused extreme anthropomorphic views,but they do not generally represent the Athari theology as a whole.

Oniman(faith)

The Atharis hold thatiman(faith) increases and decreases in correlation with the performance of prescribed rituals and duties, such as thefive daily prayers.They believe thatimanresides in the heart, in the utterance of the tongue, and in the action of the limbs.

Categorisation oftawhid

Ibn Taymiyyahseems to have been the first to introduce this distinction.

Not all adherents of the Athari school support the splitting of Tawhid into three parts, as done byMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhaband thus believe it is an innovation.

Criticism

The 16th-century Ash'arite scholarIbn Hajar al-Haytamidenounced Athari theological views as associated with the doctrine ofIbn Taymiyyah.

See also

• List of Atharis

Sources

• Ali Shah, Zulfiqar (2012).Anthropomorphic Depictions of God: The Concept of God in Judaic, Christian, and Islamic Traditions: Representing the Unrepresentable.International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).ISBN978-1565645752.
• Alwani, Taha Jabir Fayyad; DeLorenzo, Yusuf Talal; Al-Shikh-Ali, A. S. (2003).Source Methodology in Islamic Jurisprudence Uṣūl Al Figh Al Islāmī.International Institute of Islamic Thought.ISBN978-1-56564-404-5.Retrieved20 November2021.
• Abrahamov, Binyamin (1996).Anthropomorphismand Interpretation of the Qur'an in the Theology of Al-Qasim Ibn Ibrahim: Kitab Al-Mustarshid.Leiden: E.J. Brill.ISBN9004104089.
• Agwan, A. R.; Singh, N. K. (2000).Encyclopedia of the Holy Qur'an.Global Vision Publishing House.ISBN8187746009.
• Belo, Catarina (2014)."Theology".In Ibrahim Kalin (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-981257-8.
• Berkey, Jonathan Porter (2003).The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800(Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Berkey, Jonathan Porter (2010). "Islam". In Robert Irwin (ed.).The New Cambridge History of Islam.Vol. 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge University Press.
• Blankinship, Khalid(2008). Tim Winter (ed.).The early creed.Vol. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009).Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World(Kindle ed.). Oneworld Publications.
• Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009b)."Salafism".Oxford Bibliographies.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Burrell, David B.; Cogliati, Carlo; Soskice, Janet M.; Stoeger, William R., eds. (2010).Creation and the God of Abraham.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781139490788.
• Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009).Encyclopedia of Islam.Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-1-4381-2696-8.
• El Omari, Racha (2013). "Theology". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought.Princeton University Press.
• El Shamsy, Ahmed (2008). Tim Winter (ed.).The social construction of orthodoxy.Vol. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Esposito, John L., ed. (2014)."Ahl al-Hadith".The Oxford Dictionary of Islam.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-512558-0.
• Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010).Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN9781137473578.
• Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (2009).The Venture of Islam, Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam(Kindle ed.). University of Chicago Press.
• Hoover, Jon (April 2014)."Ḥanbalī Theology".In Sabine Schmidtke (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology.Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2016).doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.014.ISBN9780199696703.
• Ibrahim, Hassan Ahmed (2006). "Shaykh Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd Al-Wahhāb and Shāh Walī Allāh: A Preliminary Comparison of Some Aspects of Their Lifes and Careers".Asian Journal of Social Science.34(1): 103–119.doi:10.1163/156853106776150126.JSTOR23654402.
• Isaacs, Rico; Frigerio, Alessandro (2018).Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power.Springer.ISBN9783319973555.
• Laoust, Henri (1986). "Hanabila". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam.Vol. 3 (Second ed.). Brill.
• Lapidus, Ira M.(2014).A History of Islamic Societies(Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-51430-9.
• Lauzière, Henri (2015).The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century.Columbia University Press.ISBN9780231540179.
• Leaman, Oliver (2008). Tim Winter (ed.).The developed kalām tradition.Vol. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Leaman, Oliver (2009)."Ahl al-Ḥadīth".In John L. Esposito (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-530513-5.
• Lucas, Scott C. (2005). "Theology". In Josef W. Meri (ed.).Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia.Routledge.
• Lucas, Scott C. (2006). "The Legal Principles of Muhammad B. Ismāʿīl Al-Bukhārī and Their Relationship to Classical Salafi Islam".Islamic Law and Society.13(3): 290–292, 303.doi:10.1163/156851906778946341.
• Mason, Herbert W. (1973). Herbert W. Mason; Ronald L. Nettler; Jacques Waardenburg (eds.).Humaniora Islamica.Vol. 1.ISBN9782719306079.
• Melchert, Christopher (2006).Ahmad Ibn Hanbal.Oneworld Publ.
• Shahin, Emad el-Din (2009)."Salafīyah".In John L. Esposito (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-530513-5.
• Spevack, Aaron (2014).The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri.SUNY Press.ISBN978-1-4384-5371-2.
• Spevack, Aaron (2016)."Egypt and the Later Ashʿarite School".In Sabine Schmidtke (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology.Oxford University Press. pp. 534–546.ISBN9780199696703.
• Stewart, Devin (2002)."Muḥammad b. Dāwūd al-Ẓāhirī's Manual of Jurisprudence: Al-Wuṣūl ilā maʿrifat al-uṣūl".Studies in Islamic Legal Theory.15:99–158.doi:10.1163/9789047400851_009.ISBN9789047400851.Retrieved24 November2021.
• Taufiq, Muhammad (2019).Filsafat Hukum Islam dari teori dan implementasi.Duta Media Publishing.ISBN9786237161479.Retrieved16 November2021.
• Waines, David (2003).An Introduction to Islam.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521539064.