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Auckland isthmus

Coordinates:36°53′50″S174°46′50″E/ 36.89722°S 174.78056°E/-36.89722; 174.78056
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Auckland isthmus
Waitemata Group
The Auckland isthmus seen from the International Space Station in 2019
The Auckland isthmus seen from theInternational Space Stationin 2019
Auckland isthmus is located in New Zealand
Auckland isthmus
Location in theAuckland Region
Coordinates:36°53′50″S174°46′50″E/ 36.89722°S 174.78056°E/-36.89722; 174.78056
LocationAuckland Region,New Zealand
AgeEarly Miocene,Quaternary
Map
Approximate extent of the isthmus, bounded byPortage Road, ŌtāhuhuandPortage Road, New Lynn

TheAuckland isthmus,also known as theTāmaki isthmus,[1]is a narrow stretch of land on theNorth Islandof New Zealand in theAuckland Region,and the location of the central suburbs of the city ofAuckland,including theCBD.Theisthmusis located between tworias(drowned river valleys): theWaitematā Harbourto the north, which opens to theHauraki Gulf / Tīkapa MoanaandPacific Ocean,and theManukau Harbourto the south, which opens to theTasman Sea.The isthmus is the most southern section of theNorthland Peninsula.

The Auckland isthmus is bound on the eastern side by theTāmaki Riverand by theWhau Riveron the west; two tidal estuaries of the Waitematā Harbour.[2]These were used asportagesby earlyMāori migration canoesandTāmaki Māorito cross the isthmus (the Tāmaki River crossing known as Te Tō Waka, and the Whau River as Te Tōangawaka). Through early European settler history, canals were variously considered at either portage, however by the 1910s these projects were abandoned.

The isthmus was the centre of theWaiohuaconfederation ofiwiin the 17th and early 18th centuries, who centred life around elaborate fortifiedpāofMaungawhau / Mount EdenandMaungakiekie / One Tree Hill.After the defeat of paramount chiefKiwi Tāmakicirca 1740, the isthmus became theroheofNgāti Whātua Ōrākei.In 1840, European settlers established the town ofAucklandon the Waitematā Harbour, followed shortly after by thefencibletowns ofOnehunga,ŌtāhuhuandPanmure.The city developed outwards from thePort of Auckland,and by the mid-20th century the isthmus was almost completely urbanised. Originally organised as a variety of fractured land boards, boroughs and cities, the entire isthmus was amalgamated into a singlelocal authoritycalledAuckland Cityduring the1989 New Zealand local government reforms,which lasted until the 2010 unification of all local government in theAuckland Regionto create theAuckland Council.

Since European colonisation of the region, the isthmus has seen major changes in landscape and infrastructure, including quarrying ofscoriacones in theAuckland volcanic field,the draining of swamps and wetlands for farmland and housing andland reclamationon theAuckland waterfront.Large-scale infrastructure projects, including therail networkin the 1870s, theAuckland Motorwaysfrom the 1950s, and bridges (most notably theAuckland Harbour Bridge,opening in 1959 and connecting the isthmus to theNorth Shore), have fuelled population growth and suburban sprawl,both on the isthmus and in the greater Auckland Region.

Geological history

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Almorah Rock Forest,an ecosystem that once covered much of the Auckland isthmus (pictured: lava rock forest remnant at Withiel Thomas Reserve,Newmarket)
Wetlands and swamps surrounded byCordyline australis(cabbage trees / tī kōuka) formed in many of the unforested areas of the isthmus (pictured: Cabbage Tree Swamp inSandringham,circa 1910)
Further information:Geology of the Auckland Region

The isthmus is formed from sections ofEarly MioceneWaitemata Groupmarine sedimentary rock, withQuaternaryvolcanic rock from geologically recent volcanic eruptions and lava flows.[3]Approximately 23 million years ago, tectonic forces between thePacific PlateandAustralian Platepushed the Auckland isthmus and surrounding areas to depths of 2,000-3,000 metres under sea-level. This formed a wide sedimentary basin, sheltered by the largeWaitākere Volcanoto the west.[4]The Waitemata Group sedimentary rocks were formed by eroding deposits from theNorthland Peninsula,then an uplifted island.[4]As tectonic forces changed, the begin was uplifted approximately 17 million years ago.[4]

The isthmus in its current structure was formed at the end of theLast Glacial Maximum(known locally as the Ōtira Glaciation), between 12,000 and 7,000 years ago.[5]As sea levels rose, the river valley to the north, which was carved through theMiocenemarine sedimentsof the Waitemata Group,drownedand became a tidal estuary, theWaitematā Harbour.A similar process occurred on theManukau Harbourto the south.[6]During the Last Glacial Maximum, the modern isthmus was dominated by podocarp-angiosperm forest such askahikatea,Prumnopitys taxifolia(matai) and tree ferns such asAlsophila smithii(kātote). As the area warmed, much of the podocarp forest was displaced byMyrtaceaesuch aspōhutukawaandAscarina lucida.[7][8]Prior to human settlement, much of the isthmus was covered inbroadleaf treeforests, predominantlyBeilschmiedia tarairi(taraire) andVitex lucens(pūriri) trees.[9][10]

A large section of theAuckland volcanic fieldis found on the Auckland isthmus, including some of the most prominent basaltic tuff and scoria volcanoes:Maungawhau / Mount Eden,Maungakiekie / One Tree Hill,Ōhinerau / Mount Hobson,Maungarei / Mount WellingtonandŌwairaka / Mount Albert.Most of these volcanoes have erupted in the last 30,000 years, however the oldest identified volcanoes on the isthmus includeAlbert Park VolcanoandGlover Park,which are estimated to have erupted 145,000 and 161,000 years ago respectively).[11][7]The volcanic activity caused much of the land on the isthmus to be formed from volcanic rock, such as theTe Kōpuke / Mount Saint Johneruption (circa 28,000 years ago), which caused a lava flow crossing the isthmus and forming theMeola Reefin the Waitematā Harbour.[12]

Volcanism has influenced the geography of the isthmus, creating unique forested areas and swamplands. Underneath much of the isthmus are lava caves formed from eruptions such as Maungawhau / Mount Eden (circa 28,000 years ago).[12][11]Known as Ngā Ana Wai toTāmaki Māori,the caves fed fresh water into springs and swamps aroundSandringhamandWestern Springs.[13]The eruption of Maungarei / Mount Wellington (circa 10,000 years ago)[11]blocked existing creeks on the isthmus and led to the formation ofWaiatarua,a former lake and current wetland reserve/golf-course inRemuera/Meadowbank.[14][7]Low-lying swamps were predominantly vegetated withCordyline australis(cabbage tree / tī kōuka) andPhormium tenax(harakeke flax),[10]and also formed behind beach deposits at the mouths of streams[15]

The volcanic eruptions led to the creation of the Epsom rock forest / Almorah rock forest, an ecosystem unique to the isthmus formed of trees such asMeryta sinclairii(puka),Litsea calicaris(mangeao),Alectryon excelsus(tītoki),Melicytus ramiflorus(māhoe),Piper excelsum(kawakawa) andPseudopanax lessonii(houpara) growing in a primarily in a rock and leafhumusenvironment, with minimal soil.[16][17]The largest remaining area of native bush on the isthmus is theKepa Bush Reserveat the edge of the Purewa Creek in southernMission Bay,wherekohekohetrees dominate the old growth sections of the reserve.[18]

The isthmus is a part of theNorthland temperate kauri forestsecoregion,[19]Locally, the isthmus together with surrounding lowland areas and theNorth Shoreas far north asEast Coast Baysform theDepartment of Conservation's Tāmaki Ecological District.[9]The western side of the isthmus serves as a border between the Western Northland and Hauraki-Auckland bioregions forland snails.[20]

Due to the length of the Northland Peninsula, there are significant tidal differences between the two harbours that border the isthmus. After high tide reaches the Waitematā Harbour, it takes approximately 3.5 hours for high tide to reach the Manukau Harbour.[2][21]

Human context

[edit]
Further information:History of Auckland

Māori history

[edit]
Terracing onMaungawhau / Mount Eden,one of the most populated locations on the isthmus during theWaiohuaconfederation of the 17th and 18th centuries
Kūmara (sweet potato)was widely grown on the isthmus during the pre-European period, and stored inrua kūmara(storehouses) (pictured: storehouse pit remnants onŌhinerau)

The Auckland isthmus was an early location visited by many of theMāori migration canoes,including theMatahourua,Aotea,Mātaatua,Tainui,Tākitimu,Tokomaru,Te WakatūwhenuaandMoekākarawaka.[22][23]The area was calledTāmaki Makaurau,meaning "Tāmaki desired by many", in reference to the desirability of its natural resources and geography.[24]Tāmaki Māorifound the isthmus to be an important strategic location, due to the fertile soils and rich resources from the two harbours that bound the isthmus.[25]

Portages, where waka could be moved across the isthmus at its most narrow points, were important features of the isthmus for Tāmaki Māori. The most important of these wasTe Tō Waka,at the modern location ofPortage Road, Ōtāhuhusouth ofŌtāhuhu / Mount Richmond,[22][23]where only 200 metres of land separated the Manukau Harbour from the Tāmaki River.[26]Other major portages wereKaretu,which was to the south ofMutukaroa / Hamlins Hill Regional Park,[22]andTe Tōanga Waka(the Whau Portage), which connected theWhau River,Avondale Creek (Waitahurangi) to Karaka, which was the coast on the Manukau Harbour atGreen Bay.[27]In addition to portages, trails across the isthmus were created, one of the most notable beingKarangahape Road,connecting the central isthmus toCornwallis / Karangahapein the southernWaitākere Ranges.[28]

Between the 13th and 18th centuries, much of the isthmus was deforested,[16]and devoted tokūmara (sweet potato) cultivation.Land underwent periods ofshifting cultivation,where once the soil was exhausted, a new field would be tilled, and the former would be colonised by fast-growing native plants.[29][30][31]After harvesting, crops would be stored inrua kūmara,a storehouse fitted over a dry pit that is often found on the volcanic cones of the isthmus.[32][33]

In the 17th century, chiefHua Kaiwakaconsolidated tribes on the isthmus as a confederation calledWaiohua,a union which lasted for three generations until the early 18th century.[34][13]Thousands of people lived at fortifiedpācomplexes onMaungawhau / Mount EdenandMaungakiekie / One Tree Hill,[1]and Waiohua settlements were found at Maungarei, Onehunga, Remuera,Ōrākei,Kohimarama,Rarotonga / Mount Smart,Te Tatua-a-Riukiuta,Ōwairaka / Mount Albert, theWaihorotiu Valley(modernAuckland CBD), in addition toMāngereto the south of the isthmus.[35]Almost all hills, headlands and mountains on the isthmus have some history of Māori occupancy.[2]TheTe Taoūhapū ofNgāti WhātuadefeatedKiwi Tāmaki,the paramount chief of Waiohua circa 1741, at a battle atParuroa (Big Muddy Creek)in the lowerWaitākere Ranges.[36][37]After Waiohua were defeated in a series of battles, some members of Te Taoū settled at Tāmaki Makaurau and intermarried with Waiohua, later becoming known asNgāti Whātua Ōrākei.[30]During this period, the isthmus began to be reforested, due to the relatively small population of Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei.[16]In the 1780s, Te Tahuri, a chieftainess of Te Taou gifted land on the Western shore of the Tāmaki River toNgāti Pāoaat Mokoia (modern dayPanmure), and within a generation Ngāti Pāoa almost outnumbered Ngāti Whātua on the isthmus.[38]While Ngāti Whātua and Ngāti Pāoa peacefully co-exited at first, an incident during a sharking expedition which led to the death of Tarahawaiki (father ofApihai Te Kawau) began a cycle of revenge attacks between Ngāti Whātua/Waiohua and Ngāti Pāoa.[38]While peacemaking Ngāti Whātua and Ngāti Pāoa began in 1793,Ngāpuhifrom the north attacked Ngāti Pāoa, culminating in a battle at the mouth of the Tāmaki River, where Ngāti Pāoa fended off Ngāpuhi.[38]By the time missionariesSamuel MarsdenandJohn Gare Butlervisited the isthmus in 1820, there were thousands of inhabitants living along the shores of the Tāmaki River.[39]

In late 1821 during theMusket Wars,a Ngāpuhi taua (war party) led byHongi Hikaattacked Mauināina pā and Mokoia village on the banks of the Tāmaki River (modern-dayPanmure), causing a great number of deaths.[40]This incident marked the beginning of a period of time when the isthmus was most deserted, when Tāmaki Māori sheltered in regions away from the threat ofTe Tai Tokerau Māoriraiders that continued on until the early 1830s.[40][30][39]Ngāti Pāoa began to return to the Hauraki Gulf region in the 1820s, however primarily focused resettlingWaiheke Island,where there were many trade opportunities with whalers.[39]Ngāti Whātua returned to the isthmus by the mid-1830s, resettling in theMāngere Bridge-Onehungaarea.[30]By the 1840s, much of the landscape of the Auckland isthmus was covered inbrackenfern.[7]The shoreline of the Waitematā Harbour was populated withpōhutukawatrees, however during the 1840s onwards most mature specimens were cut down to use for ship building.[41]

European history

[edit]

Early colonial period

[edit]
The Auckland and Parnell settlements on the isthmus in the 1860s, as seen in a watercolour by Edward Harker

In 1840 after the signing of theTreaty of Waitangi,paramount chiefApihai Te Kawaumade atuku(strategic gift) of land atWaihorotiuon the Waitematā Harbour toWilliam Hobson,the first Governor of New Zealand, as a location for the capital of the colony to develop. This location became the modern city of Auckland, beginning with a port develop aroundCommercial Bay.In mid-1840, Apihai Te Kawau relocated the majority of the Ngāti Whātua from the Manukau Harbour toRemuera-Ōrākeion the Waitematā Harbour, closer to the new settlement of Auckland.[38][42]Dual ports were created on either side of the isthmus for the European settlement: the Port of Auckland on the Waitematā Harbour, and the Port of Onehunga on the Manukau Harbour, separated by nine kilometres.[43]In 1841, the Crown purchased the Kohimarama block from Ngāti Pāoa (6,000 acres extending fromMission Baysouth to Panmure).[39][36]Ngāti Pāoa understood that this deal allowed for Ngāti Pāoa to settle and establish a trading post atParnellnear the new city of Auckland, however no reserves were set aside.[36]Land atMechanics Baywas eventually established as a general area for Ngāti Pāoa, other iwi and poorer visitors to Auckland, which was declared a public domain in 1898.[39]

Between 1847 and 1852, the towns ofOnehunga,ŌtāhuhuandPanmurewere established by GovernorGeorge Greyas outposts for theRoyal New Zealand Fencible Corps,a collection of retired British and Irish soldiers, to serve as a buffer against a perceived threat of war from the south.[44]Onehunga on the Manukau Harbour became a major port town, facilitating trade with Manukau-basedTāmaki MāoriandWaikatotribes, who would sell and barter resources such as peaches, melons, fish and potatoes.[45]By 1855, most Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei lands had either been given astukuto the Crown, or lost through property speculators, with only the 700-acreŌrākeiblock remaining.[46][42]

Larger areas of Auckland were able to be developed after the creation ofGreat North RoadandGreat South Road,the latter of which was created during the 1860s to facilitate troop movements during theInvasion of the Waikato.[47]During the 1860s, affluent members of society in Auckland began to move into the countryside, living at locations such as modern Newmarket andEpsom.[16]By the late 1860s, the economy on the isthmus began to decline, after soldiers left the area at the end of the invasion, and because thecapitalwas moved south toWellington.[48]

1850s–1950s: development and state housing

[edit]
A pictorial map of the Auckland isthmus circa 1860, looking south from the city of Auckland towards the settlements ofŌtāhuhuandOnehunga
The proposed Waitematā-Manukau harbour canal, along theWhau River(1907)

Beginning in 1859, land reclamation in the Waitematā Harbour enabled Auckland to become a shipping hub, facilitating the export of goods such as gold from theThamesgold rush andkaurilogging,until these resources were exhausted in the early 1900s.[48]By 1890, 53 hectares of land was reclaimed at thePorts of Auckland.[49]In the 1880s, many headlands of the Waitematā Harbour were developed intomilitary fortsdue to concerns over a potential invasion fromRussia,[49]including Point Resolution inParnellandBastion PointatŌrākei(however most prominently seen atNorth HeadandMount Victoriaon theNorth Shore). During the 19th century, plans for a canal (variously at theŌtāhuhuportage or theWhau Riverportage) linking the two sides of the isthmus were widely discussed, however plans never eventuated, and by the 1910s the idea had been abandoned, after the completion of theNorth Island Main Trunkrailway.[50]

During the 1800s, many of the volcanic cones on the isthmus such asMaungawhau / Mount Eden,Te Kōpuke / Mount Saint JohnandMaungarei / Mount Wellingtonbegan to be quarried, so that the scoria could be used for roading materials, however by the end of the century, lava basalt deposits orgreywackefrom theHunua Rangeswas preferred.[51][52][53]By the 1860s, theAlbert Park Volcanohad been entirely quarried,[52]and by the 1880s the non-volcanicPoint Britomartheadland was quarried to be used as fill for land reclamation inMechanics Bay.[54]

The isthmus was connected to surrounding areas of Auckland through infrastructure projects. ThePanmure Bridgeconnecting to eastern Auckland farmland and the fencibles settlement ofHowickwas opened in 1866,[49]followed by theMāngere Bridgelinking Auckland south in 1875,[55]and the firstGrafton Bridgein 1884, linking the central city toGraftonacross theGrafton Gully.[56]Auckland's first railway opened in 1873, the 13 km (8.1 mi)Onehunga Lineon theOnehunga BranchbetweenPoint BritomartandOnehungaviaPenrose,[57]followed soon after by theSouthern Line,connecting the isthmus south toPukekoheby 1875, and as far south on theNorth Island Main TrunkasTe Awamutuin theWaikatoby 1880.[58]TheWestern Line,a section of theNorth Auckland Line,was opened on 29 March 1880 connecting Newmarket toGlen Eden,and extended as far north asHelensvilleby the following year.[57]

In November 1902,tram lineswere opened, connecting Onehunga andHerne Bayto the central city.[59]By the 1920s and early 1930s, tram lines had been constructed, connecting a number of suburbs, includingMount Roskill,Remuera,Meadowbank,Point Chevalier(a suburb that was newly developed in the 1920s),[49]Three KingsandAvondaleto the central city.[59]The opening of the tram stops led to suburban development for these suburbs,[60]attracting middle income families, while city-adjacent suburbs such asPonsonby,Freemans BayandGrey Lynndeveloped into slums due to the deteriorating 19th century housing stock.[49]

By the early 1900s, the Auckland isthmus became the most populated region of New Zealand.[48]In 1911, Auckland became the industrial hub of the country, and by 1921 thePort of Aucklandwas the busiest in New Zealand[48](a title later taken by thePort of Tauranga). Between 1915 and 1940 most of the northern and central areas of the isthmus became urbanised, with the areas of Mount Albert, Avondale, Ellerslie and Onehunga joining the Auckland metropolitan sprawl.[61]Thegrowth of the automobilein the 1920s also led to major concreting and sealing projects on the streets of the isthmus.[62]In the 1930s, the eastern suburbs of the Auckland isthmus were connected to the central city after the construction the Westfield Deviation (now known as theEastern Line) andTāmaki Drivein 1932,[63]both constructed on reclaimed strips ofHobson Bayand theŌrākei Basin.

Overcrowding and poor quality housing began to be combatted in the 1930s by the use of town planning andstate housingprojects.[62]The first of these, dubbed the "ŌrākeiGarden Suburb ", was envisioned as an area primarily for lower class families while providing high quality housing impossible in the inner city slums.[64]By 1945, the areas ofWaterviewandMount Roskillhad also been developed as state housing projects.[49]The land the Ōrākei public housing estate was constructed on was Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei land, which between 1886 and 1950 was either sold by individuals to the Crown or taken through thePublic Works Act,includingBastion Point(taken for a defensive fort in 1886) and the Ōkahu Bay sewage plant in 1908 (now the site ofKelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium), which caused significant pollution in the bay near the Ngāti Whātuakāinga.[46][42][65]The kāinga and marae at Ōkahu Bay were seized and burned in 1952, under the pretense of beautification for theroyal visitof QueenElizabeth IIin 1953, and the residents were relocated to nearby state housing.[66][67]

1950s–1983: motorways, immigration and suburban sprawl

[edit]
Fiat 500sbeing manufactured atŌtāhuhuin 1966. By 1967, New Zealand had one of highest per capita car ownership rates in the world.
The morning traffic rush on theAuckland Northern Motorwayin 1975.

By the mid-1950s,motorwaysbecame a new type ofcivil engineeringproject that began to dominate the isthmus. The first section that opened was theNorthwestern Motorwayin 1952, connecting Westerview to theTe Atatū PeninsulainWest Auckland,to create a dedicated corridor to reach the civilian airport atWhenuapai.[68]By the mid-1950s, a new location at theMāngere Aerodromebecame the favoured location for an international airport, and theAuckland Airportwas opened atMāngerein 1966,[69]while the Whenuapai airport remained as theRNZAF Base Auckland.[68]The Northwestern Motorway was followed by theAuckland Southern Motorway,which first opened between Ellerslie and Mount Wellington in 1953,[68]and in 1959 the opening of theAuckland Harbour BridgeandAuckland Northern Motorway.[68]In the 1960s and 1970s, plans for these three motorways to join led to the creation of theCentral Motorway Junction,which involved the destruction of 15,000 homes and displaced over 45,000 residents in central suburbs such asNewtonand Freemans Bay,[70][60]while effectively creating a barrier around the Auckland CBD cutting it off from the surrounding neighbourhoods.[71]The construction of the Central Motorway Junction caused businesses to relocate away fromKarangahape Road,adjacent to the junction, causing the area to become established as ared-light district.[70]The new car-centric model for the isthmus and greater Auckland led to the removal of the Auckland tram lines, which were replaced withtrolleybuses,and ultimately bybusroutes.[59]A central rail loop and rail electrification project was proposed in the early 1950s by theNew Zealand Railways Departmentand championed by majorDove-Myer Robinson,however was opposed by urban planners and counsellors.[72]Funding for this project was scrapped in the 1970s by theThird National Government.[72]

The increase of motorways, the opening of the Harbour Bridge and reliance on cars made distant areas of the Auckland region more accessible, fueling a process of urban sprawl in Auckland.[48][73]Suburban areas outside of the isthmus became more popular choices for residents of Auckland, with areas such asTe Atatū PeninsulainWest AucklandandŌtarainSouth Aucklanddeveloping as middle class suburbs and low income state-funded housing estates.[48][60]Glen Innes,one of the final farmland areas on the isthmus, was developed as a social housing area by local government in the 1950s.[74]By 1964, western developments atNew WindsorandMount Roskill,south-eastern developments atOrangaandMount Wellington,and remaining patches such asTāmakiled to the Auckland isthmus becoming a contiguous urban sprawl.[61]In 1945, the CBD and inner city suburbs had a population of 68,000, however due to suburbanisation the population fell over the next 50 years, only recovering to 1945 levels by the mid-2000s.[60]As Auckland city sprawled outwards from the isthmus, industrial suburbs previously on the outer belt of the city away from residential areas became engulfed by the city. Areas such asAvondale,RosebankandNew Lynnto the west,Mount Wellington,PenroseandŌtāhuhuto the south/east, where motor vehicle factories, paint manufacturing, clothing factories, freezing works and allied trades were located, were now surrounded by suburban housing.[73]

As people moved towards the suburbs, the CBD and adjacent central suburbs declined in popularity.[49]In 1945, 38% of the Auckland workforce was based in the CBD, however by 1962 this figure had dropped to 26%.[73]By the 1940s and 1950s, the oldest suburbs adjacent to the central city had become dilapidated due to the ageing housing stock.[62]DuringWorld War II,Urban Māorihad settled in the inner suburbs of Auckland such as Ponsonby and Parnell, however by the 1960sPolynesianmigrants tended to settle in these inner city suburbs, while Māori tended to live near the Auckland city limits outside of the isthmus.[73]Pasifika immigrants typically came from the countries associated with theRealm of New Zealand:Western Samoa,theCook IslandsandNiue.[60]By the 1950s, the Auckland City Council began to plan the demolition of the oldest suburbs such asFreemans Bay.Council-funded multi-storey flats had begun to be built in the central suburbs by 1954, however the wide-scale plans for demolition of older housing stock never went ahead.[62]During this period, many areas of the CBD that had previously been housing areas were re-developed as commercial premises.[60]

Gentrificationof the inner suburbs began in the 1970s, when primarily white and educated youth moved to suburbs such as Ponsonby, seeing an urban, multi-cultural lifestyle.[60]These populations tended to purchase houses outright, meaning Pasifika families who relied on rental houses tended to move to the peripheral suburbs of Auckland such asAvondale,and especially areas where state housing projects had increased rental housing stock,[49][60]such asMāngereandŌtarainSouth Auckland.The central suburb ofGrey Lynnremained a hub for Auckland Pasifika until the 1980s, with Pasifika populations only dropping in the late 1980s.[60]

By 1975, developments atLynfieldandMount Wellingtonmeant the Auckland isthmus was almost entirely urbanised.[61]

1983 onwards: CBD development and intensification

[edit]
Aotea Squarein the 1990s, showing theEdwardianAuckland Town Hallsurrounded by newly built high rise buildings

Between 1983 and 1987, overseas investments led to an office building boom in the Auckland CBD,[62]making the Auckland CBD the financial capital of New Zealand.[49]The1987 stock market crashled to the collapse of many property development companies, and much of the office space they had built was repurposed as residential apartments.[60]Between 1991 and 2007, the population of the central city doubled, due to the wide-scale construction of apartments.[75]Due to minimal planning requirements, central Auckland apartments developed a reputation for poor design.[75]By 2007, the central government had introduced minimum standards for size and design for apartments.[75]

The 1990s and early 2000s saw a revitalisation of the CBD and the central suburbs.[60]Many projects focused on the CBD and waterfront areas, due to Auckland hosting the2000and2003 America's Cup.[60]This was seen again in 2011, when theRugby World Cupled to the redevelopment ofWynyard Quarter,Queens Wharf,Eden Parkand the central Auckland train stations.[76]

Since the 1990s, measures to combat urban sprawl have been undertaken by the Auckland councils, especially developing medium and high density housing around urban centres and public transport nodes.[75]Public transport usage, which had been falling since the 1950s, stagnated and reached its lowest levels in the early 1990s.[72]TheBritomart Transport Centrewas proposed in the 1990s as a way to increase public transport use and increase land values for the CBD,[77]and was opened in 2003.[78]In 2001,John Bankswas elected as theMayor of Auckland Cityon a platform of creating the Eastern Motorway, connecting the CBD toEast Aucklandand the eastern isthmus suburbs, to alleviate the congestion problems faced by Auckland.[72]The proposal was eventually dropped, as motorways began to fall out of favour in public opinion.[72]TheWaterview Connection,a motorway project linking theNorthwesternandSouthwestern Motorwaysvia atwin tunnelunderneath the suburbs ofWaterviewandMount Albert,was opened in 2017.[79]

From the late 2000s onwards, a number of public transport projects have been created to alleviate congestion, such as theNorthern Busway(2008),electrification of Auckland railways(2014–2015), a more frequent public transport network (2016–2019),[80]and theEastern Busway(AMETI) (2021–2026). TheCity Rail Link,an underground rail loop linking Britomart to the Western line, has a planned opening date of 2024,[81]while plans for twolight railcorridors, one line connecting the CBD toMount Roskill,Māngereand theAuckland Airport,with the second connecting the CBD to northwestern Auckland, are in the planning stages.[82]

A number of legislative changes such as the 2016Auckland Unitary Planand the National Policy Statement on Urban Development have allowed higher density building in the isthmus and across the Auckland region.[83][84]

The more liberalImmigration Act 1987led to increased immigration from Asia in the 1990s, and Auckland became a prominent destination forinternational students.[60]The Auckland isthmus, especially the CBD, became attractive to international students due to tertiary institutions such as theUniversity of Auckland,theAuckland University of Technologyand local secondary schools.[60]Language schoolsandprivate training establishmentsspecialising in subjects such as tourism and hospitality became common in central Auckland.[60]By the mid-2000s, the population of the Auckland CBD was significantly more transient than most other areas of New Zealand, due to the large number of students, international tourists and domestic tourists.[60]

Local government

[edit]
A 1914 map of the Auckland isthmus, composed of the city of Auckland and surrounding boroughs/road boards, composing what was known asEden County.

Road boards were the first local government on the isthmus in the 1850s and 1860s outside of the colonial city, which were established due to a lack of central government funding for road improvements.[85]By 1883, there were 69 road districts across Auckland, however as the population of the isthmus increased, these bodies merged into different boroughs and counties.[85]South of the city was theEden County(merged into Auckland City in 1940), which unlike most other counties in New Zealand, deferred most of its powers to the local road boards.[86]Attempts to create local government on the isthmus began in 1851, hampered by extensive costs for roads and the 1860s economic downturn, however by April 1871 theAuckland City Councilhad been established around the modern-day CBD.[62]In 1882, neighbouring road boards ofPonsonby,KarangahapeandGraftonamalgamated with the city due to the improved services and infrastructure offered by the council.[62]From 1904, a stronger focus on amalgamating surrounding areas called the Greater Auckland scheme was undertaken, inspired by similar movements inWellingtonandChristchurch.[87]This led to amalgamations withArch Hill(1913),Grey Lynn(1914),Parnell,RemueraandEden Terracein 1915, followed byEpsom(1917),Point Chevalier(1921),Avondale(1927) (a merger which increased the Auckland City area by 40%), and eventuallyŌrākeiand rural Tāmaki to the east of the isthmus in 1928.[62]

In 1978, the isthmus was home to several boroughs and two cities: Auckland andMount Albert City.The two cities were joined by a third,Tamaki City,in 1986, which was a result of a merger between theMount WellingtonandŌtāhuhuboroughs. During the1989 New Zealand local government reforms,the isthmus was amalgamated into a single territorial body, theAuckland City,[48]which merged the three cities and remaining boroughs:Ellerslie,Mount Eden,Mount Roskill,Newmarket,OnehungaandOne Tree Hill.On 1 November 2010, the Auckland City was merged with the surrounding metropolitan and rural areas to form a singleAuckland Councilunitary authority.[88]Since the formation of the council, the Auckland isthmus has been divided into five wards: theWaitematā and Gulf ward,Albert-Eden-Puketāpapa ward,Maungakiekie-Tāmaki ward,Ōrākei wardandWhau ward.The Waitematā and Gulf ward includes theHauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moanaislands that had been administered by the Auckland City Council, while the Whau ward includes a mix of suburbs previously administered by Auckland City andWaitakere City.

The western edge of the isthmus forms the border between the Northern electricity network (serving West Auckland, the North Shore and the northern Auckland Region) and the Auckland network. Power consumers within the Auckland network are able to vote for the trustees ofEntrust,an electricity consumers trust and the majority shareholder of the electricity companyVector Limited,while also receiving annual dividends.[89][90]

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